Journal of Basic and Applied Advances in Sciences
Vol. 4 No.1 (January, 2016)
Journal of Basic and Applied
Advances in Sciences
Vol. 4, No.1 (January, 2016)
Editors
Costel Teodoru – Galati, Romania
Heidar Akhondi – Karaj, Iran
Journal of Basic and Applied Advances in Sciences
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Vol. 4 No.1 (January, 2016)
Journal of Basic and Applied Advances in Sciences
Vol. 4 No.1 (January, 2016)
Table of Contents
1. Evolutionary Process of OMA Method Based on Natural Frequency and Damping
Ratio - Saeed Abdi
2. The study of prevalence of ECLA School and dependency schools on development
strategies in the first decade of Islamic revolution - Mohammad Kazem Kaveh
Pishghadam, Mohammad Hussein Dalal Rahmani
3. The effect of brain hemispheres asymmetries on reaction time of short-term
memory - Lotfali Masumi, Hoda Fazaely
4. Drought zoning in Iran in the past 50 years – Hasan Daryabari
5. Effect of memory improvement by a cholinergic agonist on morphine-conditioned
place preference in mice - F. Tavakoli
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Journal of Basic and Applied Advances in Sciences
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Vol. 4 No.1 (January, 2016)
Journal of Basic and Applied Advances in Sciences
Vol. 4 No.1 (January, 2016)
Evolutionary Process of OMA Method Based on Natural Frequency and Damping Ratio
Saeed Abdi
Department of Linguistics, University of Zanjan, Zanjan, Iran
Abstract
In this paper, we explore OMA (Operational Modal Analysis) development, delineate various
OMA methods, investigate the key issues in OMA methods, and review the literature. Our goal
in this paper is to explore and investigate the most important OMA methods. In doing so, we first
review the basic concepts of OMA methods and then present two case studies in three modes.
The evaluation parameters addressed in this study are natural frequency and damping ratio.
According to evaluation results, new EFDD and FEM were founded to be above and below the
diagrams in almost all cases.
Keywords: OMA Method, natural frequency, damping ratio
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Introduction
Modal analysis plays a significant role in many industries and applications. It is widely used in
design, optimization, health supervision, seismic control and failure detection in structures, bridges,
and the like. With the development of vibration measurement systems and analysis methods, OMA
has been preferred over EMA (Experimental Modal Analysis) in many applications as mentioned
above. The major distinction between OMA and EMA lies in the source of applied forces. Unlike
EMA, which tests the system under applied forces and measures input forces, OMA tests the system
in real working situation under the forces applied in modal ambient, without input forces being
measured. That is why this method is sometimes called Natural Excitation Modal Analysis, Modal
Ambient Analysis, and Output Only Modal Analysis.
Since 1990, OMA was paid special attention in civil engineering, mechanical engineering and
aerospace engineering, the reason being the following advantages. Modal ambient analysis is less
costly than EMA and doesn’t need boundary condition simulation. OMA achieves dynamic features
in the entire system, not only a part of it. Due to application of real random force to different points
of the structure, a linear model is achieved under operational conditions rather than experimental
conditions. Since the analysis made in this method is basically a MIMO analysis, repetition modes
and close modes are easily identified. Therefore, OMA is an efficient method for complicated and
difficult structures. Thanks to online application, OMA can be used to control structure vibration,
detect failure, and supervise the health. In this paper we attempt to classify different OMA methods,
review the history of OMA development, and compare two case studies.
LITERATURE REVIEW
In this part, we discuss the history of the most important OMA methods:
Natural Excitation Technique (NExT)
NExT was innovated by [1]. In this method, correlation function (COR), which is obtained from
random response of the structure owing to modal ambient excitation, can be written as a group of
decrement sine. Each decrement sine has a damped natural frequency, damping ratio and mode
shape coefficient relating to one of the structural modes. In MIMO systems, therefore, COR can be
used instead of Impulse Response Function (IRF) in order to obtain system modal parameters. This
makes the necessary arrangement for the development and use of EMA techniques in OMA. NExTbased OMA methods consist of two main steps: the first step is to achieve a time response function
(TRF) and the second is to identify modal parameters by one of the common TD methods (time
domain). Two methods have been proposed for obtaining TRF in OMA, the first being to use COR
(correlation function) and the second being to use the time function obtained from random
decrement (RD) technique. RD technique, which averages time sections of a random time response,
was innovated by [2]. However, [3] was the first to use this technique in modal analysis. He asserted
that RD is the outcome of free system vibration. But [6-7] rejected [4] assertion, demonstrating that
RD is the outcome of COR (correlation function).
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Using RD technique, one can obtain COR from random response data of the structure and can use it
to identify modal parameters in OMA based on NExT. This approach opened a new window for
researchers to propose their techniques and develop OMA knowledge. [8] employed RD technique
to estimate Reciprocal Correlation Function (CCOR) and Auto Correlation Function (ACOR) and
then investigated three different methods to identify modal parameters. He [9] also compared the
speed and accuracy of RD technique with FFT method and found that the former was 100 times
speedier than the latter. In ACOR estimation, RD was also more accurate than FFT. In CCOR
estimation, however, FFT method was more accurate than RD technique. In RD-based modal
analysis methods, if ACOR and CCOR are concurrently used, high noise level in CCOR would
cause errors in modal parameters. If only ACOR is used, phase information would be lost and mode
shape would not be identifiable. To solve this problem, [5] proposed Vector Triggering RD method
(VRD). In VRD method, the requirements for selecting start point of time sections are defined by a
vector. This method maintains and protects phase data. In the same year, [16] investigated VRD
method through simulation of four degrees of system freedom as well as an experimental test of a
bridge model. [9] conducted a comparative study on FRF, RD and FFT methods and found that
FRF had less leakage and noise than RD and was speedier than it.
[10] proposed a method for computing the variance and estimating the accuracy and length of RD in
modal analysis. They also discussed how to use RD in OMA and to determine appropriate
parameters in RD [20-22]. Shen et al. (2002) investigated NExT scientific development and
proposed a method for identifying modal parameters in frequency domain using CCOR and
common analysis methods in TD. They used Cross Power Spectral Density (CPSD) function instead
of FRF in Frequency Domain Poly-Reference (FDPR) method and demonstrated the ability to use
CCOR in FDPR by carrying out experimental tests on an airplane model.
RD technique was extended to other modal analysis methods in frequency domain [23-25]. [26]
proposed a method for computing spectral density function by reshaping Furrier of RD function
instead of time function. This method reduced the noise level by averaging and decreased the
leakage thanks to sufficient length of time in RD. They tested their idea through an experimental
model. Finally, [27] compared all methods in frequency and time domain through the review of
studies. He also delineated the use of RD technique in OMA.
SSI Method (Stochastic Subspace Identification)
Stochastic subspace based method is a modal identification technique in time domain which has
been developed and used in OMA. In 1990s, a new subspace based method for identification of
system space conditions was proposed in the field of control and system engineering, which directly
used the measured data. Based on this method, SSI method was proposed in 1993, which used
random response of the measured structures [23-25]. Peeters et al. (1995) delineated SSI method
and explored the relationship between vibration model and stochastic model of a system, using this
relationship as a tool for modal analysis of a structure under modal ambient loads. In [11]
employed this method to examine a sheet with a fixed electrical motor on it. They compared the
results with those obtained from FDD method in frequency domain.
Thereafter, due to mathematical complexity of SSI method, [19] attempted to explain it more
simply. They maintained that the steps of this method were mostly similar to other methods in time
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domain. In [24] proposed a new signal processing method from unfixed signals, which was called
Empirical Mode Decomposition (EMD). Based on this method, they proposed a new EMD-based
SSI method in operational modal analysis. In this method, they first transferred the measured data to
modal response function through EMD and then applied SSI method to extract modal parameters
completed [24] research and delineated how to use subspace based methods for extracting time
series of modal coordinates. He asserted that this method did not have limitations of the past
methods in which the number of modal coordinates was limited to the number of sensors. The
subdivisions of this group are: Unweighted Principal Component (UPC), Principal Component
(PC), and Canonical Variate Analysis (CVA).
FDD Method
FDD is an OMA method in frequency domain. OMA methods in frequency domain are based on a
simple relationship between input and output power spectral density (PSD) of a stochastic process
[29]. The simplest frequency domain method is Peak Picking (PP) method, in which natural
frequency is obtained directly from picking the picks in PSD diagram. If modes are well separated
from each other, this method produces acceptable estimations [30-31]. The major advantages of this
method over TD techniques lie in the omission of computational modes as well as its simplicity and
speed. However, PSD PP has some disadvantages including low accuracy (particularly in
complicated structures) due to independence of PSD spectrum resolution result, extraction of
operational deflection shape rather than natural mode shape of the system, low accuracy in
computation of damping ratio, and the incapability to be used in close mode systems.
In [12] eliminated the above mentioned disadvantages and proposed frequency domain
decomposition method (FDD). This method uses singular value decomposition of output PSD
(power spectral density) in different frequencies as mode indicator function. In this method, not only
different modes, especially close modes, are identified but also signal and noise spaces are
separated. FDD method enables to obtain natural frequencies and mode shapes.
Enhanced Frequency Domain Decomposition (EFDD)
In 2001, [13] innovated Enhanced Frequency Domain Decomposition (EFDD) to estimate damping
ratio. In this method, singular values in the vicinity of natural frequencies are transferred to time
domain through inverse FFT and damping ratios are obtained by logarithm decrement techniques.
In EFDD, only one separated part is transferred to time domain, so bias errors would possibly exist
in damping ratio, particularly in close modes. To eliminate this problem, [31-39] proposed
Frequency Space Domain Decomposition method (FSDD). Using a PSD promoted by singular
vector, they extracted natural frequency and damping ratio through a degree of freedom curve
fitting. Because of simplicity and efficiency of FDD method in OMA, [14-18, 50) proposed an auto
FDD based modal identification instruction. This instruction can be implemented in commercial
modal analysis software and therefore user intervention in production of results may be reduced.
[13], considering the relationship between Complex Mode Indicator Function and FDD (frequency
domain decomposition), proposed an enhanced mode indicator function as a substitute for EFDD
(advanced frequency domain decomposition). A full description of NEW EFDD can be found in
[22].
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Another method in this group is Curve – Fit Frequency Domain Decomposition (CFDD). This
method is a development of the existing FDD in ARTeMIS Extractor, which has been detailed in
[27]. The major advantage of this method is higher accuracy in the estimation of natural frequencies
and damping ratios in both fully random excitation and harmonic excitation. Using MAC, a
frequency band is used around a picked pick in order to achieve the average value of singular
vectors. Natural frequency and damping ratio are estimated by curve-fitting of SDOF (SDOF
spectral bell) in frequency domain.
RESEARCH METHOD
The simulated structure is a 22-floor building with the height of 67.5 m. It has two main towers
which are separated by a 10-cm seam designed for making a distance between dynamic responses of
two structures in time of severe movements. Both towers are made up of a central RC shell
(including elevators and staircases) and a big glass façade with RC sheets behind it, which are
interconnected by columns. Both parts of the structure enjoy the same load bearing structure.
Geotechnical explorations indicated high heterogeneity in the sediments settled below the structure.
Geological situation of this valley takes intensifying local impacts on seismic waves stimulating the
structure. In this study, we set the basic frequency of soil profile on below 2.7 Hz. The basic
transverse and longitudinal frequencies were set on 1.20 Hz and 1.22 Hz respectively.
In order for continuous evaluation, we monitored the structure via 24 acceleration sensors in French
Accelerometric Network (RAP). The sensors existed throughout the structure. Kephren station,
placed in the basement (level 2), recorded these 24 channels. This network consisted of:
• 18 Episensor single-axis accelerometer, FBA ES-U2, in various classes
• 2 Episensor three-axis accelerometer, FBA EST, in basement
The receptors were set on ±1g sensitivity. The reports were recorded in 125 Hz sampling frequency
and synchronized by a GPS Garmin 16.
Figures 1 and 2 illustrate the first three longitudinal modes together with natural frequencies and
damping ratios. We computed these modes and natural frequencies based on tangent stiffness matrix
(after applying gravity loads). They well matched the modes and natural frequencies obtained from
ambient vibration data in undamaged test structure.
It should be noted that the higher natural frequency in the first mode of Case II corresponds to FE
model with the properties of non-cracked concrete, while the equivalent frequency in Case 1 has
been obtained from a sample with cracked concrete conditions. We compared the simulated
acceleration and time history of displacement response with laboratorial counterparts, which had
been reproduced for the same input seismic movements on vibration table, and confirmed the
validity of non-linear FE model in test structure. For four historical earthquake movements used in
vibration table test, peak ceiling displacements predicted for FE matched the related laboratorial
results.
