Unit 5 Pendekatan penulisan skrip dan filem
Unit 7 Media elektronik dan filem
Unit 8 Khalayak media elektronik
Unit 9 Jenis rancangan untuk media

PENDEKATAN PENULISAN
SKRIP GENRE DRAMA UNTUK
PENYIARAN DAN FILEM

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All drama depends on conflict. That is not the same as saying that drama depends on people shouting at each other.
Generally speaking, people shouting at each other should be avoided.

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At its most basic, conflict means that Character A wants something to happen, and Character B wants something different to happen.
This might mean anything from:
◦ A murderer wants to escape – a detective wants to arrest him.
◦ A schoolmaster wants promotion – another wants to sabotage him.
◦ A girl wants a man – another girl wants him as well
◦ A girl wants a man – another man wants the girl
◦ A husband wants sandwiches for breakfast – his wife wants him to have high-fibre muesli.

It can mean:
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A problem to be solved
An obstacle to overcome
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A threat to be handled
A decision to be made
A challenge to be met

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You must always have something on screen that holds the interest of the viewer. It might be one of the following:
 A development of the plot – our attention is held because we have become involved in the characters and the story, and we want to know what will happen next.
 Emotion – happiness, shock, tears. It is distressing but true that people are fascinated by other people’s emotional reactions.

 Humour – an interlude involving a humorous theme might not move the plot forward or reveal anything new, but providing we laugh all can be forgiven.
 Visual interest – by providing movement, rapid cuts from location to location, interesting locations, people running, vehicles moving at speed. What we see on the screen can help sustain dramatic tension.

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Scenes or fragments of dialogue that do not go anywhere, and do not relate to the story or plot.
Scenes that repeat themselves and fail to move the story on.
Characters who fail to react in a logical manner. To a considerable extent viewers look to the reactions of characters in a play in order to work out their own reactions.
◦ E.g.: If a woman hits a man in a restaurant and nobody pays any attention, and the man carries on eating his food, then there will be no dramatic tension. But if the entire restaurant falls silent, and the man stares in cold fury and the woman begins to shake – then there is dramatic tension.

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Script written for television dramas, whether shot on film or tape, almost always use a quasi-film format. Although film script formats aren’t totally standardized, in general they follow these principles:
Names of characters (MARY) are ALL CAPS.
All important information (SCENE B) is ALL CAPS.
Visuals (DROP HER GLOVE) are ALL CAPS.
Dialogue (Hello, Ramon. How’s It going?) is in upper and lower case.
Omit directions, such as cut to or face to black.
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Make your script as easy to read as possible – use double – or triple-space, wide margins, lots of white areas.

INTERIOR OF UNDERGROUND
PARKING GARAGE. WALKING
TOWARD THEIR CAR ARE MARIA,
AND FRED. MARIA IS CARRYING A
LARGE SHOPPING BAG. RAMON
HOLDS LARGE HEAVY BOX.

RAMON
Wow! This box weighs a ton.
RAMON STOPS, AND ROUGHLY PLACES
BOX ON THE HOOD OF A JAGUAR
MARIA
Careful, Ramon – that’s something yuppy’s sixty-thousand-dollar toy!
RAMON
Hey, what’s the problem….

MARIA
(INTERRUPTING) Ramon! Some guy’s in the back seat!
FRED
Not to worry – he’s asleep
MARIA
(MOVING CLOSER TO CAR) Better take another look – he isn’t breathing!

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Cinderella – unrecognised virtue recognised at last; the dream come true.
Tristan – love triangles. The trouble which follows falling in love with an unavailable other.
Romeo and Juliet – boy meets girl. Boy loses girl.
They do or do not end up together again.

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Some people find forming endings a difficult matter, perhaps even being reluctant to set out on the story telling journey at all until they feel sure they know how their tale will resolve.
Often, if you follow the energy of a piece, happily complicating your protagonist’s life and driving them ever onwards against the odds in pursuit of their goal, the natural conclusion to the drama will probably suggest itself. If you do find yourself wrestling with how the story should resolve, it is always important to play with different possibilities.

