Use of English II
Semester II
“An idea, no matter how great, is useless until it is transmitted and understood by
others.”
Communication Defined.
“Communication is the transference and understanding of meaning.” (Robbins, 310)
“Communication is the process by which information is exchanged and understood by
two or more people, usually with the intent to motivate or influence behaviour.”
(Daft, 567)
It is a continuous process that occurs in various contexts and uses cultural symbols. It is a
process that purposefully uses spoken, nonverbal and visual symbols. Communication
involves and affects nearly every disciplinary field, including business.
Basic Communication Principles.
Communication is a Process. The exchange of messages is on-going and
dynamic. Our internal communication and our exchanges with others are always
changing and growing.
Communication is Continuous. Communication starts at birth. Even if we do not
talk then non-verbal communication occurs. Non-verbal communication includes
body movements such as gestures, facial expressions and vocal sounds that do not
use words.
We also continually communicate internally. Intrapersonal communication
involves both intentional and unintentional message exchange. For Example,
some of our thought processes are unintentional, such as when the body signals
thirst to the brain, but our internal critical thinking, listening and reading are
intentional communication.
Functions of communication within an organization.

Communication acts to control member behaviour in several ways.
Organizations have authority hierarchies and formal guidelines that employees
are required to follow. For e.g., when employees are required to first
communicate any job-related grievance to their immediate boss, to follow
their job description, or to comply with policies, communication is performing
a control function.

Communication fosters motivation by clarifying to employees what is to be
done, how well they are doing it, and what can be done to improve
performance if it’s subpar.

Communication provides a release for emotional expression of feelings and
for fulfilment of social needs.
Communication facilitates decision making. It provides the information that
individuals and groups need to make decisions by transmitting data to identify
and evaluate alternative choices.

The Communication Process.
Communication can be thought of as a process or flow. Communication problems occur
when there are deviations or blockages in that flow.
Before communication can take place, a purpose, expressed as a message to be conveyed,
is needed. It passes between a source (the sender) and a receiver. The message is encoded
(converted to symbolic form) and is passed by way of some medium (channel) to the
receiver, who retranslates (decodes) the message initiated by the sender. The result is
transference of meaning from one person to another.
The communication model is made up of seven parts:
1. ideas
2. encoding
3. communication source and receiver
4. the message,
5. the channel
6. decoding
7. feedback
The source initiates a message by encoding a thought. Four conditions have been
described that affect the encoded message: skill, attitudes, knowledge, and the socialcultural system.
Success in communicating to you is dependent on my writing skills: if the authors of
textbooks are without the requisite writing skills, their messages will not reach students in
the form desired.
A message is any signal that triggers the response of a receiver. Messages are not
synonymous with meanings. For eg., you might remind a co-worker about a deadline
with the intention of being helpful, but your colleague could interpret the message as an
indication that you were annoyed or mistrustful.
Ideas and Encoding. Ideas are generated at the point of perception, when information
from the outside environment or from inside your mind simulates and arouses your
attention. The sender must choose certain words or non-verbal methods to send an
intentional message. The activity is called encoding. The words and channels that a
communicator chooses to deliver a message can make a tremendous difference in how
that message is received.
Communication source and receiver. Each person in the communication process is both a
message source and a receiver throughout a given interaction. A message source is the
originator and transmitter of the message.
The receiver is the recipient of the message, or the destination point.
Message. Message are ideas encoded and designed into into one or more symbols to
communicate meaning. We think about these message internally; formulate them into
words, behaviours or visual images and send them to other people.
Channel. The channel (sometimes called the medium) is the method used to deliver a
message. As a business communicator, you can always choose whether to put your
message in writing as aletter or memo.
Decoding. Even if a message does not get to its intended receiver intact, there is no
guarantee that it will be understood as the sender intended it to be. The receiver must still
decode it, attaching meaning to the words or symbols.
Feedback. The discernible response of a receiver to a sender’s message is called
feedback. Some feedback is non-verbal- smiles, sighs and so on. Feedback can also be
written, as when you respond to a co-workers memo. In many cases, no message can also
be a kind of feedback.
Barriers to effective communication.

Filtering- This refers to the sender manipulating information so that it will be
seen more favourably by the receiver. For example, when a manger tells his Boss
what he feels his boss wants to hear, he is filtering information.