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Figure 1. The first three longitudinal modes together with natural frequencies and damping ratio
Figure 2. The first three modes with two case studies together with natural frequencies and damping
ratio
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To measure aluminum sheet vibration, we used sampling rate of fs=4096 samples/s. Nyquist
frequency was 2048 Hz, sufficiently above the intended frequency range (1000 Hz) for modal
parameter excitation. Measurement duration was 30 seconds, so 122880 data points were obtained
for each channel. As a general rule, the lowest natural frequency should exist in the data with at
least 1000 cycles. This requirement was met in the lowest structural mode (around 70 Hz) with two
times the number of required cycles. To record the data, we excited sheet vibration by random
knocks of fingertip and pencil head. This was not a white noise but could be sufficiently random for
the purpose of OMA algorithm. We made several measurements for each test setup and performed
the test with different knocking techniques and excitation levels. Due to low weight of the sheet,
excitation level showed most of accelerations to be too high, more than their nominal range for each
short time period in the beginning of motions. Using the plastic part in the end of pen, we weakened
the energy of high frequency bands so that they could overcome overloading. But the comparison of
spectral results indicated no significant impact on general quality of the signal. Finally, we written
the data in Universal File Format (UFF) text files and transferred them to analysis laptop in which
ARTeMIS suite had been installed.
For the purpose of comparison, we carried out a numerical modal analysis with finite element
method (FEM). In real projects, this type of analysis is usually performed before experimental test
of real hardware. For the structures which are more complicated than a simple sheet, one of the
primary goals in FEM analysis in the early steps of a project is to acquire a basic knowledge on
dynamic behavior of the system. Based on this knowledge, sensor locations for precise experimental
tools can be so defined that modal vectors in the test can meet the requirements.
In the case of simple rectangular sheet, basic shapes for flexural and torsional can be predicted
without any FEM analysis before test. We carried out FEM analysis after the experimental test only
for the validation of OMA algorithm and the use of software. In a real project, the comparison
between FEM and experimental results is made for FE model validation and is used as a basis for
model updates.
We modeled the sheet using Graphical Pre/Post Processing Software MSC Patran 2008 and MSC
Nastran 2007 R1 as a real FE solver back-end. FE model included 1800 shell elements (QUAD4)
and 12 and 13 concentrated mass elements (CONM2) which indicate accelerations. We modeled all
three setups and performed the analysis by placing sensor masses in the setups. We didn’t model
sensor cables and stabilizing tapes because their impact on structure stability was considered to be
negligible. Total mass of the model was 584 g.
Since suspension by plastic part would separate sheet modes from any other suspended mode, the
test could be considered to have free boundary conditions. For this reason, we designed FE model
with free boundary conditions as well. This model is called a free-free model (the second “free”
refers to the absence of load forces. In a numerical modal analysis, no loading is applied to the
model).
We configured modal analysis solving sequence in order to obtain 20 specific values of the system.
Due to free boundaries and lack of assembly, the first six specific values formed kinematic rigid
body movements with natural frequency of 0 Hz. The remaining 14 modes are the desired sheet
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modes up to 1000 Hz. Based on sensor placement setup, we obtained 20 specific values by FE
analysis.
RESULTS
Before inputting real measurement samples, we defined sheet geometry and sensor locations in
ARTeMIS Testor. We inputted several measurement files into the project and determined some
channels for geometric nodes. We transferred the merged data and measurement information to
binary files to be analyzed in ARTeMIS Extractor. While it was possible to use UFF text data,
binary files would make Extractor more stable. Among the advantages of binary files is smaller size
and higher software processing performance.
In extracting modal parameters, we employed all identification techniques available in ARTeMIS
Extractor in order to become familiar with the software and to evaluate its applications. We
analyzed three test setups with different sensor locations in each project as well as in a multi-test
setup project. Frequency resolution for Fourier transform and consequently for singular value
decomposition (SVD) plots was between frequency lines of 1 Hz. In each sensor setup, we
identified 14-15 modes in frequency band of 0-1000 Hz.
We identified natural frequencies in different techniques. The fact that the difference between the
lengths of columns in the diagram is easily identifiable indicates that standard deviation of these
estimations is normally less than 1 Hz. Since the frequency resolution used for Fourier transform is
only 1 Hz, the difference between estimations is desirable.
Damping ratio estimations indicated a more significant difference. This was no strange because
estimation of damping ratio is the most difficult step in modal identification. This parameter is most
influenced by the advantages and disadvantages of various techniques. If frequency domain
decomposition (EFDD) technique failed to develop a high quality correlation function outside the
selected frequency band, the weak logarithm curve fitting would result in a low quality damping
ratio. This was the case in several modes. Likewise, curve-fit FDD (CFDD) estimation algorithm
had some problems in close modes and the modes which had not been well excited.
Figures 3 and 4 illustrate the results by detail and by average. The estimated damping ratios are
different not only in all identification algorithms but also in all modes, even similar modes in
different measurement setups. The theory does not predict this for an isotopic sheet. The reasons for
divergence of the theory are likely to lie in the sensors, connection lines and tape used for fixing,
which may significantly increase damping ratio of the structure. These cases are present in sheet
locations with high range for some modes and low range for the other, because they are located in or
around modal line of other modes. Likewise, when sensor, cables and tape are relocated for setting
up the precise instruments, damping ratio for the same mode will change.
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Figure 3. Natural Frequency and Damping Ratio by Detail
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Figure 4. Natural Frequency and Damping Ratio by Average
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In a project where damping ratios are essential (such as finite element (FE) model update), an
agreement should exist between different parameters – considering which method has the best
performance for a specific mode and which mode is significant for system performance. This
example indicates the importance of proper model validation and the necessity of user experience.
The review of FEM modes indicates that the experimental analysis has identified all modes between
0 and 1000 Hz. Natural frequencies identified in OMA show a good correlation with the frequencies
obtained from FEM analysis. In all modes, the frequencies of FEM modes were only a few Hertz
above the measurement values, which indicated that not only FE model had a small volume but also
it was very strong. The phenomenon of mode change due to sensor displacement can be
investigated by FE analyses for all three schemes. Also, the changes in the measured frequency is
more significant than what had been measured. The tendencies and changes in mode order are
according to test results.
We measured the natural frequency and damping ratio for the existing EFDD technique as well as
for EFDD technique with omitted harmonic component. If harmonic components are present in the
function, the existing EFDD technique will give improper estimations of modal parameters. In the
natural frequency with harmonic component, damping ratio was estimated to be very low. Using the
existing EFDD technique, natural frequencies were estimated with a good accuracy. This was the
case in damping ratios as well, although more deviation occurred when harmonic component were
close to natural frequency.
Some of the advantages of new EFDD method are:
-
-
Accuracy: harmonic components are accurately identified and their impact can be omitted,
even in cases where a harmonic component is located exactly in a structural mode. It is
necessary to use a frequency with high resolution or polynomial proportion.
No knowledge is needed (such as knowledge on harmonics and their frequencies)
Easy to use: This method has been automated based on EFDD technique
Speed: This method is based on efficient computational algorithms
There was an agreement between the values obtained from OMA techniques, with a small standard
deviation in different approaches. The important characteristics of these techniques included
simplicity in BFD, clear interpretation in FDD, and efficiency and stability in SSI. It is also possible
to combine different methods to improve the results [22]. FEM is able to produce the modes of this
tall irregular reinforced-concrete structure. Experimental and numerical similarity of modal shapes
demonstrates their proper identification. Natural frequency values measured by FEM showed a
good conformity with the frequencies obtained from the recorded reports.
Using the recorded reports of ambient vibration, we employed OMA techniques to obtain dynamic
properties of the tower. There was a good agreement between the parameters extracted from three
different techniques (BFD, FDD and SSI). Finite element model was able to produce the
frequencies and mode shape of the irregular structure under study. Using FE model, we investigated
the impact of relationships between independent dynamic parts in the structure (which had been
separated by seismic seams and connected by non-structural elements). The validity of dynamic
properties enables to use this model for evaluation of structure response to seismic movements.
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In many OMA applications, the presence of dominant harmonic components in the measured
responses is inevitable. This may have severe impacts when using EFDD technique because
harmonic components need to be determined out of the function. Compared with modal results
which had been obtained by fully stochastic excitation of the same structure, New EFDD showed a
good conformity in terms of natural frequency, damping ratio and mode shape. If a high frequency
resolution is used, one can omit even a harmonic component which is exactly located in the peak of
a structural mode and achieve a good modal estimation. Using a polynomial proportion rather than
simple linear interpolation which was used in the primary execution, one can improve the results.
Among other advantages of this method are the unneeded prior knowledge on harmonic
components in terms of frequencies or levels, high computation efficiency, and easiness of use.
CONCLUSION
We investigated various OMA methods and explored their key issues. In doing so, we first studied
the main group of OMA methods including NExT, SSI, FDD and FEM. For this purpose, we
examined a structure piece of RC shear wall with full scale on NEES vibration table. We employed
three output-only system identification methods to extract modal parameters (natural frequency,
damping ratio and mode shape) of the structure under study. These three methods were Eigensystem
Realization Algorithm (NExT-ERA), Data-Driven Stochastic Subspace Identification (SSI-Data),
and Enhanced Frequency Domain Decomposition (EFDD). In this study, we analyzed the
changeability or uncertainty of system identification methods in two steps. The first step was when
the methods were applied to the measured response of the structure. The second step was when the
methods were applied to the response of the structure simulated using a three-dimensional nonlinear
finite element model which had been calibrated and confirmed. After applying variance analysis in
system identification results based on the experimental data measured in the first step, we achieved
the final results as follows:
Natural frequency: New-EFDD, PC, CVA, UPC, CFDD, EFDD, Next, FDD, FEM
Damping ratio: FEM, FDD, Next, EFDD, UPC, PC, CVA, CFDD, New-EFDD
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slice - Phase I: Moaveni B, Stavridis A, Lombaert G, Conte JP, Shing PB. Finite element model
updating for assessment of progressive damage in a three-story infilled RC frame. J. of Structural
Engineering, ASCE 2013, in press...
[33] Zhang, L.M., Wang, T. And Tamura, Y. 2005a. Frequency-spatial Domain
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Structures. Proceeding of the 1st IOMAC. Copenhagen. Denmark.
[34] Zhang, L. and Tamura, Y. 2003. Damping Estimation of Engineering Structures With
Ambient Response Measurements. Proceeding of the 21st IMAC
[35] Zhang, L.M., Wang, T. And Tamura, Y. 2005a. Frequency-spatial Domain
Decomposition Technique with Application to Operational Modal Analysis of Civil Engineering
Structures. Proceeding of the 1st IOMAC. Copenhagen. Denmark.
[36] Zhang, L. and Tamura, Y. 2003. Damping Estimation of Engineering Structures With
Ambient Response Measurements. Proceeding of the 21st IMAC.
[37] Zhang, L., Brincker, R. and Andersen, P. 2001. Modal Indicators for Operational Modal
Identification. Proceeding of the 18th IMAC.
[38] Zhang, Y., Zhang, Z., Xu, X. and Hua, H. 2005b. Modal Parameter Identification Using
Response Data Only. Journal of Sound and Vibration, Vol. 282. No. 1-2
[39] Zhang, Y., Zhang, Z., Xu, X. and Hua, H. 2005b. Modal Parameter Identification Using
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Identification. Proceeding of the 18th IMAC.
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[41] Andersen, P., Brincker, R., Rune, G. and Mevel, L. 2007. Automated Modal Parameter
Estimation for Operational Modal Analysis of Large Systems. Proceeding of the 2nd IOMAC.
[42] Moaveni B, Stavridis A, Lombaert G, Conte JP, Shing PB. Finite element model updating
for assessment of progressive damage in a three-story infilled RC frame. J. of Structural
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[43] Andersen, P. and Brincker, R. 1999. Estimation of Modal Parameters and Their
Uncertainties. Proceeding of the 17th IMAC.
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FrequencyDomain Decomposition. Proceedings of the 2nd IMAC.
[45] Aenlle, M.L., Brincker, R. and Canteli, A.F. 2005a. Some Methods to Determine Scaled
Mode Shapes in Natural Input Modal Analysis. Proceeding of the 23rd IMAC.
[46] Aenlle, M.L., Brincker, R. and Canteli, A.F. 2005c. Load Estimation from Natural input
Modal Analysis. Proceeding of the 23rd IMAC.
