Ch. 11: Reading and Writing
Argument Essays
• An argument is a line of reasoning intended to
persuade the reader or listener to agree with a
particular viewpoint or take a particular action.
• When writing an argument, an author’s job is make a point and
support his/her point with adequate and relevant support.
• When reading an argument, a reader’s job is to identify the author’s
point and evaluate his/her support.
Argumentative Writing
• Topics are controversial in nature—that is,
there is more than one side to the argument.
Should the drinking age be
lowered to 18?
YES
NO
What are some
controversial topics that get you
mad or “fired up?”
Brainstorm: Write down some topics in your notebook.
The Parts of an Argument
1. Issue: The controversy the argument addresses.
(e.g. The welfare system)
2. Claim: The author’s point-of-view (pro or con).
(e.g. The welfare system is unjust and needs reform)
3. Support: The details that demonstrate the claim is
correct and should be accepted. (e.g. people cheat
the system, deserving people can’t get benefits, and it
costs taxpayers too much money.)
There are three types of support:
•
•
•
Reasons
Evidence
Emotional appeals
Discuss with a partner
Issue (topic)
Minimum wage
Global climate changes
The death penalty
Euthanasia
Claim (your point)
Support (evidence)
Argumentative Writing
• Writers make their side clear and then provide
clear, sound, and logical evidence to support
their side.
The legal drinking age in
America should be
lowered to 18 years old.
At age 18, Americans
can enlist in the military
and fight and die for
their country.
People are mature
enough at age 18 to
make their own
decisions about alcohol.
The drinking age is 18
years old in many
European countries.
Types of Evidence for Arguments:
• Facts: objective truths; facts should appeal to readers’
sense of logic
• Statistics: numerical data (figures, percentages, averages)
from credible sources
• Quotations and citations: statements from an authority/
recognized expert on the subject
• Examples: descriptions of situations used to illustrate or
explain a point; typical anecdotes to demonstrate truth
• Personal experiences: personal stories/accounts
• Analogies: comparisons to similar cases
What types of
evidence are used
the sample essay
on p. 261-263?
Writing Argument Essays
ESSAY STRUCTURE
Introduction
• “Hook” your reader
• Provide background info on the controversy
• State your thesis
2-4 Body
Paragraphs
• Begin each paragraph with a topic sentence
that directly supports your thesis
• Include plenty of supporting evidence
(reasons, facts, examples, statistics, quotes,
etc.)
• Consider including a rebuttal paragraph
Conclusion
• Summarize your argument
• Discuss plans for action or consequences
Writing Argument Essays
THESIS STATEMENT
Your thesis statement in an argumentative essay must be strong
and to the point. Often persuasive thesis statements include the
words “should,” “ought,” and “must.”
Examples:
•The death penalty should be abolished.
•Cigarette smoking should be banned.
•Teens who are are caught texting while driving ought to have
their licenses revoked.
•Tuition rates must decrease.
Tips for Reading Arguments Effectively
1. Read once for an initial impression
2. Read the argument several more times;
Identify the claim and support
3. Annotate as you read—record your thoughts
4. Highlight key terms; look up unfamiliar words
5. Draw a diagram or map to analyze the
structure (how details relate to one another)
Sample Argumentative Essay
“Stop the Regulators, Empower
the Consumers” pages 261-263
– After you read, answer the
questions in Practice 11-2 on
pages 264-265.
Ch. 13: Writing Essays Using Sources
• Many assignments in college
require you to integrate your
reading and writing skills by
locating and reading several
sources of information on a
topic and then using them to
support your ideas in an
essay.
Tips for Finding Appropriate Sources
(See pages 331-334)
1. Ask a reference librarian for help
2. Start with general reference sources—like wikipedia—
and then move to more specific sources
3. Use current sources (nothing more than five years
old; or even more recent, depending on the topic)
4. Sample a variety of viewpoints
5. Preview articles by reading abstracts and summaries
6. Read selectively—just read the portions of the article
that are relevant to your research
7. Choose reliable, credible, trustworthy sources
8. Look for sources that lead to other sources
9. Take notes!
Library databases
• Library databases are
indexed collections of
magazine, journal and
newspaper articles that
have been checked for
accuracy and reliability
by publishers and then
licensed for distribution
online.