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Try out several different kinds of moment and try turning them on their head. What if… it all happened exactly the opposite way around? What then?
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Narratives often have a deliberate circularity, ending up to all appearances with an identical moment to the one which started the piece. Sometimes the character(s) in question are discovered back where they were first introduced, but having undergone a major life-change. Sometimes, as in that framing device in Titanic, we are taken back to the same character(s) in the same setting as the start, but now knowing much more about them. In Titanic, one more significant action is going to unfold which will resolve matters for Rose and for the audience. Sometimes this circularity comes in the form of an echo. Where we may have seen one character in a particular setting, we now see another in the same situation.

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Whatever you choose, if the ending is a closed one, fully resolving the narrative tension and completing the protagonist’s journey, then it should neatly sums up as ‘relief and release’.
Endings also can fall broadly into one of two groups leaving the central character(s) isolated or embraced (actually or metaphorically). He goes on to list several more kinds of ending including:
 the fantasy triumph ending – it all turns out well, but only in the hero’s mind;
 the blessing – of love, friendship, or the discovery of a common bond;
 solitude – characters walking off into the sunset;
 long shot – a retreat from the setting and the action allowing for us to put everything into perspective.

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Common to both TV and film scripting is the need to clearly define each scene.
Newcomers to drama writing are often confused as to what a new scene is. Very simply: a new scene is a change of time or place or both.

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Each and every scene has a scene heading. This is not merely some stylistic affectation.
Important information is included in this line.
‘Int.’ and ‘Ext.’ are short for ‘Interior’ and
‘Exterior’. These are followed by the exact location of the scene. This is followed by the time the scene happens. In some scripts this is expressed simply as ‘Day’ or ‘Night’. In some, you may find the exact time of day or night specified. All off this information is directly relevant to the lighting of any scene.

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In TV drama scripts, all the action, as well as the characters’ names, are written in upper case. They may or may not be centred and may or may not be followed by colon – take your pick.

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Between first draft and shooting script most scripts go through several if not many changes. For this reason alone, whilst it is essential to number pages (try having a phone conversation about your script without page numbers to refer to) it can be quite counter-productive to number scenes before you reach a final draft.

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A half hour episode of British soap opera will, on average, contain somewhere around 15 to 20 scenes.
Usually these will concern themselves with three separate stories (possibly a much less significant fourth story element), one of which will be the major point of audience interest. These slices of separate story are told in intermingled sequences of four or five scenes.

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Radio
Televisyen
Filem

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FM/AM technologies
A means of radio broadcasting. Terrestrial radio stations broadcast using one of 2 technologies, AM or FM
AM stands for amplitude modulation , and FM stands for frequency modulation
 Frequency modulation (FM)
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FM radio was invented by Edwin Armstrong during 1930s.
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Utilizing the band between 88 and 108 megahertz
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FM signals are marked by high levels of clarity, but rarely travel more than eighty miles from the sites of transmission

 Amplitude Modulation (AM)
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Utilizing the band between 540 and 1,700 megahertz.
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AM signals are prone to frequent static interference , but their high powered signals allow them to travel great distances, especially at night.
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Lists of AM radio in the U.S.
◦ WAAM (1600 AM)
◦ WAAV (980 AM)
◦ WAAX (570 AM)

Commercial Radio Stations vs
Noncommercial Radio Stations
In terms of funding, there are two types of radio stations:
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Commercial stations
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Noncommercial stations
Commercial stations
 The vast majority of stations are commercial stations.
 These stations support themselves financially by selling time on their airwaves to advertisers.