[47] Jacobsen, N.J., Andersen, P. and Brincker, R. 2006. Using Enhanced Frequency Domain
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[49] Ljung, L. 1987. System Identification, Theory for the User. Prentice Hall. Englewood
Cliffs. Magalhaes, F., Brincker, R. and Cunha, A. 2007. Damping Estimation Using Free Decays
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Estimation by the Mass Change Method. Proceeding of the 1st IOMAC.
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The study of prevalence of ECLA School and dependency schools on development
strategies in the first decade of Islamic revolution
Mohammad Kazem Kaveh Pishghadam, Mohammad Hussein Dalal Rahmani
Department of Law and Political Science, Islamic Azad University, Science and Research
Branch, Tehran, Iran
Abstract
This article is an attempt to find ECLA schools overcome causes and dependence on
development strategies in the first decade of Iran Islamic revolution. In this way the introduction
of two ECLA schools and dependence on their major features and indices are considered. Then
with the study of nationalism forming condition in Iran and making efforts to resolve the internal
contradictions in this ideology that in the future shape a self sublimate supposition some
similarities of revolutionaries political receiving in 57 are taken grace with the mentioned
schools. Meanwhile a short point occurs to the role of Ahmad Fardid and Jalal Alahmad
receiving overcome are considered. Finally the paper will end with showing the similarities of
Mir Hoseyn Mousavi government strategies with these two schools.
Keywords: Development, ECLA School, dependency school, Nationalism, self-sublimate,
supposition, The Islamic Revolution
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Introduction
The second revolution in Iran that succeeded in 1357 (1979) promised people the development of
the country with intense criticism from former governments politics, from the first few days.
But the situation did not progress as well as the revolutionaries thought , internal conflict that
rapidly moved toward terrorism movement and external pressure that finally reached its peak in
Iraq and its allies attack to the territory of Iran, faced the development practical step with many
constraint. On the other hand theoretical principles and thought trend of officials were effective
in development process circumstances. In the first few days of revolution that the basic trend of
officials was cohering, the emergence of a development discourse was obvious .But as a surprise
many of these development discourse indicators which came out within Islamic revolution were
similar to those indicators which visionaries considered beyond the Atlantic Ocean, they
explicitly had Marxist tendencies.
This article wants to find the causes of this similarity. Based on this it will review the causes of
left tendencies overcome in the first decade of the revolution in a retrospect.
Theoretical frame work
Those theoretical orientation which many efforts of the first decade of revolution were inspired
from, in fact come from two development school of "OCLA" and "Dependency".
Here we will study theoretical receiving of these two schools. United nation, in 1948, founded an
institution called the economic commission of Latin America whose abbreviation was called
"ECLA".
An Argentine economist, Raul Perbish, headed this organization. He and others from his allies
started to offer a collection of visions about the causes of Latin America country's backwardness
which became famous as ECLA School.
They criticized the conditions governing the global economic system with a making vision. In
their opinion the world is divided into two parts: center and periphery.
The first part is the cause of periphery backwardness. The relationship between these two parts is
based on special international division of labor in which periphery prepares raw materials for
center world and center world provided the need of the periphery with producing of made goods.
However, this relationship is not fair. In the ECLA School officials opinion "exchange condition
with regard to evidence from about 1870 onwards were harmful for Latin America countries.
Thus Latin America countries per day have imported fewer sectors of imported manufactured
goods from industrial center against the value of their export''. (Ruks Bero 1370:59)
They used two theories to explain this case .the first theory emphasizes the role of demand.
According to this theory the rate of change which revenue increase creates in demand for raw
material and food, is less than one.
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This means that any increase in consumer income leads to an increase in the consumption of raw
materials and food, although this increase will not be one because people by getting rich spend
lower part of their earnings in purchasing of raw material and food.
Such a relationship depends on three factors:
1. A change which income increase creates in food consumption is less than one.
2. Policies of agricultural protection in industrialized countries struggle with the entry of
imported food to the market of these countries and on the other hand the replacement of synthetic
material and artificial instead of raw and natural materials has reduced the demand for raw
materials.
3. People with their income increase are drawn more towards buying manufactured goods. The
result from this situation is the existence of income elasticity less than one 1 for entering goods
and consumed material from Latin America and commercial imbalance between Latin-America
and world of industry. (Azkia 1381:133)
Second theory is about the level of wages inequality among Latin America countries and
industrialized countries.
Industrialized countries for reasons such as trade unions pressure, wages have increased, but in
surrounding countries such as Latin America due to high labor and lack of trade and business
unions as the ones in industrialized countries, wages are remained on the low level of
subsistence, and there was no intensive about the increase of goods prices, hence inequality in
wages level has caused inequality in prices level and therefore
An inequality in wages level has caused inequality in prices level and therefore and unequal
exchange between surrounding countries because they became poorer.
Their solution for escape from this situation included:
1. Creating an imports alternative system.
2. Establishment of heavy traffic customs fore preventing irregular arrival of foreign goods.
3. Deep and extensive land reform which provides agricultural development and on the other
hand help villagers not to migrate to the city.
4. Assigning national capitalism as the cause of development in Latin America and carrying
progressive nature and anti-imperialism (Amjad: 1348; 63)
In addition to this international dual division, they point to the existence of dual area in the Latin
America countries.
In these countries due to having connection with the central industrialized countries, we can see
both parts, traditional and modern which these two parts work separately and backwardness and
development of Latin America countries are defined due to this dual structure. This dual
structure is the result of unequal relationship with industrialized countries and following the
outgoing development pattern (Azkia; 1381:132).
Besides ECLA School theorists like André Gender Frank (A.G.frank) , Paul Baran and Doos
Santos presented other views that were assembled under the title of dependency school .
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Theories of these thinkers had a considerable similarity with the ECLA Schools theoretical
landscape.
However; there were notable differences. Intellectual orientation of this school against ECLA
School was expressly left and essentially NeoMarxist , how ever ,like ECLA School it found a
relationship between underdevelopment and economical relations problem with the world
outside of the underdeveloped countries .
In their opinion underdevelopment is not the result of historical economical relation between
underdeveloped countries (satellites) and developed countries (mother) in the past. (Azkia;
1381:132).
However, dependency school paid more attention to colonialism relationship within the
underdeveloped countries borders.
Frank, as the most important theorist of this school, with composing two concepts of categorized
colonialism and additional value transfer, from underdeveloped regions to developed ones,
discussed the concept of a chain of center-surrounding colonialism relation.
He considered his own theoretical model in a global level, such as this:
"A full chain of systems consisting of metropolis (mother city)and Aqmar (satellites),connect all
parts of the whole system from the center of main mother city in Europe or united states to the
most remote rural area in Latin America " (Azkia, same :140) The Marxist trend in this
perspective is completely clear.
Especially when this phrase is placed besides Marx's receiving about India and Britain effects on
its economical conditions.
Based on this, people like Leys believe that the less developed theory (dependency) to some
extent is the corrected theory of Marx and to some extent is the expansion of his interpretation of
history; it means the expansion of his method and his main ideas on a global scale that until his
death was in the embryonic stag. (Nixon and Coleman, 1378:75)
In fact Frank by developing Marx concept of surplus value, paid attention to transferring the
surplus value from geographical borders , based on this, his critical tone noted domestic relations
as much as un faire world system .
By emphasis on the movement of capital from the Aqmar (satellites) to metropolis (mother city),
he writes: "statistics….show exactly the single idea from the net capital flow from
underdevelopment countries" (Frank, 1359:71)
He knows solution in changing the structure of global social system on the international, national
and local level that any of previous development theories can do it. (The same: 106)
On his opinion continuation of central metropolis relation to satellites causes the continuation of
underdevelopment.
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Historical evidence also corroborates this claim. because every time that an interval or a
weakness has emerged in this relationship , satellites have moved toward active capitalism which
may cause satellites to be less or more developed or finally to become industrialized which is on
the basis of internal colonialism relations or metropolis –satellite imperialism.
Good examples of this active capitalism autonomy are tendencies of Brazil, Mexico, Argentina,
India and other countries toward industrialization during the massive recession of early 1930
and second world war when the metropolis itself was caught up in other issues. (Frank 33:1360).
Based on this also from the Frank s perspective the under development issues are connected to
underdeveloped countries external problems.
Meanwhile, even if cultural issues are considered only on this basis and negative effort of
external condition project is discussable.
Self sublimate supposition on the threshold of revolution:
Iranian revolution succeeded in 1357 (1979 AD)-however this revolution had a long history.
Although, there is not much consensus about its root –some people say it rooted in 28 Mordad
coups in 1332 and others say it rooted in suppression of 15 Khordad uprising in 1342 – but any
way they are unanimous in this matter that Islamic Revolution rooted in the past.
How ever, over all years before the revolution some founds of foreign controversy grew among
Iranians, in this way that on the threshold of revolution many people with no doubt knew the
king only as a small defender of western interests.
He was accused of being a strong U.S and on this basis all the hate which existed for him and
royal family was signed towards west. But this event had more deep roots than this initial
analysis.
The roots of this foreign controversy were within the nationalism which had formed nearly
eighty years earlier.
In order to study nationalism features we should return to constitutional era.
Nationalism in Iran formed during the constitutional era but when following the concept of
home, the first constitutional intellectuals feel the necessity to enthusiasm against them, faced a
basic problem that in fact was an Iranians against others whom in those days were mostly Arabs
and Turks, they founded the basic structure of nationalism. But they faced an underdeveloped
country which had not much to offer against western countries.
So, from one side by criticism of domestic culture and official's corruption and from other side
by condemning the interferences of foreign countries, they tried to explain the backwardness of
the country. However, emphasizing the superiority of Iranian to adopt negative views toward
their cultural elements wasn’t justified.
From other side, intellectual's west approaches in those days that in fact were fascinated by the
western massive progress, weren’t in one line with their nationalism receiving.
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Fatemeh Sadeqi writs about this contradiction:
"their alien contentious nature contradicted rapidly with the west approach. This conflict seemed
unresolved, however, to the nationalism wasn’t so complex.
Because firstly they defined nationalism alien contentious mainly, Arab-Animosity and secondly
to justify adaption of western ideas pretended as if westerners basically have borrowed these
ideas from Iranian and thus the issue of internal contradiction of ideology was resolved
"(Sadeghi ;61:1384)
This solution had a profound impact on the thinking processes of Iranian in the coming era.
As though this nationalism receiving conflicted directly with the Arab culture and implicitly with
Islam soon showed its potentials for different interpretation new cultural elements were needed
that this time were entered to Iran by Ahmad Fardid.
He as a Heidegger philosopher was able to provide the collection of lessons from German
philosophy from the forty decade onwards; and formed a Heideggerian political discourse which
had a significant role in revolution of 1357.(Mirsepasy;53:1387)
Jalal Al Ahmad as one of his most famous student and most affected one of his discussed debates
space; extended the concept of westernization and published a book with the same title in 134.
He in this work criticized the western aspect of Iranian life to follow the recovery of Iranian
culture (real).
Works by Ali-Shariati, which later was extended was a continuation of the same attitude.
Emphasizing the return to oneself and self –alienation criticism in fact was in the same line as
previous receiving.
Recent ideas which clearly had the Heidegger roots were the repetition of the same phrase of
nationalists in the constitutional with this different that the word Arab had changed to west.
This time westerner became the target of nationalisms attack.
In opinion of scholars who had the thought of return to oneself, ''Self '' was quiet ideal and its
current illness was due to wealth. Because of the intellectuals efforts during those days, this
extreme self sublimate supposition on the threshold of revolution be came a dominant discourse
and soon affected profoundly on adoption of development options.
Self sublimate supposition and adoption of development strategies:
Emphasize on originality of Iranian thoughts and attributing all suffering and problems to
foreigners had substantial similarities with the companions receiving of ECLA and Dependency
schools.
There was a preferential relationship between adoption of ECLA and dependency schools
emphasis on unfair relationship between the centers and the satellites and continuous
recommendation about the interruption of this relationship for development, means tacit
acknowledgment of innocence of underdeveloped countries.
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Based on this underdevelopment was not the result of cultural and social problems of
underdeveloped countries but it was due to the wickedness of center countries.
In this way with delegating all defects to foreign governments, underdeveloped countries were
taken action to baptism.
The nearness of this receiving with self sublimate supposition of revolutionaries is clear. So it
isn't much occasional if officials accepted approaches of those days are inspired by dependency
theories recommendation.
Other causes of facing to ECLA and Dependency school:
Besides the above issue the role of left uprising which had a considerable power and influence in
that era should be noted.
This spread and influence were clearly visible among religious.
For example, the framework body of the organization leadership of the MKO which was a
guerilla group and branching of one of moderate religious – political group in the middle of fifty
decade practically changed to Marxist.
