Political
Participation
A passive citizenry?
Political Participation

``actions undertaken by ordinary
citizens that are intended, directly or
indirectly, to influence the selection of
government personnel and/or the
policy decisions they make”
In Liberal Democracies
Voting in elections is only one of the
activities of political participation.
 Institutional context, especially the
party system, has a clear impact on
electoral or other forms of political
participation.

Totalitarian Model of Political
Participation
Citizens were involved in politics only
when mobilized by the party-state to
implement policies already made.
 The author of ``Political Participation
in the USSR" (1979) suggested that
his book might as well be subtitled
``How and why do Soviet politics
involve the people?"

In Mainland China

From ``mobilized” political
participation to ``optional” political
participation”
``Political Participation in
Communist China” (1967)
``mass line” emphasizes direct
contact between cadres and masses
as the surest means of eliciting
popular participation and keeping
political leaders in touch with popular
demands
 In broadest terms, Communist
mobilization of the masses has
politicized an apolitical population.

``Citizens and Groups in
Contemporary China” (1987)

``Chinese citizens do in fact regularly
pursue their interests with a repertoire
of tactics tailored to these constraints”
``Political Participation in
Rural China” (1988)

In general, males, with ``good" class
origins and some education, who
were strong, skilled, and in their
working prime, participated at higher
rates.
Participatory Activities in
Mainland China
Some common political activities in a
democracy, such as donations for
opposition parties or voting for
government leaders, do not exist.
 Other forms of activities, like reporting
to the ``letters and visits offices" or
utilizing patron-client relations, would
be rare in a liberal democracy.

Five Participatory Modes
Mean score
Appeals
1988
0.87
1996
1.04
Adversarial
activities
Cronyism
0.25
0.32
0.22
0.34
Resistance
0.28
0.16
Protest
0.05
0.19
Appeals
Complain through the bureaucratic
hierarchy
 Complain through political
organizations
 Complain through the trade unions
 Complain through deputies to local
people’s congresses
…

Adversarial activities
Write letters to newspaper editors
 Write letters to government officials at
higher levels
 Complain through the ``letters and
visits” bureaus
…

Cronyism
Use connections
 Send gifts to bureaucrats in exchange
for help
…

Resistance
Slow-down on the job
 Whip up public opinion in work units
against leaders
 Organize a group of people to fight
against leaders
…

Protest
Strike
 Participate in demonstration
 Sue bureaucrats in court
…

Political Participation in
Beijing (Shi 1999)

Peculiarities about Beijing:
Capital of the PRC
 Per capita GDP US$3,060 (2001)
 61 institutions of higher education,
with total enrollment of 340,000
 2,328,000 residents have had at least
some college education
 1.28 million CCP members

Explanatory variables of
political participation
Education
 Political interest
 Political efficacy
 Political knowledge
 Civic skills
 Party mobilization
…

Political efficacy

Internal efficacy: beliefs about one’s
own competence to understand and
participate in politics

External efficacy: beliefs about the
responsiveness of governmental
authorities and institutions to citizen
demands
Shi’s findings in Beijing
General level of education increased
from 1988 to 1996
 People became more concerned with
politics and governmental affairs
 Internal efficacy became stronger
 Frequency and intensity of political
activism increased

Shi’s findings in Beijing
Both adversarial activities and protest
increased substantially between 1988
and 1996
 Government activity and education
became increasingly important in
influencing the level and intensity of
political participation

Shi (1999)’s Conclusion

Beijing residents have become more
politically sophisticated and more
assertive in the articulation of their
interests
Compared with TW & HK

traditional orientation
moral government
 moral leader
 state precedes over individual
 elitism (better educated)
 paternalism
 stability above pluralism

Traditional orientation

People with traditional orientation tend
to be:
less educated
 older
 living in villages and towns
 employed in blue-collar jobs


fairly consistent across the 3 societies
Effect on political
participation
education is a most important factor
 the impact of political interest is far
more pronounced in TW & HK
 Party membership in ML
 HK: more individually-based
 traditional orientation has the least
influence