Commercial Radio Stations vs
Noncommercial Radio Stations (cont…)
Noncommercial stations
 Do not receive financial support from advertisers in the traditional sense of airing commercials.
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 Most noncommercial stations are located at the very left of the FM band
(between 88 and 92 MHz).
Eg.: - Putra fm (90.7 FM)
- UMalaya Radio
- Radio USM

 Radio is portable
 Radio is supplemental
 Radio is universal
 Radio is selective

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Radio is portable
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Some radio sets, like the Walkman, are small and personal . Radio sets are easily transported and go everywhere - the beech, sporting events, jogging trails, the workplace. Car radios provide news end entertainment to commuters on their way to and from work. In fact, it is hard to find place where radio cannot go.
Radio is supplemental
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Most radio listening occurs while we are doing something else —driving, working, studying, falling asleep, waking up, cleaning, and so on.
Radio rarely is the prime focus of our attention; it provides an audio background for our activities.

 Radio is universal
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Virtually every household has at least one radio . In fact, the average house has about six. Almost every car equipped with a radio. In an average day, about 75 percent of Americans listen to radio.
 Radio is selective
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Much like the magazine industry, the radio industry has become a niche medium. Radio stations choose formats that attract a small, narrowly defined audience that is attractive to advertisers.

 Most modern stations can offer an amazingly precise description of the kind of listener they want their format to attract.
 Three basic categories of radio formats: music, ethnic, and news/talk
 Popular music formats:
 Contemporary Hit Radio (CHR)
 Adult Contemporary (AC)
 Urban
 Country
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Other formats:
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Beautiful music
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Album and Progressive rock
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Modern rock
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Jazz, classical, country, and all-news format

The Music Format
 Music is the largest category
 In 2013, the 2 most listened-to formats are:
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Contemporary Hit Radio (CHR)
 Also called “Top 40”
 Features a small playlist of hits in a fast rotation
 The format is aimed at 16 – 24 age group
 Artists whose songs are frequently played on CHR stations in 2013 included; i.
Lady Gaga – Applause ii.
Selena Gomez – Come and Get It iii.
Justin Timberlake – Mirror

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Adult Contemporary (AC)
 The main appeal of the AC format is to 25 to 49-year old females.
 Play the “hits of the 80s, 90s, and today” with a blend of about
80 percent oldies and 20 percent current tunes such as: i.
Katty Perry – Roar ii.
Muse – Time is Running Out iii.
Exist – Mengintai Dari Tirai Kamar iv.
Maroon 5 v.
Celline Dion

Other top formats:
─ Urban
 Showcases a large number of African American artists and plays rap, hip-hop, and dance music.
 Aimed at city dwellers but has attracted listeners in rural areas as well.
 In 2013, some prominent urban artists are : i.
Jay-Z ii.
Ne Yo iii.
Kanye West

Other top formats:
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Country
Traditional country stations – play mainstream classic, twang country music such as:
Kenny Rogers – Through the Years
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Contemporary country stationsplay more current artists who might use synthesizers and other modern sounds for example:
Taylor Swift – Sweet 22
 The audiences are mainly comprises adults from 35 to 55.

Other formats:
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Beautiful music
 Play opera music genre. Comes from the composer such as: i.
Ludwig Van Beethoven ii.
Vivaldi, Mozart iii.
Sarah Brightman
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Album and Progressive rock
 Scorpion, Bon Jovi
 Muse – Starlight

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Modern rock
 Attracts 18 to 34-years old, in about equal proportions of men and women
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Jazz, classical, country, and all-news format
 Generally attract an older crowd, with most of their audience coming from the 45-andover age group

News/Talk Format
 Becoming more and more popular on the AM band
 National, regional, and local news reports are broadcast periodically throughout the day.
 Sports, traffic, weather, editorials, public-affairs programs , and an occasional feature round out the programming day.
Ethnic Formats
 These formats aim for special audiences that are defined primarily by race and nationality.
 E.g.: German, Italian, French

TODAY’S TELEVISION INDUSTRY
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Divided into three domains:
◦ TV broadcasting
◦ Cable services
◦ Satellite services

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The most popular domain of the three. It’s signals are transmitted from towers owned by local stations on frequencies allocated to them.
People can receive the signals without charge by simply turning on a television set.

