Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
Module 8
Hypnosis
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
HYPNOSIS
• Hypnosis definition
– procedure in which a researcher, clinician, or
hypnotists suggests that a person will experience
changes in sensation, perceptions, thoughts,
feelings, or behaviors
• Who can be hypnotized?
– not correlated with introversion, extraversion,
social position, intelligence, willpower, sex,
compliance, gullibility, being highly motivated, or
being a placebo responder
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
HYPNOSIS (CONT.)
• Who is susceptible?
– individuals with the remarkable ability to respond
to imaginative suggestions
– best known test: Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility
Scale
– asks individuals to carry out a series of both
simple and complex suggestions
– high scorers are usually easily hypnotized
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
HYPNOSIS (CONT.)
• How is someone hypnotized?
– hypnotic induction
– refers to inducing hypnosis by first asking a
person to either stare at an object or close his or
her eyes and then suggesting that the person is
becoming very relaxed
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
HYPNOSIS (CONT.)
• Theories of hypnosis
– Altered States Theory of Hypnosis
• holds that hypnosis puts a person into an
altered state of consciousness, during which
the person is disconnected from reality, which
results in being able to experience and
respond to various suggestions
– Sociocognitive Theory of hypnosis
• behaviors observed during hypnosis result not
from being hypnotized, but rather from having
the special ability of responding to imaginative
suggestions and social pressures
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
HYPNOSIS (CONT.)
• Behaviors
– Hypnotic analgesia
• refers to a reduction in pain reported by clients
after they had undergone hypnosis and
received suggestions that reduced their
anxiety and promoted relaxation
– Posthypnotic suggestion
• given to the subject during hypnosis about
performing a particular behavior to a specific
cue when the subject comes out of hypnosis
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
HYPNOSIS (CONT.)
• Behaviors
– Posthypnotic amnesia
• not remembering what happened during
hypnosis if the hypnotist suggested that, upon
awakening, the person would forget what took
place during hypnosis
– Age regression
• refers to subjects under hypnosis being asked
to regress, or return in time, to an earlier age,
such as early childhood
– Imagined perception
• refers to experiencing sensations, perceiving
stimuli, or performing behaviors that come
from one’s imagination
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
HYPNOSIS (CONT.)
• Medical and therapeutic applications
– Medical and dental use
• used to reduce pain through hypnotic
analgesia, to reduce fear and anxiety by
helping individuals relax, or to help patients
deal with a terminal disease by motivating
them to make the best of a difficult situation
– Therapeutic and behavioral uses
• useful in helping clients reveal their
personalities, gain insights into their lives, and
arrive at solutions to their problems
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
DRUGS: OVERVIEW
• Reasons for use
– include obtaining pleasure, joy, and euphoria;
meeting social expectations; giving in to peer
pressure; dealing with or escaping stress, anxiety,
and tension; avoiding pain; and achieving altered
state of consciousness
• Psychoactive drugs
– affect nervous system
– may alter consciousness and awareness,
influence how we sense and perceive things, and
modify our moods, feelings, emotions, and
thoughts
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
DRUGS: OVERVIEW (CONT.)
• Definition of terms
– Addiction
• a person has developed a behavioral pattern
of drug abuse that is marked by an
overwhelming and compulsive desire to obtain
and use the drug; even after stopping, the
person has a strong tendency to relapse and
begin using the drug again
– Tolerance
• after a person uses a drug repeatedly over a
period of time, the original dose of the drug no
longer produces the desired effect so that a
person must take increasingly larger doses of
the drug to achieve the same behavioral effect
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
DRUGS: OVERVIEW (CONT.)
• Definition of terms
– Dependency
• refers to a change in the nervous system so
that a person now needs to take the drug to
prevent the occurrence of painful withdrawal
symptoms
– Withdrawal symptoms
• painful physical and psychological symptoms
that occur after a drug-dependent person stops
using the drug
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
DRUGS: OVERVIEW (CONT.)
• Use of drugs
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
DRUGS: OVERVIEW (CONT.)