• College libraries
subscribe to a variety of
databases as a service
for students.
Library Databases vs. The Internet
Library Databases
The Internet
Purchased by school libraries; free for
students to use
Free to anyone with Internet access
Content is evaluated for accuracy and
authority
Anyone can publish anything they want to
the web; there are no checks for accuracy
or authority
Information is stable; you can search for
articles published today or 30 years ago.
Websites come and go—information is not
stable
Articles are organized and indexed by
librarians so content can be easily
searched, managed and updated.
No official body oversees the organization,
cataloging, and evaluation of sources.
Offers options to search by subject,
keyword, author, source, etc.
Only searches by matching keywords
entered by the user
Offers options to limit search results
(refine search)
It can be difficult to narrow down results;
often a “grab bag” of information
How to access the library databases at
Salem Community College
•
•
Go to our website www.salemcc.edu and click on “Cettei Memorial Library”
Click on “Subscription Databases—Subject”
– When you are on-campus, you will automatically have free access to these databases
Popular Databases
LexisNexis
ERIC
TOPICsearch
*These databases are a good starting point for your research.
Remember to preview (skim) articles and read selectively.
Only print out articles that you really need.
EBSCO Host
Points of View Database
Avoiding Plagiarism
• Using someone else’s words or ideas without
properly giving them credit is called plagiarism.
• All sources must be cited!!! That is, you must
mention the source of all information/ideas you
learned in your research. Even if you don’t write
those ideas word-for-word, you still must credit the
source.
• See your “Avoiding Plagiarism”
handout for more information.
MLA Style
• In all English courses, you will be required to format your
papers using the MLA style (MLA stands for Modern Language
Association).
• Use MLA in-text citation to cite sources (see pages 342-347 in
your textbook for an overview).
• See pages 348-351 for a sample student essay in the MLA
format.
• In most social science courses, you will most likely use the APA
style to cite sources. (APA stands for American Psychological
Association). An overview of the APA style is on pages 352-356.
Use source material sparingly (not too often). You want the
majority of your papers to be your ideas in your words. In a
short essay, you should only include 1-3 short citations
maximum! Avoid lengthy quotes!
3 ways to include source material in your essays:
1. Paraphrase
2. Summarize
3. Directly quote
Paraphrasing: restating in your own words the
written or spoken words of someone else.
– Paraphrasing is preferred over directly quoting
sources because you want the majority of your
essays to be in your own words and writing style.
– See guidelines for writing paraphrases in the
yellow box on p. 335 of your Focus textbook.
– See example of paraphrased material on page
336.
Summarizing: A summary differs from a
paraphrase in an important way: Whereas a
paraphrase restates the original material in its
entirety, a summary states only the main points
of the original source in a much briefer form.
– See guidelines for summarizing on in the yellow
box on page 336 of your Focus textbook.
– See sample of summarized material at bottom of
page 336.
Quoting: using the exact words of a source,
enclosed with quotation marks.
– Well-chosen brief quotes can add authority to
your writing.
– See guidelines for using quotes in the yellow box
on p. 337 of your Focus textbook.
– See sample of quoted material on page 337.
Fit quotes smoothly into your writing by
Creating a “quotation sandwich”
• The statement that
introduces the quote is
the top slice of bread.
• The quote is filling the
sandwich.
• The interpretation/
explanation is the
bottom slice of bread
Create a “quotation sandwich”
According to Smith and
Jackson, “One of out five
drivers has driven while
drowsy” (205). This means
that it is likely that we
have been on the road at
the same time as
someone else who is too
tired to drive and putting
our lives in danger.
Useful verbs for integrating quotes,
paraphrases, and summaries:
Use a variety of presenttense verbs to introduce
source material
“Flag” page 338 of your
Focus textbook for a
helpful list of verbs that
are synonymous for says.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Acknowledges
Concedes
Confirms
Argues
Introduces
Notices
Reports
Writes
Refutes
Guidelines for using sources in your
writing (without plagiarizing):
See pages 340-342
1.