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Most of the stations are what people in the TV industry call commercial ; the rest are noncommercial.
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Commercial stations:
◦ Consists of all those local stations whose income is derived from selling time on their airwaves to advertisers.
Noncommercial stations:
◦ Consists of those stations whose income is derived from sources other than the sale of advertising time.
◦ The Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) serves as a network for noncommercial stations.

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Cable networks – program channels offered by a cable television system to its customers in addition to what is broadcast over the airwaves in their geographic area.
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Cable television refers to businesses that provide programming to subscribers via a wire (historically a coaxial cable, but increasingly a fiber optic line). Cable subscribers rent set-top boxes or use cable “smart cards” to receive their programs.

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The most noticeable characteristic of motion pictures is their potential cost. No other media product - book, magazine, TV series, CD costs as much as motion pictures.
Partly because commercial motion picture making is so expensive, the industry has become dominated by big conglomerates.
Film has a strong aesthetic dimension. Of all the media discussed in this unit, film is the one most discussed as an art form.
Going to the movies continues to be a social experience.

Sumber: http://www.finas.gov.my/index.php?mod=industry&sub=filemmalaysia

The Majors
The companies that people most associate with
Hollywood

Production in the Malaysian Motion Picture Industry
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ASTRO SHAW SDN. BHD.
/ WOOHOO PICTURES
SDN BHD. (The Journey)
ASTRO SHAW / DOUBLE
VISION SDN. BHD.
(Ombak Rindu)
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TALL ORDER
PRODUCTION SDN.
BHD. (Lemak Kampung
Santan)
ANIMASIA STUDIOS
SDN. BHD. (Bola Kampung
The Movie)
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FILMSCAPE SDN. BHD.
(Juvana)
MIG PRODUCTION
(Nangkung, Adnan Sempit)
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KRU INTERNATIONAL
SDN. BHD (Hikayat
Merong Wahangsa)
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TAYANGAN UNGGUL
SDN. BHD. (Hantu Kak
Limah Balik Rumah)
SUHAN MOVIES (Balistik)
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SKOP PRODUCTIONS
(KL Gangster)
PRIMEWORKS STUDIOS
SDN. BHD. (GRAND
BRILLIANCE) (Lagi-lagi
Senario)

Film production firms are involved in coming up with story ideas, finding scriptwriters, hiring the personnel and ensure the work is carried out on time and on budget.

FILM PRODUCTION : PRE PRODUCTION
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GETTING THE IDEA
An idea for a movie can come from virtually anywhere – e.g.: Television shows, Books, Short stories, Newspaper articles.
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GETTING THE STARS
When a production firm purchases a script, executives typically have certain actors and directors in mind.
its

Mr. Bean’s Holiday

Superman (1978)
Batman (1991) Spiderman 2

Lara Croft: Tomb Raider

FILM PRODUCTION : PRE PRODUCTION
(CONT…)
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GETTING THE MONEY
The costs to make a movie varies over a wide range:
– from over $100 million dollars
– Between $50 and $100 million dollars
– to less than $50 million dollars.

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This is THE ACTUAL stage in MAKING MOVIES.
The movie making process involves a large number of people. To get an idea of how many, watch all the credits at the end of the movie you watch.
The cost: a moderate-budget film can cost $400.000-
500.000 per day.
The shooting schedule: the average for a typical film is about 70 days

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This phase begins after the filming has been completed. A film editor, working with the director, decides where close-ups should be placed, what angles scenes would be shown from, and how long each scene should last.
The special effects will be added during this phase.

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When choosing an audience to target with TV advertising, advertisers can define it by gender, social class and age at a national or regional level.

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An audience category is a classification of the viewing audience into a specific group.
The following audiences are sometimes referred to as main categories - Homes,
Individuals, Adults, Men, Women, Children and Housewives. Sub-categories are more detailed breakdowns of the main categories - by age groups, social grades etc.

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Demographics are simply the characteristics of people: age and gender, for example. Other attributes such as race, religion, marriage status, educational level, profession, and income are also demographics.