Rest of staffs who separated their own ways from leadership framework still was under the
influence of thoughtful leftism like Ali Shariati. He strongly was trying to offer a Marxism
reading of Islam.
Other thinkers of the time also had a wide left trend. Jalal Al Ahmad with two books
"westernization" and "at service and betrayal of intellectuals" showed himself as one of the
significant opponent of Pahlavi monarchy.
He previously was a member of Tude (mass) party and later on of the relatives of Khalil Malekia splinter member of the party – whether he or Shariati absorbed, their audiences from young
people who had a religious dependency.
The spectrums whom after the revolution were headed in the most basic enforcement officials.
More over, the political situation after the revolution and that external pressure which was
applied generally by western countries, especially America, caused more orientation to
nationalism economic.
After being critical the relationship of Iran and America and after the hostage case which
eventually led to the Americans expanded boycott, practically strengthen the leftism groups
against liberal activist.
Along side these issues, some of the terrorist movement was in favor of the left flow.
Early death of Ayatollah Taleghani and assassination of two prominent holy men Ayatollah
Motahari and Ayatollah Beheshti left revolution council for leftist forces.
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The result was the dominance of left thinking on the body of the Executive Board of Revolution.
Ezatollah Sahabi images the condition of the time such this:
''in the early revolution in the field of economy more concern was on what economic line should
be chosen, weather the capitalism line or anti-capitalism and socialism line , all the
revolutionaries before the revolution except the Freedom Movement were inclined to the left
economic trend.
Marxist groups and traditional lefts had their own places. The religious forces that ten years
before the revolution had come to the stage, whether MEK (mojahedine khalgh ) or the groups
later gathered and were called Islamic Revolution Mojahedin, were economically left and even
radical left.
Among holy men also those ones who led the revolution had a left economical thinking
"(Amouee; 11:1385)
This dominant group, in the selection of development strategies had a tendency to close school to
their own receiving.
Based on this, inspiration from two schools of ECLA and Dependency was not far from the
mind.
The impact of ECLA and Dependency school on policy makings after revolution:
After the revolution and after a period of rebellions and the internal conflicts, when finally
revolutionary groups were able to stabilize their power , the government of Mir Hussein Mousavi
came to power.
"this flow with nationalization of factories, banks, and with the expanding of administrative an
governmental organization and with relying on oil revenues mobilized resources and facilities for
the war and with the motto of independency and self-sufficiency and independency and
affiliation less and with controlling of the exchange rate, it adopted a substitution strategy of
import which was not accompanied with boosting production and industrialization '' (Mootefi;
1385)
The selection of sub situational strategy of imports continued with plans in line with land
reform.
After the legal actions that also wasn't devoid of controversy , the government by forming a
delegation of seven persons till 1367 could distribute , nearly one and half million hectares of
land among 250 thousand rural household.
Such efforts profoundly were in line with ECLA schools recommendations'.
Proposals emphasized the priority of agriculture part. At the same space, constitution was written
as well, and many of its provisions were under the influence of left attitudes –as expected.
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Some of these under influenced cases are following:
1. Belief in global movement against capitalism (introduction of constitution)
2. Denying any cruelty and be oppressed and domination and under domination, justice, political,
social and cultural independency. (Third article)
3. Complet rejection of colonialism (third article)
4. Expansion of governments' size. (Article 44)
5. Self-sufficiency in providing science and technology. (Third Article)
6. The confiscation of property. (Article 48)
At the same time the majority of political positions were in the same line as receiving of
dependency schools were.
Roghani Zanjani, head of PBO during the war, in the same area said:
'' It was then assumed that all changes to the country … should be criticized from this angle: if
this is an economic problem, it is the action of America or the educated people under its
protection '' (Amouee; same: 142)
In the same vein, the major positions on domestics and international issues were accompanied by
criticism of politics of America and domination system.
Strive to create new and equitable order in the world as a long-term foreign policy goal (Sarioll
Ghalam; 1379:49) was also continuing the same approach.
How ever, the gains of these actions were not much brilliant.
''With the decrease of oil price in1365 the economic condition deteriorated and the governments
total revenues decreased 40 percent.
During the period of 1365 to1367 undesirable governments fiscal situation continued so that in
the 1367 the governments budget deficit rate to 2112 billion Rials and the ratio of the deficit to
total budget reached to more than fifty percent.'' (Nili; 130:1387)
Total categories
The first decade of revolution was accompanied by a series of efforts for development of Iran.
But these efforts had limited successes.
Although this lack of success was significantly due to the imposed condition to the country such
as war and long boycott, however it was not separate from the theoretical receiving of
companions in power.
These receiving rooted in more distant past, when the nationalism had formed in Iran. The efforts
were made to resolve internal contradiction of this ideology, on the threshold of 50 decade and
with the rise of slogan of return to one self which was the result of a series of philosophical
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training inspired by Heidegger, became a kind of self sublimate supposition which was able to
attribute any internal problem to external factors.
The problem is the meeting point of Iranian thinkers with the schools of ECLA and Dependency
which ultimately leaded to adoption of their considered strategies in Iran.
However, among this, other factors such as development and influence of left uprising and other
unexploded forecast were effective.
However, adoptions of these landscapes were not very accurate. This matters, on the one hand
was a result of officials lack of theory and the other hand was a result of internal rivalries and
disagreements of more traditional spectrum.
Ultimately as it was said, the plans of development during this time faced with limited success
and finally, based on the economic indexes at the end of the era, the condition of quarreled Iran
were not much optimal.
1. Economic Commission for Latin America (ECLA)
2. However, Frank and Paul Baran also were affected much by Marx had important criticism of
his views. They were very unhappy with this matter which Marx on the very penetration of
Britain in India, finally will cause economical development in India.
3. He severely rejects the receiving of companions of renovation school and psychological
schools which consider some of cultural and psychological features, the factor of
underdevelopment.
To read more about, you should study two of his translated works mentioned in the source.
4. At the time nationalism feeling were accompanied by (pretend and not to be) receiving in a
large amount.
5. to read more about this matter one can refer to valuable books of ''Iran intellectuals '' ,
''narrative of hopes and despair ''written by Ali Mir Sepasi .
6. of course this problem was not new. Many of thinkers during constitutional era and even
intellectuals who were not in clothing of holymen , had changed Arab animosity to western
animosity .
(R. Iranian constitution, Mashallah Ajudani )
But after power making of Reza the king and the establishment of Pahlavi Government anti Arab
nationalist succeeded and this trend continued until the forties.
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References:
1. Azkia, Mustafa, development sociology, Tehran, the institution of word publication.
2. Amjad, Mohammad,; a comparative study of economy in Iran and south Korea (13571314) , Tehran , Islamic Revolution Document Center.
3. Amouee, Bahman political economy of Islamic Republic in a dialogue with Sahabi,
Noorbakhsh , Roghani Zanjani, Nili and …. , Tehran, Game no, 1385.
4. Frank , Andre Gunder , the development of underdevelopment in Brazil translated by
Sohrab Behdad , Tehran , Sharif University scientific press,1360.
5. Frank , Andre Gunder, the sociology of development and under development of
sociology , translated by Manuchehr Sanajian , Tehran , Sharif University scientific press,
1359.
6. Sadeghi Fateme; Gender, nationalism, and modernity in Iran (the first Pahlavi era),
Tehran, Ghaside Sara, 1384.
7. Ruks Bro, Yan; underdevelopment theories, translated by Mustafa Azkia, Tehran,
Publication of development, 1370.
8. Sarialghalam ,Mahmoud ; Islamic Republic of Irans forign policy (first volume ), Tehran
, center for strategic research 1379.
9. Coleman ,David Vefourd Nickson, the economics of underdevelopment, translated by
GHolam Reza Azad Armaki, Tehran , Vosgha publication institute ,1378.
10. Nili , Masoud ;state and economic growth in Iran ,Tehran , ney publication 1387.
11. Mutefi, Ahmad; political economy of Iran during the Islamic Republic, journal of college
of law and political science, No71, spring 1385.
12. Mirsepasi, Ali; Iranian Intellectuals narratives of despair and hope translated by Abbass
Mokhber , Tehran : development , 1386.
13. Mutefi, Ahmad; political economy of Iran during the Islamic Republic. Journal of
college of law and politicalsciences, No.71, spring
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Journal of Basic and Applied Advances in Sciences
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Vol. 4 No.1 (January, 2016)
Journal of Basic and Applied Advances in Sciences
Vol. 4 No.1 (January, 2016)
The effect of brain hemispheres asymmetries on reaction time of short-term memory
Lotfali Masumi, Hoda Fazaely
Department of Biology, Mohaghegh Ardebili University, Ardebil, Iran
Abstract
Human brain had complex structure controlling cognitive complex behaviors. This complex
structure is asymmetrical in terms of function and structure and this is influensive on most of the
cognitive skills including memory. In this research, the effect of brain hemispheres asymmetries
on reaction time of short-term memory is assessed.
Keywords: Brain hemisphere asymmetries, reaction time, short-term memory
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Introduction
Physical asymmetry of brain functions in human being is created by different actions by somatic
limbs. For many years it seemed that brain hemispheres asymmetries occur just in human being,
because complex human being actions such as speech, writing, using tools etc were not
justifiable except for determining this fact that each of the brain constituents does especial
actions to create these actions and its seems that data processing and finally different behaviors
are the result of the collaboration between brain constituents. Today, structural and functional
asymmetries are identified in most of the animal species (1), for example, in human being,
speech functions better in left hemisphere and in sparrow communicative voices are mostly
under the control of left-hemisphere (2). In Macaques monkeys the superiority of right ear is
shown to prove hearing processes (3). The main problem in the discussion about whether priority
of left-hemisphere provides an evolutionary advantage is that the emergence of bilateral
language or priority of the right side is common. In addition, generally the dominance of left side
is not an advantage in perception and recognition (4).
The others propose that dominance of left side for language is arising from the control of left
hemisphere on the right hand (It was introduced for the first time by Condillac in 1746):
Planning of left-hemisphere for movement and body language results into total control of motor
systems in speech (5). Some of the researchers know these phenomena a kind of priority and
believe that competition between different parts of brain is reduced to minimum to control body
joint actions. For example, control of speech muscles in which there is no competition between
controllers of the above muscles and in this way the concepts are said orally. In addition, if the
connection of two sides are necessary (between two brain hemispheres), information should be
exchanged between some areas of two hemispheres. Thus, in asymmetrical brains (Between two
hemispheres), the connection between two sides should be very much in comparison with the
brains with high symmetry. For example, high asymmetrical brains have corpus callosum with
midsagittal area as reduced in comparison with the symmetrical brains 96).
The final result of this asymmetry is the relative dominance of one side in comparison with the
others. This factor is the beginning of the discussion about the priorities of the dominance of the
right and left side. There are different comments about dominance of each of brain hemispheres
in some special actions or some parts of the body and there are different conclusions regarding
the personal differences in different people that increase the complexity of this issue.
Hand preference is one of the most common dominance implications of one of the hemispheres
and in it is used in this study to find about the effect of brain hemispheres asymmetries on
reaction time of short-term memory.
Indeed, the memory is divided into 3 types: 1. Sensory memory, 2. Short-term memory, 3. Lone
term memory (7).
Sensory memory acts as a receiver for stimuli received by all the senses. There is a sensory
memory for each sensory channel. Iconic memory is for sight stimuli, echoic memory for hearing
stimuli, haptic memory for touch stimuli. By paying attention to data, data is transferred from
32
Journal of Basic and Applied Advances in Sciences
Vol. 4 No.1 (January, 2016)
sensory memory to short term memory and in this way the required stimuli are being filtered.
Short term memory is used as a small memory to call for the temporary data. This memory is not
permanent and it has also limited capacity. Dividing the data into some sections can increase the
capacity of short term memory.
Long-term memory stores the data for a long time. The data is transferred after some moments
from short-term memory to long term memory. Despite short-term memory, there are fewer
lapses in long-term memory.
In this paper the effect of brain hemispheres asymmetries on reaction time of short-term memory
is studied for better understanding of memory process (8).
Materials and methods
Research method in this study is of semi-experimental type because experience and research is
such that it is not possible to control all important variables in research area.
In this research, the results of 105 subjects were investigated that all were the students of Ardebil
University and they were healthy without any acute and chronic disease. The results of about 24
people among them after the study of completed protocols were excluded due to some reasons
such as taking some drugs, persisting on not continuing the tests, emphasis on more precision in
the next series of tests and the lack of required concentration during the test.