2.
3.
4.
Document ideas from your sources
Place borrowed words in quotation marks
Use your own phrasing
Distinguish your ideas from the source’s ideas
Writing the Works Cited Page
• In addition to introducing your
source material and providing
parenthetical text citations, MLA
documentation requires that you
also provide a works cited page
at the end of your essay.
• The works cited page is a
alphabetical listing all sources
from which you paraphrased,
summarized, and quoted (it is not
a listing of all the sources you
consulted during your research).
• Consult pages 344-346 in your
Focus textbook for instructions on
how to format your works cited
page.
MLA Works-Cited Examples
Works-cited entry for a book (one author)
Doctorow, Ethan. The March. New York: Random,
2005. Print.
Author’s name.
Title of book.
Publication information.
Works-cited entry for a book (two authors)
Merriam, Sharon, and Rosemary Caffarella. Learning
in Adulthood. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1999.
Print.
MLA Works-Cited Examples
Works-cited entry for periodical (e.g. magazine or journal article)
Author’s name. “Title of article.” Publication information.
Example:
Danielewicz, Jane. “Personal Genres, Public Voices.” College Composition and Communication 59.3
(2008): 420-50. Print.
Works-cited entry for web source
Author’s name. “Title of work.” Title of overall website. Publisher or sponsor of the site, date of
publication. Medium of publication (Web). Date of access.
Example:
Dickler, Jennifer. “Economy Makes People Sick.” Cable News Network, 7 June 2011. Web. 7 June 2011.
Works-cited entry for database source
Author’s name. Print publication information. Name of database. Medium of publication (Web). Date of
access.
Example:
Hede, Jasper. “Jews and Muslims in Dante’s Vision.” European Review 16.1 (2008): 101-14. Academic
Search Premier. Web. 14 Sept. 2011.
Sample MLA-Style Paper
“Flag” pages
348-351 as an
example of an
MLA-formatted
paper.
Chapter 5:
Thinking, Reading, and Writing Critically
• Thinking critically means
considering a writer’s motives,
weighing evidence, evaluating
the strengths and weaknesses of
a text, keeping an open mind,
and seeing connections between
your own ideas and those in the
text.
• Being a critical thinker, doesn’t
mean you are negative of a text;
rather, it means you are
examining a text closely.
Identifying a writer’s audience
• The writer’s intended audience is the group of
readers the writer wants to address.
– Is the writing aimed a particular age group?
– How much education does the writer assume the
readers have?
– Does the writer expect readers to have
preconceived ideas about the topic? Or to know a
lot (or a little) about the topic?
Identifying a writer’s purpose
In general, a writer has one of three main
purposes:
1. To inform readers about something
2. To explain something to readers
3. To persuade readers to do something or to
think/act in a certain way
Identifying a writer’s tone
• A writer’s tone reveals the attitude he or she
has toward a subject.
• Tone is expressed through the words and
details the writer selects.
• See some words to describe a
writer’s tone on page 127
• Ask yourself the questions on
page 127 to identify a writer’s
tone
TONE
Below are three statements by students of a demanding
teacher. Notice the differences in tone.
She’s tough, but she’s also really good. I’ve learned more
from her than I’ve learned from any other teacher.
Tone: Fair, objective
Yeah, I love her. Just like I love sleeping on a bed of nails
or having bamboo slivers pushed under my fingernails.
Tone: Sarcastic
I might as well stop going to class now. I’m never going to
understand the material. It’s hopeless.
Tone: Pessimistic
TONE
Here is another statement by a student of the demanding
teacher. How would you describe the tone?
She hates students, that’s all there is to it. I can’t wait until I’m out of her
class.
TONE
Here is another statement by a student of the demanding
teacher. How would you describe the tone?
She hates students, that’s all there is to it. I can’t wait until I’m out of her
class.
Tone: bitter, angry
More practice with tone . . .
Practice 5-1, page 128
MAKING INFERENCES
An essential skill to good reading comprehension
Literal Comprehension
• Understanding the written
text as it is stated.