• Effects on nervous system
– drugs affect neurotransmitters
– Neurotransmitters
• chemical keys that search for and then either
open or close chemical locks to either excite or
inhibit neighboring neurons, organs, or
muscles
– Mimicking
• some drugs produce their effects by mimicking
the way the neurotransmitters work
– Reuptake
• some drugs block reuptake
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
DRUGS: OVERVIEW (CONT.)
• Effects on nervous system
– drugs affect brain’s reward/pleasure center
– includes the nucleus accumbens and ventral
tegmental area and involves dopamine
– some drugs directly activate the brain’s
reward/pleasure center
– also activated when one eats food, has sex, and
does other pleasurable activities
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
STIMULANTS
• Definition
– stimulants, including cocaine, amphetamines,
caffeine, and nicotine, increase activity of the
central nervous system and result in heightened
alertness, arousal, euphoria, and decreased
appetite and fatigue
• Amphetamines
– 1960’s: heavily prescribed to treat a wide range of
problems, including fatigue, depression, and
being overweight
– 1971: FDA outlawed the prescription of
amphetamines for everything except attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder and narcolepsy
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
STIMULANTS (CONT.)
• Amphetamines
– 1980’s: drug war on cocaine
– dramatic increase in using a form of
amphetamine called methamphetamine
– in many countries, possession or use of
methamphetamine is illegal
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
STIMULANTS (CONT.)
• Amphetamines
– drug
– Methamphetamine (D-methamphetamine)
• close to amphetamine in both chemical
makeup and its physical and psychological
effects
• can be smoked, or snorted
• produces almost instant high
• causes marked increase in blood pressure and
heart rate
• produces feelings of enhanced mood,
alertness, and energy
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
STIMULANTS (CONT.)
• Amphetamines
– nervous system
– increases the release of dopamine and also
blocks reuptake
• Dangers
– periods of restless activity and performing
repetitive behaviors
– later, euphoria is replaced with depression,
agitation insomnia, and development of true
paranoid feelings
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
STIMULANTS (CONT.)
• Cocaine
– drug
– from coca leaves
– cocaine can be sniffed or snorted
– absorbed by many of the body’s membranes
– concentrated cocaine is called crack
– effects are very similar to amphetamines
– higher doses can produce anxiety, emotional
instability, and suspiciousness
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
STIMULANTS (CONT.)
• Cocaine
– nervous system
– blocks reuptake of dopamine
– excites dopamine receptors to produce
pleasure/euphoria and glutamate to produce
cravings for more drug
– increased physiological and psychological
arousal
– can be used for a local anesthetic when applied
to external areas of the body
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
STIMULANTS (CONT.)
• Cocaine
– Dangers
• moderate doses
• Short acting high (10-30 minutes); includes
bursts of energy, arousal, and alertness
– Heavy doses
• results in serious physical and psychological
problems, which may include hallucinations
and feelings of bugs crawling under the skin as
well as addiction
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
STIMULANTS (CONT.)
• Caffeine
– drug
– mild stimulant, produces moderate physiological
and psychological arousal, including decreased
fatigue and drowsiness, feelings of alertness and
improved reaction times
– Nervous system
• caffeine belongs to the chemical class called
xanthines
• blocks certain receptors (adenosine receptors)
in the brain
• mild physiological and psychological arousal
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
STIMULANTS (CONT.)
• Caffeine
– Dangers
• mild to heavy doses of caffeine can result in
addiction and dependency similar to those
produced by alcohol, nicotine, and cocaine
(two cups of coffee)
• higher doses result in depression, tension, and
anxiety
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
STIMULANTS (CONT.)
• Nicotine
– drug
– stimulant that triggers the brain’s reward/pleasure
center to produce good feelings
– low doses improve attention, concentration, and
short term memory
– regular use causes addiction and dependency
– leads to withdrawal
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
STIMULANTS (CONT.)
• Nicotine
– nervous system
• stimulates the production of dopamine
• also stops other controlling cells from turning
off the pleasure areas
– Dangers
• very addicting
• causes sexual problems including impotency
• withdrawal symptoms range in severity and
include nervousness, irritability, difficulty in
concentrating, sleep disturbances, and strong
craving
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
OPIATES
• Opium, morphine, heroin
– opiates are classified as narcotics
– drug
– opiates such as opium, morphine, and heroin
produce three primary effects:
• analgesia (pain reduction)
• opiate euphoria (state between waking and
sleeping)
• constipation
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
OPIATES (CONT.)