Thus of the total 105 subjects under the test, the results of 60people were used in statistical
investigations. The subjects were divided into two 30 right handed and left handed group in
terms of the dominance of one of the brain hemispheres.
The subjects before the test, studied the protocol and got familiar with the tests process and then
the test was done. Providing two cases was of great importance during the test:
Providing black and white software according to physiological information. In this study
Reaction time test software with the registration No. 12024 was used and after applying some
required modifications they could be used in this research.
To evaluate the effect of brain hemispheres asymmetries on reaction time of black and white
short-term memory, reaction time changes were reviewed.
To start the work at first the software is installed in the computer and after running, a two digit
number (From 10 to 99) was appeared randomly at the middle of the screen. Each of these twodigit numbers appears for 250 millisecond and the distance between their appearances on the
screen is 100 millisecond.
Thus, three two-digit numbers with the interval of 100 millisecond between the first, second and
the third number are appeared. The forth number as the best number is appeared after 1second
and it is appeared at the same 250 milliseconds. Maybe this number is not one of the numbers
appeared in the box or it is not a part of it. After the number is appeared, the subject should
answer it within 750 millisecond.
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Journal of Basic and Applied Advances in Sciences
Vol. 4 No.1 (January, 2016)
***If the best number is one of the three numbers, the subject should press a special key before
the time is over (750 millisecond) that is called reaction time.
***If the best number is not among the numbers appeared in the screen, the subject should not
press the above key and if it is pressed, the wrong answer will be considered.
***If the subject do not press the key on time (750 millisecond), this is considered as no
response.
This software in this research is based on imaging the numbers in the brain hemispheres. The
interval of the appearance of the numbers in tree zones of the screen is very little that our eyes
cannot see it and put the picture in Macula and the images of the numbers appearance based on
the neural structure of temporal and nasal retina are registered only in one of the brain
hemispheres. Only when the numbers are appeared at the center of the screen, the obtained
numbers are registered in both hemispheres. By the appearance of the fourth number (The best
number), this number can be appeared in one of the right, left or both hemispheres. Usually, the
minimum reaction time is occurred when the best number and one of the three numbers both are
appeared at the middle of the screen. Thus, the mentioned number is registered in both
hemispheres and the decision about is taken rapidly due to the presence of data in both
hemispheres and reaction time is decreased considerably in comparison with other cases. In other
cases, the numbers are seen only in one of the hemispheres and considering brain asymmetry for
decision making; at first the data is transferred to other hemisphere and then after being
processed is appeared by pressing the button (or not pressing).
To be sure of the validity of the results, the tests are repeated for each person, 4 times and then
the averages of 4 tests results were calculated. Finally, reaction time was obtained for the time
when only left-hemisphere is working; when only right-hemisphere is working and when both
hemispheres are working for 60 subjects. The middle square indicating the collaboration between
two hemispheres is considered as observer and left and right hemispheres are evaluated by paired
t-test method. In addition, left and right hemispheres were compared by this method.
Findings
The results of the reaction times of the participants by paired t-test method were as the
followings:
In right-handers with the dominance of left-hemisphere, at first reaction time of left-hemisphere
was compared with the reaction time of both hemispheres collaboration and according to table
(1-1), there was no significant difference.
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Journal of Basic and Applied Advances in Sciences
Vol. 4 No.1 (January, 2016)
Paired Differences
Reaction
time
Mean
Std.
Deviation
Std. Error
Mean
3.03175
24.80874
4.52944
95% Confidence Interval of the
Difference
Lower
Upper
-12.29548
6.23199
t
df
29
.669ns
Then, reaction time of the right hemisphere was compared with the reaction time of both
hemispheres collaboration and according to table (1-2) there was significant difference and
during this time, reaction time of right-hemisphere was decreased in comparison with the time
both hemispheres are collaborating with each other.
Paired Differences
Mean
Reaction
time
2.13262E1
Std.
Deviation
Std. Error
Mean
23.68490
4.32425
95% Confidence Interval of the
Difference
Lower
Upper
-30.17028
-12.48210
t
df
29
4.932**
Finally right and left hemispheres were compared with each other and according to table (1-3)
there was significant difference between them as right-hemisphere had less reaction time than
left-hemisphere:
Paired Differences
Mean
Reaction
time
1.82944E1
Std.
Deviation
Std. Error
Mean
30.63692
5.59351
95% Confidence Interval of the
Difference
Lower
Upper
-29.73446
-6.85443
t
29
3.271**
Then left-handers with the dominance of right-hemisphere were investigated:
The comparison of left-hemisphere reaction time of these subjects with reaction time of both
hemispheres collaboration according to table (1-4) shows significant difference as at both
hemispheres collaboration, reaction time was less than the time left-hemisphere was working
alone:
35
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Journal of Basic and Applied Advances in Sciences
Vol. 4 No.1 (January, 2016)
Paired Differences
Mean
Reaction
time
Std.
Deviation
1.22667E1 21.98941
Std. Error
Mean
4.01470
95% Confidence Interval of the
Difference
Lower
Upper
4.05569
20.47765
t
df
3.055** 29
Right-hemisphere reaction time was compared with reaction time of both hemispheres
collaboration. According to table (1-5) there was significant difference between them and
reaction time of right-hemisphere was less than the time both hemispheres were working:
Paired Differences
Mean
Reaction
time
2.32444E1
Std.
Deviation
Std. Error
Mean
23.58995
4.30692
95% Confidence Interval of the
Difference
Lower
Upper
-32.05308
-14.43581
t
df
29
5.397**
Finally significant difference according to (1-6) in comparison of reaction time of lefthemisphere and right hemisphere of left-handers were shown. Reaction time of right hemisphere
was less than left hemisphere.
Paired Differences
Mean
Reaction
time
3.55111E1
Std.
Deviation
Std. Error
Mean
30.32305
5.53621
36
95% Confidence Interval of the
Difference
Lower
Upper
-46.83392
-24.18830
t
df
29
6.414**
Journal of Basic and Applied Advances in Sciences
Vol. 4 No.1 (January, 2016)
Discussion and conclusion
Asymmetrical localization of neural structures in right and left sides of Vertebrates and
Invertebrates brain is related to the lateral superiority of the brain. This lateral superiority can be
effective on the cognitive skills including memory. A research group under the supervision of
professor shigeru watanabe from Keio University reported that self- transgenic rats with brain
asymmetry defect encountered problem in their spatial memory. These results propose that
bilateral asymmetry of the brain is necessary for the correct performance of the memory (9).in
this study to discover the probable effect of brain hemispheres asymmetries on reaction time of
short-term memory, reaction time was measured in 60 university students (they were selected
among students for the case of homogeneity). Finally, each of the subjects had 3 reaction time
and they were related to left-hemisphere action, both hemispheres actions and right-hemisphere
action, respectively.
The results in right-handers with left-hemisphere dominance were not as expected. Because it
was expected that reaction time of both hemispheres collaboration was less than that of lefthemisphere and right-hemisphere alone. While reaction time of right-hemisphere was
significantly less than the time, both hemispheres were collaborating. In addition, reaction time
of right-hemisphere was significantly less than reaction time of left-hemisphere as dominant in
these people.
Regarding the left-handers, the results were more consistent with our predictions. In subjects
with right-hemisphere dominance, reaction time of this hemisphere was significantly less than
reaction time of left-hemisphere and reaction time of collaboration of both hemispheres was
more than that of dominant hemisphere and less than reaction time of left-hemisphere.
Thus, the dominance of left-hemisphere in right-handers does not affect the reaction time but in
left-handers, dominance of right-hemisphere affects the reaction time.
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Journal of Basic and Applied Advances in Sciences
Vol. 4 No.1 (January, 2016)
References:
1. Glick, S. D. & Hinds, P. A. Differences in amphetamine and morphine sensitivity in
lateralized and non-lateralized rats: locomotor activity and drug self-administration. Eur J
Pharmacol. 118(3), 239-44 (1985).
2. Nottebohm, F. Neural lateralization of vocal control in a passerine bird. I. Song. J Exp Zool.
177(2), 229-61 (1971).
3. Petersen, M. R., Beecher, M. D., Zoloth, S. R., Moody, D. B., Stebbins, W. C. Neural
lateralization of species-specific vocalizations by Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata). Science,
202 (4365), 324-7 (1978).
4. Hardyck, C., Petrinovich, L. F., & Goldman, R. D. Left-handedness and cognitive deficit.
Cortex. 12(3), 266-79 (1976).
5. Kimura, D. The asymmetry of the human brain. Sci Am. 228(3), 70-8 (1973).
6. Witelson, S. F. The brain connection: the corpus callosum is larger in left-handers. Science.
229(4714), 665-8 (1985).
7. Atkinson ,R. C., & shiffrin ,R. m. Human memory: a proposal system and its control
processes. the psychology of learning and motivation (1968).
8. Psychology; Lester M. Sdorow; McGraw-Hill, USA (1998).
9. Prof. Shigeru Watanabe, Department of Psychology, Faculty of Letters, Keio University.
Brain asymmetry is critical for proper memory function: Evidence from behavioral experiments
with brain asymmetry deficit mice (2010).
38
Journal of Basic and Applied Advances in Sciences
Vol. 4 No.1 (January, 2016)
Drought zoning in Iran in the past 50 years
Hasan Daryabari
Department of Biology, Mohaghegh Ardebili University, Ardebil, Iran
Abstract
In the present study drought severity of 30 stations in Iran in statistical period from 1956 to 2005
is analyzed by for indices as standardized precipitation index (SPI), D index, percent of Normal
and Deciles. The result of SPI shows that in 1973, 1990 and 2001 are based on percent of
Normal during statistical periods of 1973, 1990 and 2001. The third index is deciles, by which in
statistical period of 1973, 1990 and 1958 respectively they were chosen as the most severe
drought period in Iran. The forth index is D index. The basis of wet and dry periods by this
index is on temperature and precipitation data as after calculating of standard temperature and
precipitation, the difference between the score of temperature and precipitation, the above index
is calculated. By this method in the statistical period of 1966, 1999 and 2001 respectively, they
were the most severe drought years in Iran. As the calculated drought s by this method was more
near the reality, they have high reliability in comparison with the 3 previous indices.
Keywords: Iran, Drought, zoning, D index
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Journal of Basic and Applied Advances in Sciences
Vol. 4 No.1 (January, 2016)
Introduction
As Iran is located in the arid and semi-arid climate and frequent drought s in the recent years
cause that we more emphasize on drought subject (Tousi et al, 2003, p: 119).
Drought is one of the most important and common threats of human being life and as the subject
of most of books and papers in the past (Raoler, 1999,p: 9) argues that climatic hazards of
drought are more in comparison with other economical, social and life damages. Among natural
disasters threatening human being and environment, drought is at the top in terms of occurrence
frequency and the amount of damages (Kont, 1999, p:51).
Drought is one of most common natural disasters that human being is most familiar with it and
from the past they stated it by different methods and they couldn’t eliminate it by various ways.
Based on the studied factors, drought is different from climatic, agriculture and hydrology
aspects. Generally, all kinds of drought s are related to each other, (time-place). Meteorological
drought is occurred before different kinds of droughts and then hydrological and agricultural
droughts are occurred. Meteorological drought is turned into hydrological drought with time
lapse. This time lapse is different based on the type of surface water hydrology and underground
water and it can be long-term or short-term. It can be said that surface hydrology drought with
time lapse based on the region condtions is led into drought and draw down of underground
water. Unfortunately, in Iran drought is occurred by rainfall shortage and unsuitable distribution
of precipitation in different seasons and as Iran is located in the arid part of globe and also due to
the dominance of subtropical high pressure zone (STHP) and climatic crisis it is happened. As in
Iran drought is happened more often, it is necessary to predict and be prepared against the
adverse effects of economical, agricultural, industrial and residency aspects. It is necessary to
have a correct planning to overcome adverse effects of drought, its exact occurrence and
reciprocal action of natural factors are very important to avoid the damage of drought by
required predictions and correct management.
Review of literature
Drought is one of the catastrophic climatic phenomenon that can led into economical, social,
cultural and political concerns in the country and based on the severity and influence for long
term is of special importance from investigation in comparison with other natural phenomena
such as flood, earthquake, storm, thunder and etc. In this research Persian and international
literature are used.
Alijani and Razie (2002) analyzed time distribution model of short-term precipitation in Tehran
based on hourly precipitations by experimental model of weibull and quarters and they found
that most of precipitations are occurred respectively in the first and second quarter.