• No need to “read between
the lines.”
Inferential Comprehension
• Understanding additional
meanings “behind” the
written text.
• Picking up on subtle
“hints” that the author
implies in his/her writing.
• Using own background
knowledge to “read
between the lines.”
Literal Comprehension
• We practice developing our
literal comprehension skills
when we do the following:
• Locate a stated main idea
sentence (thesis statements
and topic sentences)
• Find major supporting
details
• Identify the primary pattern
of organization of reading
Inferential Comprehension
• We practice developing our
inferential comprehension
skills when we do the
following:
• Identify an implied main idea
of a passage (what point is the
author making without directly stating
it?)
• Determine the meaning of
an unfamiliar word by
looking at the context in
which it is being used
Making Inferences
• Making inferences can also be referred to as
“drawing a conclusion based upon what you have
read.”
• We already use this skill quite a bit—in
conversations we have with friends & while
listening to music.
• Let’s try it out—read the lyrics to this song and
see what inferences you can make:
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xHAzwpX7aD
E
“Not an Addict”
by K’s Choice
Breathe it in and breathe it out
And pass it on, it's almost out
We're so creative, so much more
We're high above but on the floor
It's not a habit, it's cool, I feel alive
If you don't have it you're on the other side
The deeper you stick it in your vein
The deeper the thoughts, there's no more pain
I'm in heaven, I'm a god I'm everywhere, I feel so hot
It's not a habit, it's cool, I feel alive
If you don't have it you're on the other side
I'm not an addict (maybe that's a lie)
It's over now, I'm cold, alone
I'm just a person on my own
Nothing means a thing to me
It's not a habit, it's cool, I feel alive
If you don't have it you're on the other side
I'm not an addict (maybe that's a lie)
Free me, leave me
Watch me as I'm going down
Free me, see me
Look at me, I'm falling and I'm falling.
It is not a habit, it is cool I feel alive I feel...It is not a habit, it is cool I feel alive
It's not a habit, it's cool, I feel alive
If you don't have it you're on the other side
I'm not an addict (maybe that's a lie)
I'm not an addict...
What you need to do to make
logical inferences:
1.
2.
3.
First, be sure you understand the literal meaning of what you’ve read.
Before you can make inferences, you need a clear grasp of the writer’s
main idea and supporting details.
Notice details, consider all the facts taken together, and look at the
writer’s choice of words. Then, consider the big picture—the overall
point the author is making—to see if the inference you are making makes
sense.
Base your inferences on what you’ve read (the facts) . . . don’t take
“logical leaps” that have no basis. TEXTUAL EVIDENCE
Be able to point back to a place in the text where you can say,
“I think that the author means _____ because he/she wrote ____.”
4.
Use your background information and experience to help you make
inferences—the more you know about a subject, the better your
inferences are likely to be.
What can we infer from this story?
“It’s hard to live in a studio apartment in San
Jose with a man who’s learning to play the
violin.” That’s what she told the police when
she handed them the empty revolver.
Remember, to base your inferences on what you
have read. Don’t take “leaps in logic” that have
no basis in the text.
Practice
Exercise 13-1, pp. 398-399
Exercise 13-2, pp. 399-400
Assessing Source &
Author Qualification
See pp. 401-405
Consider the source—What reputation does the
source have? Who is the intended audience?
Are references provided?
Consider the author’s credentials—Is the author
qualified to discuss the subject matter?
See Exercise 13-3, p. 402
Is this person a qualified authority on
these topics?
More federal
funds should be
dedicated to
disaster relief.
Medical research points
to a link between
childhood obesity and
pancreatic cancer.
Evaluating Internet Sources
See pp. 402-405
Evaluate content, accuracy and timeliness of
websites.
BEWARE!
Not all website are sources of reliable content.
Don’t believe everything you read online!
Evaluate the credibility of the following
websites:
www.abovetopsecret.com
www.age-of-the-sage.org
www.rythospital.com
www.huffingtonpost.com
www.perezhilton.com
www.cdc.gov
Distinguishing between
FACT & OPINION
Facts are statements that can be verified—that is, proven to
be true or false.