Selective perception- Receivers in the communication process selectively see and
hear based on their needs, motivations, experience, background and other
personal characteristics. For e.g., the employment interviewer who expects a
female job applicant to put her family ahead of her career is likely to see that in
female applicants, regardless of whether the applicants feel that way or not.

Defensiveness- When people feel that they’re being threatened, they tend to react
in ways that reduce their ability to achieve mutual understanding. Hence, when
individuals interpret another’s message as threatening, they often respond in ways
that retard effective communication.

Language- Words mean different things to different people. Age, education, and
cultural background are three of the more obvious variables that influence the
language a person uses and the definitions he or she gives to words.

Sending inconsistent cues between verbal and non-verbal communications will
confuse the receiver. If one’s facial expression does not reflect one’s words, the
communication will contain noise and uncertainty. The tone of voice and body
language should be consistent with the words, and actions should not contradict
words.
Organizational Barriers

Status and Power Differences- Low power people may be reluctant to pass bad
news to senior staff, thus giving the wrong impression to upper levels. High
power people may not pay attention or may feel that low-status people little to
contribute.

Differences across departments in terms of needs and goals which interfere with
communication. Each dept. perceives problems in its own terms. The production
department is concerned with production efficiency and may not fully understand
the marketing department’s need to get the product to the customer in a hurry.
Formal and Informal Communication.
Formal communication networks are systems designed by management to dictate who
should talk to whom to get a job done. Informal communication networks are patterns of
interaction based on friendships, shared personal or career interests and proximity.
Functions of informal communication within an organization
o Confirming- Some informal communication confirms formal messages.
o Expanding- Information communication can help fill in the gaps left by
incomplete formal messages.
o Expediting- Informal networks can often deliver messages more quickly more
quickly than official channels can.
Communication Routes
The most common way of describing communication networks is with organizational
charts. Organizational charts show that communication can flow in several directions:
upward, downward, and horizontally.
Downward Communication. This occurs whenever superiors initiate messages to their
subordinates. There are several types of downward communication:
 Job instructions. Directions about what to do and who to do it.
 Job rationale. Explanations of how one task relates to other tasks.
 Procedures and Practices. Information about rules, regulations, policies, and
benefits.
 Feedback. Information about how effectively a person is performing.
 Indoctrination. Information aimed at motivating employees by impressing the
organization’s mission upon them specifying how they should relate to it.
Potential Benefits.
 Prevention or correction of employee errors.
 Greater job satisfaction.
 Improved morale.
Potential Problems.
 Insufficient or unclear messages.
 Message overload
 Message distorted as it passes through one or more intermediaries.
Upward Communication. Messages flowing from subordinates to superiors are labeled
upward communication. Upward communication can convey four types of messages:
*What subordinates are doing.
* Unsolved work problems.
* Suggestions for improvement.
* How subordinates feel about each other and the job.
Potential Benefits.
 Prevention of new problems and solution of old ones.
 Increased acceptance of management decisions.
Potential Problems
 Superiors may discourage, disregard, or downplay importance of subordinates’
messages.
 Supervisors may unfairly blame subordinates for unpleasant news.
Horizontal /Lateral Communication. It consists of messages between members of an
organization with equal power. The most obvious type of horizontal communication goes
on between members of the same division of an organization: office workers in the same
department, co-workers on a construction project, and so on. In other cases lateral
communication occurs between people from different areas: accounting calls
maintenance to get a machine repaired, hospital admissions calls intensive care to reserve
a bed, and so on. Horizontal communication serves five purposes:




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Task Coordination.
Problem solving
Sharing information
Conflict resolution
Building rapport
Potential Benefits
 Increased cooperation among employees with different duties
 Greater understanding of organization’s mission.
Potential Problems
 Rivalry may occur between employees from different areas.
 Specialization makes understanding difficult.
 Information overload discourages contacts.
 Physical Barriers discourage contact.
 Lack of motivation.
The absence of formal channels reduces communication effectiveness. Organizations
must provide adequate upward, downward and horizontal communication in the form
of employee surveys, open-door policies, newsletters, memos, task forces, and liason
personnel. Without these formal channels, the organization cannot communicate as a
whole.
Figure 1.1