• Opium, morphine, heroin
– nervous system
– brain has naturally occurring receptors for opiates
– produces feelings of euphoria and analgesia
– gastrointestinal tract has opiate receptors
(constipation)
– brain also produces morphinelike chemicals
called endorphins
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
OPIATES (CONT.)
• Opium, morphine, heroin
– Dangers
• brain will produce less of it’s own endorphins
• relies on outside opiates
• person becomes addicted
• withdrawal symptoms, include hot and cold
flashes, sweating, muscle tremors, and
stomach cramps
• overdose results in depressed neural control
for breathing and death from respiratory failure
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
HALLUCINOGENS
• Definition
– Hallucinogens are psychoactive drugs that can
produce strange and unusual perceptual,
sensory, and cognitive experiences, which the
person sees or hears but knows are not occurring
in reality.
• LSD
– d-lysergic acid diethylamide
– drug
– produces hallucinogenic experiences at very low
doses
– visual hallucinations, perceptual distortions,
increased sensory awareness, and intense
psychological feelings
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
HALLUCINOGENS (CONT.)
• LSD
– nervous system
– resembles serotonin
– LSD binds to receptors that normally respond to
serotonin, and the net effect is increased
stimulation of the these neurons
– receptors are mainly located on neurons in the
cerebral cortex
– involved in receiving sensations, creating
perceptions, thinking, and imagining
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
HALLUCINOGENS (CONT.)
• LSD
– Dangers
• psychological effects partially depend on the
setting and the person’s state of mind
• if a person is tense or anxious or in an
unfamiliar setting, he or she may experience a
bad trip
• severe trips may lead to psychotic reactions
(especially paranoid feelings) that require
hospitalization
• users may experience flashbacks (after the
experience)
• occur for no apparent reason
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
HALLUCINOGENS (CONT.)
• Psilocybin
– “magic mushrooms” (Psilocybe mexicana)
– possession or use of psilocybn is illegal
– drug
– psilocybin in low doses produces pleasant and
relaxed feelings
– medium doses produce perceptual distortions in
time and space
– high doses produce distortions in perceptions and
body image and sometimes hallucinations
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
HALLUCINOGENS (CONT.)
• Psilocybin
– nervous system
– chemically related to LSD
– inhibits serotonin receptors
– hallucinatory effects last half as long as LSD
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
HALLUCINOGENS (CONT.)
• Psilocybin
– Dangers
• not physical harm to the brain or body
• potential for inducing psychotic states
that may persist long after the
experience is expected to end
• accidental poisonings are common from
eating poisonous mushrooms, mistaking
them for magic mushrooms
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
HALLUCINOGENS (CONT.)
•
Mescaline
– peyote cactus
– contains about 30 psychoactive chemicals
– most potent is mescaline
– possession of mescaline is illegal for all except those who
belong to the Native American Church
– drug
– 2,000 times less potent than LSD
– high doses: produce very clear and vivid visual
hallucinations
– does not impair the intellect or cloud consciousness
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
HALLUCINOGENS (CONT.)
• Mescaline
– nervous system
– reaches maximum concentration in the brain
about 30-120 minutes after someone eats buttons
of peyote cactus
– increases the activity of neurotransmitters
norepinephrine and dopamine
– activates the sympathetic nervous system
– produces physiological arousal: increased heart
rate, temperature, and sometimes vomiting
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
HALLUCINOGENS (CONT.)
• Mescaline
– Dangers
• can last 6-8 hours
• Users may experience headaches and
vomiting
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
HALLUCINOGENS (CONT.)
• Designer drugs
– manufactured or synthetic drugs that are
designed to resemble already existing illegal
psychoactive drugs and produce or mimic their
psychoactive effects
– drug
– MDMA, ecstasy
– resembles both mescaline and amphetamine
– heightens sensations, gives a euphoric rush,
raises body temperature, and creates feelings of
warmth and empathy
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
HALLUCINOGENS (CONT.)