Solar panels are an energy source for several residents in this
neighborhood.
Opinions are statements that express feelings, attitudes, or
beliefs that are neither true or false.
More people should use solar energy because it is better for our
environment.
*Opinions are sometimes signaled by key words or phrases
such as: should, must, ought, need, in my view, this suggests,
apparently, it is likely that, and strong use of adjectives.
SEPARATING FACT FROM OPINION
The objective evidence that proves a fact may be
physical proof, historical documents, medical records,
research or spoken or written testimony of witnesses.
Examples of Facts
Fact: Abraham Lincoln, whose nickname was “Honest Abe,” had no formal
education or religion; he was president of the United States from 1861 to
1865 on a salary of $25,000 a year.
(You can look up in historical documents the facts about Lincoln.)
Fact: At least four out of five adults will experience lower back pain at some
point in their lives.
(Extensive medical research confirms that this statement is true.)
Fact: Quitting smoking greatly reduces serious risks to your health.
(You can look this up in government reports by the U.S. Surgeon
General.)
Keep in mind . . . .
Statements of fact may be found to be untrue.
Example
The United States went to war with Iraq because of the fact
that Iraq had weapons of mass destruction. However, this
widely accepted fact later proved to be untrue.
SEPARATING FACT FROM OPINION
An opinion is a belief, judgment, or conclusion
that cannot be objectively proved true. As a
result, it is open to question.
SEPARATING FACT FROM OPINION
Examples of Opinions
Opinion: With the exception only of George Washington, Abraham Lincoln
was the greatest leader our country ever had.
(Many people might agree with this statement, but others
would not. There is no way to prove it definitively. Greatest is
a value word, a word we use to express a value judgment.
It signals an opinion.)
Opinion: The best treatment for lower back pain is physical therapy.
(There is no consensus in the scientific community that this is
true.)
Opinion: Smoking is the worst of America’s drug addictions.
(Many people, such as those coping with alcoholism, might
disagree.)
SEPARATING FACT FROM OPINION
Value words (ones that contain a judgment)
often represent opinions.
Examples of value words
best
worst
better
worse
great
terrible
lovely
disgusting
beautiful
bad
good
wonderful
SEPARATING FACT FROM OPINION
The words should and ought to often
signal opinions.
Example
Adults who molest young children ought to be put to death.
This statement represents what some people think ought to be done. Other
people may disagree.
Keep in mind . . . .
Much information that sounds factual
is really opinion.
Example
An ad claiming “The most economical car on the road today”
may at first seem factual.
What is meant by economical? If the car offers the most miles per gallon
but the worst record for expensive repairs, you might not agree that it’s
economical.
SEPARATING FACT FROM OPINION
Much of what we read and hear is a mixture
of fact and opinion.
Our job is to draw upon existing fact and
opinion and to arrive at an informed
opinion.
Note that textbook authors present informed
opinion—opinion based on factual information.
SEPARATING FACT FROM OPINION
Fact and Opinion in Reading
Which statement below is fact? Which is opinion? Which is fact and
opinion?
A. Today’s computer-animated films are not as good as the
old hand-drawn animated ones.
B. The first animated feature film was Snow White and the
Seven Dwarfs, released in 1937 by the Disney studio.
C. The 1940 animated film Fantasia, which combined
animation with classical music, is the most imaginative
movie ever made.
SEPARATING FACT FROM OPINION
Fact and Opinion in Reading
Which statement below is fact? Which is opinion? Which is fact and
opinion?
A. Today’s computer-animated films are not as good as the
old hand-drawn animated ones.
B. The first animated feature film was Snow White and the
Seven Dwarfs, released in 1937 by the Disney studio.
C. The 1940 animated film Fantasia, which combined
animation with classical music, is the most imaginative
movie ever made.
Explanation
A is an opinion. Many people might disagree.
B is a fact that can be confirmed by checking film records.
The first part of C is a fact that can be confirmed by checking movie records
and watching the film. The last part is an opinion; other people might
choose some other film as the most imaginative.
Phact or Opinion?
1.
2.