Kamali (2002) did some researches to determine the recent drought of Mashhad by using some
of drought indices. The methods in this research are percent of Normal PN and Deciles and of
the results in the statistical period of 40 years 1963-2001 , the results of drought in 2001 were
analyzed that was in the very much in the early months of the year and in February. Also other
similar droughts in 1967 and 1971 are referred.
40
Journal of Basic and Applied Advances in Sciences
Vol. 4 No.1 (January, 2016)
Jamali and Javanmardi (2002) investigated the monitoring and zoning of drought in Khorasan
province by SPI index and they found that drought starts from the sough of the province and is
expanded to the east. In this research, it was also predicted that in 2003, most of Khorasan
regions were surrounded by extreme drought. Javadi Zadeh and Shakerizadeh (2008) carried out
another research with the tile of the study of the relative frequency of Hormozgan drought by
Standardized precipitation index SPI that was analyzed for the investigation of monthly
precipitation data drought of 99 weather stations and energy ministry with the common statistical
period of 19 years ((1988 to 2005), then the index was calculated in three time scale of the first 6
months, the second six months and annual and 1994 and 2005 were respectively had the extreme
drought in the statistical period. Also, to recognize the place distribution of the region droughts,
the values of each drought event in the province studied area were analyzed by geostatistics and
zoning map of the province drought for the given periods were produced in GIS environment.
Fakhrjamali and Dowlati mehr (2009) presented another research titled “ the analysis of Ardebil
province drought for correct management of water resources that analyzed this province drought
by SPI and precipitation average in stations with good statistical period. The results showed that
the extreme drought was in northern stations and central and southern part of the province
experienced a 5 years dry period and five years wet period. So, drought trend is periodical in this
province.
Steinmann (2003) in another method determined six drought severity classes for very wet to very
dry in relation to SPI and PDSL and Markov chain formula were used to determined hydrostatic
probability and transition probability of drought severity classes and also for the continuous
period of each classes and by the given results compiled active preparation plan against drought
in river basin of palachicola- Chttahoochee-Flint.
Bella and Szali (2004) for monitoring the drought development in Georgia calculated SPI and for
increasing accuracy compared it with drought of 2003. In this study, it was observed that in
addition to the low amount of precipitation, precipitation distribution is not uniform in the region
and drought has covered a great amount of the country and in long distance scales all the country
is dominated by drought.
Pallou et al, 2005 used Markov chain model to estimate different drought classes and required
time to change the value of SPI from one class of drought to another class and determination of
return period for each of these classes in Alentija of Portugal.
Gaye, Wilhaite and Hayes (2005) by precipitation data, temperature and soil humidity in 50
years statistical period (1950-99), investigated Nebraska drought. The researchers in the
investigation of this phenomenon used different indices of drought including SPI, PDSI, NAO,
PDO, PNA and etc. to discover the relationship between humid west coast climate with Nebraska
drought.
Research data
To investigate drought in Iran the precipitation statistics of 32 synoptic stations are used in the
statistical period of 1956 to 2005 of meteorological organization. By run test of validity and
homogeneity of the data the research was carried out (map No. 1)
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Journal of Basic and Applied Advances in Sciences
Vol. 4 No.1 (January, 2016)
Map (1) Distribution map and the location of Synoptic stations in Iran
The characteristics of the studied stations precipitation
Table 1 shows the precipitation characteristics of 32 stations based on rain gauge indices that the
maximum precipitation and the minimum change ratios are for region 1 (North of the country)
and the minimum precipitation and the maximum changes are for region 2(central).
Table (1) Precipitation characteristics of northern side stations
Station
Northern side
Southern side
Central side
Eastern side
Babolsar
Bandaranzali
Ramsar
Rasht
Gorgan
Abadan
Ahvaz
Bushehr
Bam
Bandarabas
Shiraz
Kerman
Arak
Isfahan
Tehran
Shahrud
Shahr-e Kord
Yazd
Birjand
Torbat
Heidarie
Zahedan
Sabzevar
Mashhad
Station
Eastern side
Orumieh
Tabriz
Khoramabad
Khoy
Zanjan
Sanandaj
Qazvin
Kermanshah
Hamedan
MEAN
906.8
1855.9
1224.2
1360.5
622.4
153.9
228.1
277.7
61.5
182.5
336.0
148.4
341.8
118.7
232.5
160.2
323.3
60.0
170.7
MAX
1325.6
3020.2
1794.4
1967.6
1579.9
297.9
468.8
1152.0
149.5
494.7
706.4
374.2
606.6
215.7
399.4
343.3
496.4
118.4
382.0
MIN
658.0
1156.2
755.4
957.8
395.3
47.4
72.9
81.7
20.4
1.0
96.3
45.1
128.1
40.2
100.3
72.9
162.5
18.9
64.7
STD
158.71
415.27
282.52
245.63
176.68
60.78
84.90
169.86
29.32
113.62
126.82
57.55
102.06
44.88
72.88
58.34
90.51
27.30
57.97
C.V(%)
17.50
22.38
23.08
18.05
28.39
39.49
37.22
61.17
47.66
62.25
37.75
38.78
29.86
37.80
31.35
36.41
27.99
45.52
33.96
274.1
416.5
115.8
73.64
26.87
87.9
190.5
254.2
196.1
311.4
427.1
18.3
88.2
130.7
45.14
59.08
70.84
51.37
31.01
27.87
MEAN
337.9
287.8
506.4
297.1
311.7
458.8
322.0
454.4
327.5
MAX
579.5
547.5
771.1
526.1
623.8
856.1
598.4
785.5
517.7
MIN
167.2
148.0
237.1
148.1
142.5
200.3
169.0
215.8
101.4
STD
105.10
81.56
123.93
86.22
93.30
134.94
96.00
133.98
87.87
C.V(%)
31.10
28.34
24.47
29.02
29.93
29.42
29.81
29.48
26.83
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Journal of Basic and Applied Advances in Sciences
Vol. 4 No.1 (January, 2016)
Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI)
In this research the first index used for the investigation of drought in Iran is Standardized
Precipitation Index (SPI). Zscores of studies stations annual precipitation is calculated by
equation (1).
Equation (1)
( X i  X )/ σ
Where Xi is the annual precipitation, X is the long term average and σ is standard deviation of
precipitation.
Classification of drought severity based on this index is shown in table (2).
Table (2) The classification of drought severity based on SPI
Classification
Wet period
Mild dry
Moderately dry
Severely dry
Extremely dry
SPI values
> 0
> -0.99‫ تا‬0 <
> -1.49‫ تا‬-1.00 <
> -1.99‫ تا‬-1.50 <
-2.00 <
The results of the investigation of drought severity frequency in Iran based on SPI method:
Based on the results of the calculation of severity and frequency of drought by the above method
and the data in this method are normal, Z positive values are considered as wet period
(precipitation of above average) and negative values are considered as dry period (precipitation
of below the average). If the precipitation standard zero is negative, it is the beginning of drought
and when this index is positive, it is the end of dry period. Thus, wet and dry periods values are
calculated for the studied stations according to table (3).
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Journal of Basic and Applied Advances in Sciences
Vol. 4 No.1 (January, 2016)
Table (3) wet and dry period frequency of the studied stations during statistical period
based on SPI
Mild
dry
Modera
tely dry
Severel
y dry
Extrem
ely dry
Station
20
19
7
5
1
3
0
0
Khoy
Mashhad
Wet
peri
od
25
24
20
23
6
1
0
Orumieh
24
23
21
17
18
22
8
8
7
0
1
0
1
0
0
21
21
7
1
0
Birjand
25
18
4
3
0
Bushehr
Isfahan
Qazvin
Gorgan
18
27
23
18
28
12
17
29
4
8
8
3
0
3
2
0
0
0
0
0
Hamedan
24
19
3
2
2
Kerman
Kermans
hah
Khorama
bad
21
23
4
2
0
Shahrek
ord
Shahrud
Shiraz
Tabriz
Tehran
Torbat
Heidarie
Yazd
21
19
8
2
0
25
17
5
2
1
Station
Abadn
Ahvaz
Bandar
anzali
Arak
Babolsar
Bam
Bandarab
as
Wet
peri
od
22
23
15
17
Moder
ately
dry
8
7
19
23
7
1
0
Ramsar
Rasht
Sabzevar
23
23
24
20
20
17
6
5
7
1
2
2
0
0
0
Sanandaj
22
21
3
4
0
25
13
10
2
0
26
24
23
25
13
19
19
17
10
5
7
6
1
2
1
2
0
0
0
0
22
19
7
1
1
23
17
9
1
0
Zahedan
22
21
6
1
0
Zanjan
22
22
3
3
0
Mild
dry
Severel
y dry
Extremel
y dry
2
2
0
0
The years in which drought has covered more than 70%, are considered country drought and less
than this amount is called regional drought. Thus, (1973, 1990 and 2001) years are respectively
first to third rank from drought severity.
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Journal of Basic and Applied Advances in Sciences
Vol. 4 No.1 (January, 2016)
Table (4) frequency and percent of drought in Iran based on SPI
Year
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
Mild
dry
F P
12 38
1 3
12 38
15 47
9 28
15 47
16 50
10 31
12 38
19 59
17 53
11 34
8 25
12 38
16 50
15 47
3 9
10 31
6 19
13 41
5 16
7 22
16 50
15 47
15 47
Characteristics of SPI
Moderately Severely
dry
dry
F
P
F
P
2
6
1
3
0
0
0
0
15
47
0
0
6
19
0
0
13
41
2
6
6
19
3
9
7
22
1
3
2
6
1
3
8
25
5
16
5
16
1
3
5
16
4
13
6
19
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
13
5
16
3
9
3
9
0
0
0
0
9
28
7
22
1
3
0
0
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
6
1
3
2
6
0
0
1
3
0
0
Extremely
dry
F
P
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
9
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Year
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Mild dry
F
9
2
19
15
19
6
11
17
20
15
8
10
7
9
11
10
15
16
16
14
13
17
15
12
19
P
28
6
59
47
59
19
34
53
63
47
25
31
22
28
34
31
47
50
50
44
41
53
47
38
59
Characteristics of SPI
Moderately Severely Extremely
dry
dry
dry
F
P
F
P
F
P
3
9
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
16
1
3
0
0
1
3
0
0
0
0
8
25
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
16
1
3
0
0
2
6
0
0
0
0
3
9
1
3
0
0
12
38
3
9
0
0
4
13
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
3
0
0
0
0
3
9
0
0
0
0
11
34
2
6
0
0
2
6
0
0
0
0
5
16
0
0
0
0
4
13
0
0
0
0
9
28
1
3
0
0
8
25
0
0
0
0
9
28
4 13 1
3
5
16
0
0
0
0
2
6
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
3
2
6
0
0
Percent of Normal:
The second index to determine Iran drought is percent of Normal. In this method the calculation
of precipitation values in ratio of the long-term average of each station is expressed as percent
and the percent of normal of each of the studied stations is given by equation (2).

P.N= 


Pi 
×100
P 
(2)
45
Journal of Basic and Applied Advances in Sciences
Vol. 4 No.1 (January, 2016)
Where P.N is percent of normal, Pi is annual precipitation value and p is the average long-term
precipitation.
Drought severity degrees are shown to be used by percent of Normal index in table (5).
Table (5) the classification of drought severity based on Percent of normal method
Drought severity
Above normal
Normal
watch
warning
emergency
Percent of Normal value
<100
70-100
55-70
40-55
40 >
The results of percent of normal index:
By equation (2), percent of normal index of each studied stations are calculated during statistical
period of 50 years (1956-2005) and wet and dry period frequency of the studies stations are
presented according to percent of normal in table 6:
watch
warning
Emergency
7
7
4
2
1
3
Khoy
Mashhad
25
24
15
18
8
7
2
1
0
0
20
28
2
0
0
Orumieh
19
22
8
1
0
24
23
21
21
25
18
27
23
18
17
27
16
11
17
20
10
18
30
8
0
5
7
5
4
6
7
2
0
0
4
2
2
3
6
2
0
1
0
4
9
1
5
1
0
0
23
23
24
22
25
26
24
23
25
24
27
16
21
14
12
13
21
15
3
0
8
3
10
8
9
5
8
0
0
2
4
1
4
3
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
Hamedan
24
20
4
1
1
22
21
6
1
0
Kerman
Kermanshah
Khoramabad
21
21
25
19
20
20
7
7
3
1
2
2
2
0
0
Ramsar
Rasht
Sabzevar
Sanandaj
Shahrekord
Shahrud
Shiraz
Tabriz
Tehran
Torbat
Heidarie
Yazd
Zahedan
Zanjan
23
22
22
14
8
22
3
8
3
6
8
3
4
4
0
46
Normal
Emergency
16
15
Station
Above
average
warning
22
23
Normal
Abadn
Ahvaz
Bandar
anzali
Arak
Babolsar
Bam
Bandarabas
Birjand
Bushehr
Isfahan
Qazvin
Gorgan
Station
Above
average
watch
Table (6) frequency of wet and dry period of the studies stations based on percent of
normal
Journal of Basic and Applied Advances in Sciences
Vol. 4 No.1 (January, 2016)
Considering table (9) in which drought severity frequency in Iran are presented in statistical
period, The years in which drought has covered more than 70%, are considered country drought
otherwise, this amount is called regional drought. Calculations of frequency and drought
frequency percent of the studies stations are presented based on percent of normal index in table
(7). Thus, (1973, 1990 and 2001) years are respectively first to third rank from drought severity.