• Designer drugs
– MDMA
– nervous system
– causes large amounts of dopamine and serotonin
to be released
– afterward: users may feel depressed and have
attention memory deficits
– MDMA may cause brain damage
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
HALLUCINOGENS (CONT.)
• Designer drugs
– MDMA
– Dangers
• recreational trips can last 6 hours
• include: euphoria, high energy, jaw clenching,
teeth grinding, increased body temperature,
and insomnia
• higher doses include: panic, rapid heart beat,
high body temperature, paranoia, and
psychotic-like symptoms
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
ALCOHOL
• History and use
– first brewery appeared in Egypt in about 3700
B.C.
– safe alcohol to drink is ethyl alcohol
– level of alcohol is measured in percentage in the
blood: blood alcohol content or BAC
– national legal definition of being drunk is 0.08
(after possibly 3-4 drinks)
– effects the nervous system and results in
behavioral and emotional changes
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
ALCOHOL (CONT.)
– drug
– ethyl alcohol is a psychoactive drug classified as
a depressant
– depresses activity of the central nervous system
– alcohol seems like a stimulant but later depresses
physiological and psychological responses
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
ALCOHOL (CONT.)
• Nervous system
– affects many parts of the nervous system
– stimulates GABA neural receptors, leads to
feeling less anxious and less inhibited
– also impairs the anterior cingulate cortex,
monitors the control of motor actions
– drinkers fail to recognize their impaired motor
performance (driving)
– high doses: depresses vital breathing reflexes in
the medulla (brain stem)
– may lead to death
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
ALCOHOL (CONT.)
• Dangers
– hangover
– includes upset stomach, dizziness, fatigue,
headache, and depression
– repeated and heavy drinking can result in
tolerance, addiction, and dependency
– withdrawal symptoms
– shaking, nausea, anxiety, diarrhea, hallucinations,
and disorientation
– another serious problem, blackout
– occur after heavy and repeated drinking
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
ALCOHOL (CONT.)
• Dangers (cont.)
– blackouts
– person seems to behave normally but does not
remember what happened when sober
– repeated and heavy drinking can also result in
liver damage, alcoholism, and brain damage
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
ALCOHOL (CONT.)
• Risk factors
– of 109 million people who drink alcohol, 10 to 14
million will develop alcoholism
– psychological risk factors
– children of either one or both alcoholic parents
can develop unusual, abnormal, or maladaptive
psychological and emotional traits
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
ALCOHOL (CONT.)
• Risk factors
– genetic risk factors
– refer to inherited biases for predispositions that
increase the potential for alcoholism
– genetic factors contribute 50 to 60% to the
reasons a person becomes an alcoholic
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
MARIJUANA
• Use and effects
– Most widely used illegal drug
– medical marijuana
– can be effective in treating nausea and vomiting
associated with chemotherapy, appetite loss in
AIDS patients, eye disease (glaucoma), muscle
spasticity in patients with multiple sclerosis, and
some forms of pain
– gateway effect
– says that using marijuana leads young people to
try harder drugs
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
MARIJUANA (CONT.)
– drug
– psychoactive drug whose primary active
ingredient is THC (tetrahydrocannabinol)
– found in leaves of the cannabis plant
– THC is rapidly absorbed by the lungs (while
smoking)
– 5-10 minutes produces a hit that lasts for several
hours
– depending on the user’s state of mind, marijuana
can either heighten or distort pleasant or
unpleasant experiences, moods, or feelings
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
MARIJUANA (CONT.)
– nervous system
– THC receptors are located throughout the brain,
including the hippocampus, cerebral cortex, limbic
system, cerebellum, and basal ganglia
– the brain itself makes a chemical similar to THC
– anandamide
– currently under study
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 8: Hypnosis
MARIJUANA (CONT.)
• Dangers
– can cause temporary changes in cognitive
functioning
– can temporarily decrease secretion of various
hormones and effectiveness of the immune
system
– respiratory problems like bronchitis and asthma
– high doses: may cause toxic psychoses, including
delusions, paranoia, and feelings of terror