Citizens Bank Park was officially opened on April 3, 2004.
Citizens Bank Park is located on a 21 acre site and the square footage of
the building is 1.15 million.
3. The seats in Citizens Bank Park are sapphire blue and are extremely
comfortable for fans, plus each seat has a cup holder.
4. Citizen Bank Park has 21,000 parking spaces and seating for 43,651 fans.
5. The concessions at Citizens Bank Park were voted “Best Ballpark Eats” by
Food Network in 2007.
6. The open main concourse at Citizens Bank Park allows fans to constantly
connect with the game and makes it the best ballpark in the country.
7. The Philadelphia Phillies are the best team in the National League.
8. The Phillies will certainly capture another National League Pennant this
year.
9. The Phillies have a .567 home winning percentage since the opening of
Citizens Bank Park.
10. The main reason why the Phillies are one of the winningest teams in the
National League is because of their management.
Phact or Opinion?
1.
2.
FACT: Citizens Bank Park was officially opened on April 3, 2004.
FACT: Citizens Bank Park is located on a 21 acre site and the square footage of
the building is 1.15 million.
3. FACT & OPINION: The seats in Citizens Bank Park are sapphire blue and are
extremely comfortable for fans, plus each seat has a cup holder.
4. FACT: Citizen Bank Park has 21,000 parking spaces and seating for 43,651 fans.
5. FACT: The concessions at Citizens Bank Park were voted “Best Ballpark Eats” by
Food Network in 2007.
6. OPINION: The open main concourse at Citizens Bank Park allows fans to
constantly connect with the game and makes it the best ballpark in the country.
7. OPINION: The Philadelphia Phillies are the best team in the National League.
8. OPINION: The Phillies will certainly capture another National League Pennant
this year.
9. FACT: The Phillies have a .567 home winning percentage since the opening of
Citizens Bank Park.
10. OPINION: The main reason why the Phillies are one of the winningest teams in
the National League is because of their management.
More practice
Exercise 13-6, pp. 406
Exercise 13-7, pp. 406-407
Chapter 14: Critical Thinking Evaluating
the Author’s Techniques
Words have denotative and connotative
meanings.
– Denotative = dictionary meaning
• Gay: (1) being attracted to person of the same sex; (2)
having or showing a cheery, lively mood
– Connotative = additional meaning (often
emotionally-charged)
• Gay: (1) a wrong or stupid idea or decision
That’s so
gay!
Consider your word choice!
Negative Connotation
Positive/Neutral
Connotation
• drug addict, substance
abuser . . . . . .
•
•
•
•
•
physically handicapped, disabled . . . .
thin, lean, slender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
attractive, beautiful, handsome . . . . .
unattractive, plain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
intelligent, smart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
•
•
•
•
•
•
druggie, drug fiend
crippled
beanpole, skeletal
smokin’ hot, sexy
dull, ugly
geek, nerd
FIGURES OF SPEECH
• Authors often include figures of speech in
their writing to be creative and to imply
meaning.
• To understand the author’s meaning, we must
understand their figures of speech.
• Three common figures of speech are:
– Similes
– Metaphors
– Personification
SIMILES
• A simile is a stated comparison, introduced
with the word like or as
• Examples:
– That runner moves as gracefully as a gazelle.
– After you’ve broken up with a boyfriend or
girlfriend, every day feels like a cloudy, cold
Monday.
METAPHORS
• A metaphor is a stated comparison without
the words like or as
• Examples:
– The grade on my test was a splash of cold water in
my face.
– When Sherri got up to speak, she was a mass of
quivering Jell-O.
– The warm honey of his voice melted my anger.
PERSONIFICATION
• Personification is the giving of human traits
(qualities, feelings, actions, or characteristics)
to non-living objects (things, colors, qualities,
or ideas).
• Examples:
– The friendly building welcomed us inside.
– Fear knocked on the door. Faith answered
--Old proverb
– My computer hates me.
Let’s practice . . .
• Simile:
– “My day is like . . .”
• Metaphor:
– “My girlfriend/boyfriend is . . .”
• Personification:
– “This classroom . . .”