The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence
by Kathleen Stassen Berger
Seventh Edition
Chapter 2
Theories of
Development
Slides prepared by Kate Byerwalter, Ph.D.,
Grand Rapids Community College
What Theories Do

A developmental theory provides a
framework for understanding human
development; it also guides research.
 Example:
The idea that early experiences
impact later development is a theory.
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 2
Testing the Theory

Researchers use the scientific method to
test theories.
 Generate
question
 Create hypothesis
 Test hypothesis
 Analyze data; draw conclusion
 Publish results
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 2
Grand Theories

The “Grand Theories” were the first,
comprehensive theories in psychology.

They focus on development as it applies
to ALL individuals.
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 2
The 3 Grand Theories

Psychoanalysis (Freud)

Behaviorism (Watson, Skinner, Pavlov)

Cognitive (Piaget)
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 2
Psychoanalytic Theory

Key terms:

id, ego, superego
 repression
 psychosexual
stages
 unconscious
mind
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Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 2
Psychoanalytic Theory (cont.)

Each psychosexual stage (oral, anal, etc.)
includes potential conflicts—how a person
resolves the conflicts determines their
personality and behavior.

Example: Too strict toilet training may
create an “anal retentive” personality.
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 2
Erik Erikson (1902–1994)

Erik Erikson
created a theory of
psychosocial
development.
CORBIS
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 2
Erik Erikson (cont.)

Erikson’s theory has 3 psychosocial
stages, in which people face “crises,” or
tasks, at different ages.

His theory focuses on the impact of
relationships in shaping personality.
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 2
Behaviorism

Our experiences shape who we are.

John Watson (“psychology should be
about things we can observe” )

Behaviorism includes classical and
operant conditioning, social learning
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 2
Operant Conditioning
(B. F. Skinner)

Behaviors are learned through
reinforcements and punishments.

Example: A child gets sent to room for
hitting his brother. (Hopefully) The
punishment will decrease the likelihood
of him hitting his brother in the future.
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 2
Quiz: Name That Behaviorist!
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Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 2
Social Learning

Behavior is learned through observation
and imitation of others (modeling).

We model people who we admire.

Examples: Children learn aggression
from TV, gender roles from peers and
adults.
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 2
Cognitive Theory

Jean Piaget’s 4 Stages

sensorimotor
 pre-operational
 concrete operational
 formal operational
YVES DEBRAINE / BLACK STAR
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 2
Cognitive Theory (cont.)

Cognitive equilibrium—state of mental
balance.

If threatened, how do we achieve
equilibrium again?
 Assimilation:
incorporate new events into
existing schemas
 Accommodation:
change schema
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 2
Cognitive Theory (cont.)

Example: A 10 month old learns that a red
ball bounces. If given a blue ball, he will
bounce it too (assimilation). If given a red
tomato (which looks like a red ball), he may
try to bounce it. He needs to accommodate
his schema of round, red things.
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 2
Summary
of Grand
Theories
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 2
Limitations of Grand Theories

In testing grand theories, it turned out that
people are much more complex than the
grand theories allowed for.
 Example:
Not all children react to a
reinforcement in the same way.

The theories ignored culture and genes.
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 2
Mini-Theories

Mini-theories focus on a specific area of
development.

Example: a study of the development
of motor skills in premature infants
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 2
Emergent Theories

Emergent theories arise from several
accumulated minitheories and may be the
new systematic and comprehensive theories
of the future.

Example: Results of many studies on motor
skills in premies may lead to a new theory of
motor skill development.
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 2
Sociocultural Theory

Sociocultural theory states that
development results from the dynamic
interaction between person and social and
cultural forces.

Research often includes comparisons
among children of various nations and
ethnic groups.
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 2
Lev Vygotsky

Lev Vygotsky
was a pioneer of
sociocultural
theory.
COURTESY OF DR. MICHAEL COLE, LABORATORY OF COMPARATIVE
HUMAN COGNITION, UC, SAN DIEGO
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 2
Vygotsky (cont.)

Guided participation—tutor engages
learner in joint activities, providing instruction
and direct involvement in learning

Zone of proximal development—range of
skills learner can perform with assistance but
not independently
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 2
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 2
Epigenetic Theory

Emphasizes the interaction between
genes and the environment—the
newest developmental theory.

Genetic-environmental Interactions
 genes
never function alone
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 2
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 2
Epigenetic Theory (cont.)

Genetic-environmental Interactions
 Each
human has a genetic foundation that
is unique.
 But,
all humans have powerful instincts
and abilities that arose from our biological
heritage, through selective adaptation.
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 2
Genetic Adaptation

Selective adaptation: genes for the traits
that are most useful will become more
frequent, thus making survival of species
more likely.
 Example:
Humans have genes that foster
language–those may have helped us avoid
lethal diseases.
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 2
With, On, and Around the Genes

Epi = with, around, before, after, on, or
near = surrounding factors
 epigenetic—surrounding
factors that affect
expression of genetic instructions
 Example:
Height is affected by genes and
nutrition.
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 2
Contributions of Each Theory

Psychoanalytic theory has made us aware
of importance of early childhood
experiences.

Behaviorism has shown effect of immediate
environment on learning.

Cognitive theory shows how intellectual
process and thinking affect actions.
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 2
Contributions (cont.)

Sociocultural theory has reminded us of
the importance of culture in learning.

Epigenetic theory reminds us of the power
of genes in interaction with the environment.
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 2
So which theory is “right”?

No one theory explains all human
development.

Eclectic perspective
 Approach
taken by most developmentalists in
which they apply aspects of each of the various
theories rather than staying with just one.
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 2
Nature-Nurture

Nature: the influence of biology, genes.
Nurture: the influence of environment.
 Example: Are
you smart because of your genes,
or your upbringing?

The real question is HOW MUCH influence
each has, and how they interact.
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 2
Difference or Deficit?

Sometimes it is difficult to determine
whether a behavior is simply a “difference”
or a “deficit” for a child.
When is a child “too thin”? Are
only children “emotionally distressed”? Is
unmarried motherhood a problem?
 Examples:
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 2
Quiz Yourself: Theories

Which phrases regarding early
development go with which theory?
“intimate maternal care is crucial”
 “encourage infants to explore!”
 “malnutrition may alter height”
 “what will you reinforce and model?”
 “co-sleeping is part of our culture”

Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 2