Table (6) frequency percent of frequency of annual droughts of the studies stations based
on percent of normal
Year
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
watch
F
P
3
9
1
3
12
38
6
19
9
28
5
16
3
9
3
9
4
13
6
19
7
22
6
19
1
3
2
6
7
22
7
22
0
0
5
16
0
0
1
3
0
0
1
3
3
9
1
3
2
6
warning
F
P
1
3
0
0
3
9
1
3
3
9
3
9
1
3
2
6
4
13
4
13
0
0
1
3
0
0
1
3
4
13
0
0
0
0
9
28
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
3
0
0
0
0
Emergency
F
P
0
0
0
0
1
3
0
0
2
6
0
0
3
9
1
3
3
9
0
0
4
13
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
3
0
0
6
19
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
3
0
0
1
3
Year
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
47
watch
F
P
3
9
0
0
6
19
1
3
6
19
1
3
3
9
2
6
6
19
11
34
1
3
0
0
0
0
1
3
8
25
1
3
4
13
4
13
7
22
6
19
8
25
2
6
0
0
0
0
2
6
warning
F
P
1
3
0
0
0
0
2
6
3
9
0
0
3
9
1
3
3
9
6
19
0
0
0
0
1
3
1
3
1
3
0
0
1
3
2
6
1
3
1
3
3
9
0
0
1
3
0
0
1
3
Emergency
F
P
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
3
0
0
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
3
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
9
2
6
2
6
1
3
1
3
Journal of Basic and Applied Advances in Sciences
Vol. 4 No.1 (January, 2016)
Deciles
The third index in this research is deciles. In this method the occurred precipitation distribution
in the statistical period of 50 years after ordering the annual precipitation data is determined as
ascending by equation (3) of deciles range.
DPI=
(R max  R min )
10
(3)
Where,
Rmax =The maximum amount of precipitation during statistical period
Rmin = The Minimum amount of precipitation during statistical period
After the determination of deciles range, the estimation of precipitation value of each one (end
limit) is calculated and finally, the determination of statistical years in different deciles are
extracted.
The severity of wet and dry period are obtained based on deciles index according to table 5
Table (8) The classification of drought severity based on deciles index
Classification of Deciles
Much below normal
Below normal
Normal
Above normal
Much above normal
Deciles 1-2
Deciles 3-4
Deciles 5-6
Deciles 7-8
Deciles 9-10
The results of the investigation of deciles
After the determination of deciles range, the estimation of precipitation value of each one (end
limit) is calculated and finally, wet and dry periods values for each of the studied station during
statistical period of 50 years (1956-2005) were done based on table (11) the classification of dry
severity based on deciles and in the followings the calculation of drought frequency and its
percent for the studied stations were done annually and its results are shown in table (12).
Considering the investigation in the frequency of drought severity in Iran during 1973, 1958 and
1990 there was a great drought in Iran.
48
Journal of Basic and Applied Advances in Sciences
Vol. 4 No.1 (January, 2016)
Table (9) frequency and frequency percent of annual droughts of the studied stations based
on deciles
Year
Below
normal
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
F
11
3
10
14
7
10
15
8
11
15
15
13
9
8
10
13
6
10
9
9
6
8
17
14
13
P
34
9
31
44
22
31
47
25
34
47
47
41
28
25
31
41
19
31
28
28
19
25
53
44
41
Much
below
normal
F
P
6
19
0
0
18
56
7
22
17
53
12
38
9
28
4
13
16
50
9
28
12
38
7
22
1
3
4
13
13
41
9
28
0
0
21
66
1
3
5
16
2
6
3
9
3
9
4
13
4
13
Year
Below
normal
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
F
8
2
15
13
13
8
10
14
14
10
7
8
6
8
6
9
13
14
13
12
7
19
11
10
17
P
25
6
47
41
41
25
31
44
44
31
22
25
19
25
19
28
41
44
41
38
22
59
34
31
53
Much
below
normal
F
P
6
19
1
3
8
25
3
9
13
41
1
3
9
28
6
19
9
28
19
59
5
16
2
6
3
9
5
16
15
47
4
13
5
16
8
25
13
41
11
34
19
59
6
19
6
19
4
13
5
16
Index (D):
The fourth index in this research is index D. Here equation (4) is used for the calculation of
drought value of the studied stations.
D= Zt – ZR
(4)
Where, Zt= temperature standard score and ZR = is the precipitation standard score
49
Journal of Basic and Applied Advances in Sciences
Vol. 4 No.1 (January, 2016)
The above index is the result of the temperature standard distribution difference and
precipitation. In other words, the higher Z score of temperature than Z score of precipitation, this
index is greater and is moved to positive that shows the beginning of drought period and vise
versa, the higher the precipitation Z score than Z score of temperature, the given value is smaller
and is moved to negative direction that shows the beginning of wet period and if they are equal,
D index is zero that indicates normal. The classification of drought severity by this index is done
according to the data in table (10).
Table (10) The classification of drought severity based on D index
Drought severity
Wet period
Mild dry
Moderately dry
Severely dry
Extremely dry
D=Zt-Zr
0 ≥W
0.99 ≥ D4 < 0
1.99 ≥ D3 < 1.00
2.99 ≥ D2 < 2.00
D1 < 3.00
The results of D index:
By equation (4) index D, the values of wet and dry of all the studies stations during statistical
period of 50 years (1956-2005) were estimated and they according to table (13), drought severity
classification was done based on the above index and then frequency and frequency percent of
droughts were done annually for the studied stations and the results are shown in table 14
considering the results of 1966, 1999 and 2001 dedicated drought to them.
50
Journal of Basic and Applied Advances in Sciences
Vol. 4 No.1 (January, 2016)
Table (11) Frequency and frequency percent of annual droughts of the studied stations
based on index (D)
Year
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
Mild
dry
F P
8 25
0 0
10 31
11 34
10 31
5 16
12 38
17 53
6 19
15 47
5 16
4 13
4 13
4 13
7 22
11 34
0 0
8 25
1 3
6 19
1 3
9 28
12 38
10 31
13 41
Moderately
dry
F
P
1
3
0
0
12
38
7
22
8
25
10
31
9
28
3
9
4
13
5
16
13
41
3
9
1
3
3
9
14
44
6
19
0
0
9
28
0
0
1
3
0
0
3
9
6
19
8
25
3
9
Severely
dry
F
P
0
0
0
0
6
19
0
0
6
19
3
9
3
9
2
6
0
0
0
0
11 34
1
3
0
0
0
0
5
16
1
3
0
0
5
16
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
6
1
3
Extremely
dry
F
P
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
6
0
0
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
3
0
0
0
0
Year
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
51
Mild
dry
F P
10 31
0 0
9 28
8 25
17 53
5 16
10 31
13 41
16 50
11 34
11 34
0 0
4 13
10 31
8 25
12 38
11 34
4 13
5 16
12 38
1 3
9 28
13 41
13 41
12 38
Moderately
dry
F
P
7
22
0
0
7
22
1
3
7
22
0
0
7
22
3
9
4
13
15
47
5
16
0
0
0
0
5
16
7
22
6
19
8
25
15
47
12
38
13
41
9
28
11
34
8
25
10
31
13
41
Severely
Extremely
dry
dry
F
P F
P
2
6
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
9
0
0
3
9
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
9
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
8
25 0
0
1
3
0
0
1
3
0
0
10
31 0
0
11
34 2
6
6
19 0
0
13
41 8
25
11
34 0
0
4
13 0
0
2
6
0
0
4
13 1
3
Journal of Basic and Applied Advances in Sciences
Vol. 4 No.1 (January, 2016)
Providing zoning map of Iran drought
To better investigation of place changes of droughts in Iran, drought maps were observed in
terms of relative frequency characteristics, severity, the longest and most severe value and
drought distribution in the country was plotted. The investigation of these characteristics as
regional and country give us the opportunity to recognize sensitive points in terms of all studied
characteristics in each drought. To provide the above maps, the existing faculties and software in
GIS including Arc/View ،Arc/Info and Arc/Map were used. Maps number 2 to 13 show drought
zoning in Iran.
Conclusion
Among then indices for the evaluation of drought in study four indices were used for the analysis
of drought in Iran including SPI, percent of normal, Deciles and index D. The results of this
research show that three methods of deciles, SPI and percent of normal are near each other as in
the three above methods of 1973, 1990 and 2001(1958 in Deciles) are chosen as the most severe
dry years in Iran. But index D that is a new method for the investigation of drought, two
precipitation and temperature are used for drought monitoring and only in 2001, it is compatible
with three above methods as dry year and two years of 1999 and 1966 that are not chosen as very
dry years in the country, are chosen as dry years. By the investigation of ministry of interiors
natural disaster office, D index method is most suitable in the investigation of drought analysis in
Iran.
In terms of drought frequency based on this index, Hamedan, Rasht, Shiraz, Tabriz, Khoy,
Zanjan, Qazvin and Torbat Heidarye are respectively in this group.
In terms of the continuance of different kinds of drought, the west and north west of Iran are in
rank 1 and 2 and in terms of continuance of severe drought (4 consecutive years), some cities
such as Kerman, Kermanshah, Tabriz, Zahedan and Zanjan are referred and in the period of 3
years, Bam station and also in the period of 2 years, Abadan, Babolsar, Isfahan, Qazvin, Khoy (2
periods), Mashhad, Orumieh, Ramsar, Shahrud, Tehran, Torbat-e Heidarie and Yaz are located.
52
Journal of Basic and Applied Advances in Sciences
Vol. 4 No.1 (January, 2016)
References:
1. Ershadi, Sara, (2007), dynamic model of drought monitoring and its prediction and
analysis for the eastern regions of Iran, MA thesis, Ferdousi University.
2. Afshar, Mozhgan. (2006). The investigation of wet and dry periods in Tehran, Phd thesis,
Islamic Azad University, Science and Research Branch.
3. Bodagh Jamali, Javad, Asiayi, M, Samadi, S& Javanmard, S(2005). Risk management of
drought (recognition and strategies). Sokhan Gostar publication.
4. Daryabari, Seidjamal Al-din.(). Research design of presenting a model for the prediction
of drought in Iran.
5. Rajabi, Mansur. (2005). The investigation of drought properties in GIS. MA thesis.
Tarbiat Modares University.
6. Alijani, Bohlul.(2005). Iran climate. Payam-e Nour. Seventh Edition.
7. Alizadeh, Amin. (2007). Applied hydroglogy principles. Imam Reza University. Ninth
edition.
8. Farajzadeh asl, Manucheher. (2004). Drought from the concept to strategy. Geographical
organization of the Army.
9. Farajzadeh asl, Manuchehr.(2005). The analysis and prediction of drought in Iran. Phd
thesis. Tarbiat Modares University.
10. Moghadasi, Mehnush. (2002). The daily analysis and monitoring of drought in Tehran.
MA thesis of Tarbiat Modares University
11. Ghasemi, Mohsen. (2005). The analysis and estimation of drought in synoptic station of
Kermanshah. Sicientific jornal of dry and drought of agriculture Jihad ministry, no. 17,
Fall 2005.p: 51-60
12. Khorshid dust, Ali mohammad and Ghavidel, (2004). The studies of precipitation
fluctuations, prediction and determination of dry and humid winter in eastern
Azarbayejan, Geographical researches journal, no. 72, spring 2004, p: 2-36-25
13. Tusi, Shadi; Alizadeh, Amin; Javanmard, Soheila (2003). The prediction of drought
occurance in Khorasan province, Geographical researches journal, 2003, No: 70, p:18
14. Rai.80; T.Voller (1999), Development and testing of drought indicators, water Resource
man yem ent. 119-139
53
Journal of Basic and Applied Advances in Sciences
Vol. 4 No.1 (January, 2016)
15. Konetn, H.F (1999. Climate variation. Drouynt and desertification “W.M.O.Annual
Report. Jeneva.
