MEMORY
What is MEMORY?
Definition – internal record of some prior
event or experience
- set of mental processes that
receives, encodes, stores,
organizes, alters, and
retrieves information over time
Kinds of Memory
Episodic Memory:
- memory of a specific event
- event is “etched” in mind
Example day you got married
Semantic Memory:
– factual information
– do not remember when we
learned it
Example learning your ABC’s
Implicit Memory:
- skills or techniques learned
- once learned, stay with you
for years to come
Example how to ride a bike
Flashbulb Memories
Definition – memory of a significant event
which has emotional ties to it
- can remember it like “it was yesterday”
• Where were you when you first heard:
– That JFK was shot and killed?
– That The WTC had been crashed into?
– That the Browns won the Super Bowl?
Three Stages of Memory
Stage 1 - Sensory Memory
- brief representation of a
stimulus while being
processed in the senses
- iconic (eyes/snapshots)
- eidetic (eyes/photographic)
- echoic (ears/sounds)
Stage 2 - Short-Term Memory (STM)
- is working memory
- limited capacity (7 items)
- duration is about 30 seconds
Stage 3 - Long-Term Memory (LTM)
- large in capacity
- long duration
The Memory Model
Three Processes of Memory
Integrated Model Concepts
• Encoding – process of translating info into
neural codes (language) that will be
retained in memory
• Storage – the process of retaining neural
coded info over time
• Retrieval – the process of recovering info
from memory storage
Integrated Model of Memory
Organization of Memory
Retrieval Cue – a clue or prompt that helps
stimulate recall and retrieval of a stored
piece of information from long-term memory
Two Types:
1. Recognition ability to recognize previously
encountered items/experiences
2. Recall ability to remember information of
experiences
Memory Measures
• Recognition is when a specific cue (face or
name) is matched against LTM
• Recall is when a general cue is used to
search memory
• Relearning - situation where person learns
material a second time.
• Quicker to learn material 2nd time
Tip-of the Tongue Phenomenon:
- person can’t easily recall the item, but
shows some recall for its characteristics
(“…it begins with the letter ….”)
Anatomy
of
Memory
Amygdala: located in temporal lobe & associated
with memory, emotions, & aggression
Basal Ganglia & Cerebellum: memory for skills,
habits and Classical Conditioned responses
Hippocampus: memory recognition, spatial,
episodic memory, long-term memories
Thalamus: formation of new memories and
working memories
Cortical Areas: encoding of facts, storage of
episodic/semantic memories, skill learning, priming.
Forgetting
Definition: the inability to recall previously
learned information
- Forgetting rate is steep
just after learning and
then becomes a gradual
loss of recall
Theories of Forgetting
Proactive Interference:
- old information interferes
w/recall of new information
Retroactive Interference:
-new information interferes
with recall of old
Decay Theory:
- memory trace fades w/time
Motivated Forgetting:
-involves loss of painful
memories (protective memory
Retrieval Failure:
- information is still within LTM,
but cannot be recalled because
retrieval cue is absent
loss)
Serial Position Effect
Recall immediately
after learning
Recall several hours
after learning
LTM
Recall from
LTM
Recall from
STM Primacy Effect – remembering stuff at
beginning of list better than middle
Recency Effect – remembering stuff at
the end of list better than middle
Study Strategies
Distributed Practice:
- refers to spacing
learning periods
Massed Practice:
- refers to learning
that is “crammed”
into a single session
Distributed practice
leads to better
retention
Memory Strategies
Mnemonic Devices:
- strategies to improve memory by organizing
information
– Method of Loci: ideas are associated with
a place or part of a
building
– Peg-Word system: peg words associated
with ideas
(e.g. “one is a bun”)
– Word Associations: verbal associations are
created for items to be
learned
Amnesia
Definition: forgetting produced by brain injury
or by trauma
Two Types:
– Retrograde Amnesia: problems with recall
of information prior to a trauma
– Anterograde Amnesia: problems with recall
of information after a trauma
Anterograde Amnesia
Retrograde Amnesia
Point of Trauma
Issues in Memory
• Reasons for inaccuracy of memory:
– Source Amnesia: attribution of a memory
to the wrong source (e.g. a dream is
recalled as an actual event)
– Sleeper Effect: a piece of information from
an unreliable source is initially discounted,
but is recalled after the source has been
forgotten
– Misinformation Effect: we incorporate
outside information into our own memories