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Public TV is not singularly targeted at the
18-to-49-year-old female, as the commercial networks are. One of the distinctive elements of public TV is the variety of programming available. This, public TV has an inherent potential to attract different demographics with the broad spectrum of programs.

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Daypart DifferencesWhile the potential for diversity exists in the public TV schedule, dayparts tend to have similar demographic skews at public TV stations around the country.
While local schedule variations may cause some straying from the archetype, the dominant public TV demographic in daytime (7 a.m. - 5 p.m., Monday - Friday) is usually 2-to-5year-old children, who are in the audience to watch early morning, noon-hour and early afternoon kiddy programming.

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During the rest of the day, many stations program instructional TV for school consumption -- the audience consists of 6-to-11-year-olds and their mothers or fathers; and an over 50-year-old, heavily 65-plus female public affairs audience for the news programming.Prime time also has an older audience, but it contains viewers of different ages that arrive to watch specific programs. Late fringe, by custom, has a younger public TV audience -- 18 to 49, both males and females, depending on local schedule options

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Different programming attracts different audiences. It is clear that different programs attract different demographics.

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TV3 and TV9, conquered the highest daily viewership across primetime segments, with a peak of 6.9 million viewers during the Buka
Puasa Primetime from 4.00pm to 8.00pm.
Maintaining their reputation as the mostwatched TV channels among the Malay audience,
TV3 and TV9 successfully reached out to 78 per cent (10 million) of the overall Malay demographic in the first five days of Hari Raya. -
See more at: http://www.mediaprima.com.my/pressrelease/pr ess-release.aspx?id=240#sthash.rISPYOXE.dpuf

THE GLOBAL AUDIENCE:
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For the film industry the global audience obviously means a wider source of revenue for a single film. However, whilst technology enables the film and publicity to move around the world more freely and quickly there are certain problems that have to be considered.
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Can you think of any other problems with trying to make a single film appeal to a global Audience? East is East, a British film, has been received very well in both America and France, two territories which have had a completely different 'take' on it.

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3.
4.
Global audiences do not all speak the same language.
Global audiences have their own cultures, film preferences and interest in stars and genres from films made in their own countries.
Global audiences may see a film in very different circumstances to the ones originally intended by the producers. Seeing a blockbuster on a small screen or on a large screen may elicit different responses.

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Film versus television genres. There are some important differences between film and television genres. Film genres (see list below) tend to be more general, for example, the western, action/adventure, comedy, horror, science fiction, etc., while television genres (see list below) are often specialized, for example, cooking shows, sports-talk shows, children’s animation, etc. A film that is representative of a certain film genre also tends to be selfenclosed—the conflicts are often resolved within the film, even with film sequels. In contrast, a television genre program tends to be part of a serial, in which a storyline may continue and develop or characters may evolve across different programs.

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The Action Series
The Police Series
Hospital Drama
Science Fiction
Soap Opera
Situation Comedy (Sitcoms)
The Quiz Show/The Game Show
The Celebrity Talk Show
Sports
Reality Television

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Several genres within US and UK drama focus on action rather than character . There are some obvious examples: police programmes that feature violence rather than detection, and science-fiction (Xena: Warrior
Princess, US, 1995) epics.

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For more than five decades the police series has been one of the most popular genres on television , with some series proving so successful that they have retained a presence in the schedules for ten years or more.
These two approaches to the police series – the ordinary uniformed policemen on the one hand, the skilled plain-clothes police detective on the other – set a pattern for the genre that has prevailed throughout its history.

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In the mid 1990s a common observation made by critics and commentators was that the proliferation of television medical dramas had reached epidemic proportions.
Hospital dramas such as ER, Casualty, and
Chicago Hope were at the forefront of this explosion of television’s interest in medicine.

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Like much television drama, the earliest science fiction (SF) television was based on novels or stage plays.
The studio-bound setting of early television, and shooting on film for location work, imposed their own restrictions, and special effects work was time-consuming and expensive.