54
Journal of Basic and Applied Advances in Sciences
Vol. 4 No.1 (January, 2016)
Effect of memory improvement by a cholinergic agonist on morphine-conditioned place
preference in mice
F. Tavakoli
Department of Biology, Fars Science and Research Branch, Fars, Iran
Abstract
This research aims at studying the effect of memory improvement by a cholinergic agonist
,donepezil, on creating morphine dependence in mice using conditioned place preference (CPP)
method.The donepezil was dissolved in distilled water and was administered subcutaneously at a
dose of 2.5 mg/kg. The mice received 10 mg/kg morphine subcutaneously. In the conditioning
stage that lasted for 8 days, different groups of mice, after receiving the treatment were
randomly placed in compartment for 30 minutes. The post-conditioning stage included the
fourth, the ninth days ( that is a 24h after the last session), the twelfth day ( that is 96h after the
last session) and the sixteenth day ( that is a 192h after the last session).The results showed a
significant decrease (p≤0.05) in the place preference of morphine+donepezil group compared
with the morphine group.This last for eight days after quitting the use of this drug.According to
the results of study, donepezil through Ach increase ,inhibits the activity of dopaminergic
neurons and reduces the morphine-addiction.
Keywords: Memory, cholinergic agonist, morphine, donepezil, CPP, mice
55
Journal of Basic and Applied Advances in Sciences
Vol. 4 No.1 (January, 2016)
Introduction
Nowadays, it is believed that addiction caused by drugs such as morphine is the most dangerous
type of addiction in developed and developing countries. The most significant pathophysiologic
procedure in the addiction process is the interference and interaction of the drugs with the nerve
system (Kelley et al 2002). Investigators are trying to discover the physiological relationships
involved between the nervous system and the addicting drugs in order to justify the quick
influence of such compounds on the nervous system and also the frequent long-term need to use
the drugs even after withdrawal.
Opioids are potential drugs for creating addictive states. Morphine, as a member of this group,
activates the opioid receptors, which in turn modulate various cellular functions(Bailey et al
2005).
Researchers consider opioid drugs rewarding, because they cause an increase dopamine release
in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) (Robinson et al 2004). Furthermore, administration of morphine
results in a synaptic plasticity in the mesolimbic dopaminergic synapses(Saal et al 2003). In
addition to the NAc, the amygdala and prefrontal cortex (PFC) play critical roles in the
establishment of reward-associated memories (Everitt et al 2005).within the PFC, the olfactory
cortex (OFC) integrates emotional and motivational information and keeps them in the working
memory(Schultz et al 2006).
For the first time Carew et al. in 1973(Arnold et al 2002)demonstrated that hyoscine , a
muscarinic receptor inhibitor, impairs cognition and memory(Bunge et al 2001). Donepezil is a
centrally acting reversible acetylcholinesterase inhibitor(AChEI). It̉s main therapeutic use is in
the treatment of Alzheimer̉ disease(Xiong et al 2005).
Investigations have shown that the AChEI, donepezil, microinjected into the NAc or
systemically administered suppresses cocaine-seeking behavior (Zhou et al 2007). systemic
administration of donepezil can be attenuated, metamphetamine(MAP)- CPP (Corrigall et al
2002).
CPP is a technique commonly used in animal studies to evaluate preferences for environmental
stimuli that have been associated with a positive or negative reward. The technique is often used
to determine the addiction potential of drugs (Derea et al 2010).
Finding indicate that, opioids administration usually cause various social and behavioral damage
in addicts , and they will have difficulties recognizing their roles in the society (Weiss et al
2002). Consequently finding an effective way to treat addiction is one of the most important
concerns in every society. Considering the aforementioned facts, the aim of the present study
was to find the effect of memory improvement, by a cholinergic agonist on morphine-CPP in
mice .
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MATERIALS AND METHODS
Animals and drugs
Fifty mature male mice, weighing about 30-35 g with an average age of 90 days, were used in
the study. The mice were divided into 5 groups of 10 including the control group, the witness
group and three experimental groups which were treated either by morphine, donepezil or
morphine + donepezil. The study ̉protocol was made based on the international laws protecting
lab animals and was confirmed by the ethics committee of the Fars Science and Research
Branch, Islamic Azad University. Morphine was bought from Iran Daru and donepezil was
obtained from Sobhan Daru drug companies (Tehran, Iran).The acetylcholinesterase inhibitor,
donepezil at the dose of 2.5 mg/kg was dissolved into 1ml of distilled water and administered
subcutaneously.The mice receive 10mg/kg morphine at the volume of 1mg/kg subcutaneously.
Conditioned place preference
To do the CPP experiment, a plexiglass box (15cm × 37cm × 15cm) was used. The box was
divided into two separate compartments by a central section which were connected by a
guillotine window. The two compartments had equal dimensions of 15×15×15 cm (Funada et al
2002 ). The walls and the floor of one of the compartments were white, while the walls and the
floor of the other were black.
To study the effect of each drug, a group of mice was chosen. Then through an eighy-day period
the following stages were followed.
The Preconditioning day which is called the day of the animal ̉familiarity with the environment
lasted one day. At this stage, after removing the guillotine window, each animal was placed in
either the white or the black compartment for 10 minute. This was recorded in order to place the
mice in the same compartment on the day of the test. The length of time that each animal spent
in each of the compartments was recorded separately. The mice usually did not show any
preferences at this stage, and spent 50% of the time in either compartment.If any of the mice
stayed in a compartment more than 90% of the time, it was eliminated from the study.
In the conditioning stage that lasted for 8 days, after receiving the treatment, different groups of
mice were randomly placed in either the black or the white compartment for 30 minutes. The
guillotine windows were closed and the mice were not able to move freely in the whole box.
This procedure was repeated for 8 consecutive days exactly the same time. The animals were
placed in the compartment that they had been on the first day, so they could become conditioned,
and could be tested on the postconditioning day as to their tendency to choose the same
compartment(Adam et al 2009).
During the conditioning period, prior to be placed randomly in either the white or the black
compartment, the mice in the control group did not receive any treatment, while the witness
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Journal of Basic and Applied Advances in Sciences
Vol. 4 No.1 (January, 2016)
group received 1ml of distilled water and the morphine group received 10mg/kg morphine,
subcutaneously. This amount of morphine is supposed to induce the best CPP (Vargas-Perez et al
2009). The donepezil group had a subcutaneous injection of 2.5 mg/kg of the drug (Knol et al
2008), After 15 minutes, when the maximum effect of the drug was obtained (Ramesh et al
2007), the mice were placed in one of the compartments. The morphine + donepezil group
received 2.5 mg/kg donepezil subcutaneously, and after 15min, they were injected with 10
mg/kg of morphine through the same route and were randomly placed in one of the two
compartments.
The post-conditioning stage included the fourth, the ninth days ( that is a day after the last day of
the injection), the twelfth day ( that is four days after the last day of the injection) and the
sixteenth day ( that is eight days after the last day of the injection). The purpose of post
conditioning stage on the 12th and 16th days was to find out if the effects of the various
injections had lasted after discontinuing the injections.
In the post conditioning stage, each animal was placed for 10 minute in the compartment that had
been during the preconditioning day(Kenneth et al 2009). The mice were free to move to either
compartment in the box as in the pre-conditioning day. The time each animal spent in a given
compartment was measured by a chronometer to find out, if donepezil, as a cholinergic agonist
and a memory improvement drug, has any effect on morphine dependency in the animals.
Statistical analysis
The data were analyzed by one way ANOVA, Duncan test and Student’s t-test, using SPSS
software. A P value of < 0.05 was considered as statistically significant.
RESULTS
The results revealed that the mice did not have any preferences to any special compartment on
the pre-conditioning day of the total time spent in the box ,the Mice spent an average of 50% in
the white compartment and 50% in the black on(Table 1).
The statistics shows that there is no significant difference between the mean of the time spent in
stimuli paired chamber on the test days and the pre-conditioning day within witness,donepezil
and the control groups and between them separately.
However, there was a significant increase (p≤0.05) in the mean of the time spent in stimuli
paired chamber by the morphine group on the test days compared with pre-conditioning day. In
addition, a significant increase (p≤0.05) is also evident in the mean of the time spent during the
test days by the morphine group compared with the control group̉. Comparing the mean of the
time spent in stimuli paired chamber on the test days, no significant difference is observed in the
morphine group .
Statistical analysis of the data reveals that the mean of the time spent in the stimuli paired
chamber on the test days compared with the pre-conditioning day by the morphine + donepezil
group has also increased significantly (p≤0.05). Similar increases are obtained when comparing
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the mean of the time spent in the stimuli paired chamber by the morphine + donepezil group
and the control group on the same days. However, the mean of the time spent in the stimuli
paired chamber by the morphine + donepezil group showed a significant decrease (p≤0.05)
compared to that of the morphine group. There was no significant difference between the mean
of the time spent by the morphine + donepezil group in the stimuli paired chamber on different
test days (Table 2).
DISCUSSION
The results of this study show that donepezil, causes the reduction of Morphine-CPP.
Investigations have shown that lesions of NAc cholinergic neurons prevent the inhibitory
effects of donepezil on morphine-CPP. studies show that increased Ach released in NAc by
donepezil, decreases the release of dopamine from dopaminergic neurons in this region (Kume et
al 2005).
Data suggests that both Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAchRs) and nicotinic acetylcholine
receptors (nAchRs) are placed on the dopaminergic neurons and regulate these neurons in VTA
and substantia nigra pars compacta(SNc) (Fiorillo et al 2000). Increased levels of Ach due to
AchE inhibition by donepezil in these regions might thus activate auto-inhibitory mAchRs and
nAchRs, thereby inhibiting the activity of these cells resulting in a decrease in the release of
Ach in the VTA and SNc (Zheng et al 2003). It can be concluded that donepezil decreases
morphine-CPP through an inhibitory effect on the dopaminergic neurons of VTA (Kalivas et al
2005).
The results show no significant difference between the means of the time spent in stimuli paired
chamber on the4th, 9th , 12th and 16th test days by the morphine + donepezil group and the
morphine group. In the morphine withdrawal test, 10mg/kg morphine administration
subcutaneously, increased self-stimulation responses until the end of the 5th week (Frenois et al
2005).
The expression of PSD-95 protein, in hippocampal CA1 region, influences addiction memory
(Han et al 2008). PSD-95 increases the plasticity of the dendritic spine and the synapse
(Zarrindast et al 2006). After morphine withdrawal, the expression of PSD-95 decreases, but the
plasticity of the dendritic spine and the synapse induced by morphine had been steady,
therefore, the addiction memory induced by morphine and craving for drugs are expressed
significantly(Zhu et al 2006).In addition when opiate withdrawal occurs, c-fos mRNA expression
also increases specially in the extended amygdala,VTA and hippocampus(De Vries et al
2002).This results in an activation of dopaminergic neurons during withdrawal(Bissiere et al
2004).
Thus,donepezil might decrease the negative effects of opiate withdrawal and thus reduce
compulsive morphine-seeking behaviors and relapse to opiate abuse.
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CONCLUSION
According to the results of the study, donepezil seems to diminish addiction. Hence, it is
recommended to do similar research on other acetylcholine estrase inhibitors using animal and
human models.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors of the article would like to extend their special thanks to the Islamic Azad
University, Fars Science and Research Branch, and Islamic Azad University, Kazerun Branch
for their cooperation in this study.
Table 1: mean and standard deviation of the time animals spent in either compartments on the
preconditioning day(in seconds) ( N=10)
Number
50
Animal presence in the box(in seconds)
Black side
White side
mean Std.deviation
mean
Std.deviation
247.1
0.93
249.1
0.87
Table 2: Mean and standard deviation of the time spent on different experimental days by
different test groups (in seconds) ( N=10)
Group
Control
Witness
Donepezil
Morphine
Morphine+
Donepezil
Mean and standard deviation of the time spent on different
experimental days by different test groups(in seconds)
PreTest(4th )
Test(9th )
Test(12th ) Test(16th )
conditiona
l
250.7±1.1
250±0.9
247.4±1.9
246.5±1.4
248.7±0.9
249.5±0.9 250.3±1.2 247.4±1.3
247.9±1.1
248.5±1.2
249.8±0.9 248.5±1.2
247.6±1
248.1±1.1
252.9±0.8
242.5±1.6 396.4±2.4 391.3±4* 393.4±2.9* 400.1±2.1
*
*
243.0±3.3 311.9±1.6 315.6±1.4 317.8±1.8* 314.3±2.2
*
*
*
*The mean difference is significant at the .05 level
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Vol. 4 No.1 (January, 2016)
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