• What is soap opera? What are its distinctive features as a narrative system and a way of addressing the viewer?
The name itself gives us some clues.
• ‘Soap’ marks the genre’s commercial origins. It refers to the fact that the formats emerged from the radio sponsorship by detergent companies in 1930s radio; indeed the immense popularity of the soap opera in the 1940s means that it must be viewed as a central force in the rise of broadcasting as a commercial institution.
• ‘Opera’ is a clue to the kinds of judgments often made about this genre, as a well as an indication of its characteristic emotions, plots and performance styles.

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Soap opera is, most basically, seriallised narrativ e in broadcasting. To begin with, all in one way or another centre on the concept of seriality. Seriality is a narrative structure that spans multiple media and story-telling genres. Its core feature is a distinctive packaging of the experience of fiction over an extended period of time, in segments; all serial narratives thus involve some form of interruption in the flow of the story.
Open-ended serial narrative development that engages audiences with it’s “good” and “evil” characters and emotional conflicts in ways that keeps them tuning in week after week.
Targeted primarily for female audience.

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Situation comedy (sitcom) is one of the staples of mature broadcast television.
It could use a studio with one or at most two sets, and few or no film inserts.
One of the pleasures of watching sitcoms was to observe how bizarre some of the family setups were, no matter what their surface ‘silliness’, it suggested about ‘family values’
There were monster families (The Monsters), vampire families (The Addams Family), witch families (Bewitched).

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Like soap operas, TV quiz shows in America grew out of a popular radio format of the 1930s ; and both genres have been aimed principally at a daytime, and largely female, audience .
The various television quiz formats turn around differing calibrations of luck, knowledge and skill , and almost all offer the spectacle of ordinary people facing lifetransforming decisions in extended real time.

•
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Indeed, although several episodes of a series are typically taped back-to-back some weeks before their air dates , contemporary high-stakes quiz programmes expend a great deal of effort to create a sense of ‘liveness’ , supporting an analogy to televised sporting events (see ‘Sport’, p.87)
Most game show formats depend heavily on the figure of the host, almost always male ( of the thirty-five national versions of the current global hit programme Who Wants to Be a
Millionaire?
, only three are hosted by women ).

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The visual design of the game show ranges from the opposing tables and podiums of the school spelling bee to the video game and science fiction film inspired mise-en-scene of the contemporary big-budget Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?
Indeed, it is not unusual for producers to spend more on the programme’s set than upon any other element of the programme, including prizes.

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Since its start, the set on the stage replicates a living room with a desk for the host and a couch for the guests (with a curtained performance stage to the right). The format, too, has remained the same: an opening monologue by the host , a segment with the studio audience (interviews and games), and a set of interviews and performances with well- known guests on stage.
The programmes are recorded with a live studio audience in the daytime and aired at night. Late Night with David Letterman (1982 - ) represent the most successful examples in the United States.
The genre focuses on interviews with entertainment celebrities (actors, musicians, popular artists, and television personalities) but sometimes politicians , authors and average citizens who lives merited public recognition.

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Television sports coverage combines two competing genre forms—journalism that attempts to provide background information about players, coaches, policies, contract negotiations, and strategies—and promotion that attempts to promote or dramatize sports in order to attract an audience (Brookes, 2001).

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Nabi, Biely, Morgan, and Stitt (2003) collated five general characteristics to define reality TV, which are – it portrays ordinary people; it is shot in a natural environment; it is unscripted; it contains narrative and is entertaining.
Reality TV programs can be more educational (e.g. Supernanny) than just entertaining (e.g.
America’s Got Talent).
Hill (2005) defines reality TV as “a catch-all category that includes a wide range of entertainment programmes about real people … reality TV is located in border territories, between information and entertainment, documentary and drama” (p. 2).

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Hill (2005) divides reality TV types into nine subgenres such as ‘infotainment formats’, ‘surveillance reality formats’, ‘fly-on-the-wall docu-soap formats’, ‘lifestyle formats’, ‘reality game formats’, ‘reality life experiment formats’, ‘reality talent formats’, ‘celebrity reality formats’, and ‘reality clipshow formats’.