Hate and the Internet 1
A New Home for Hate:
Extremism on the Internet
Bryan M. Torres
Submitted to Faculty in the Sociology and Anthropology Department
University of La Verne
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN ANTHROPOLOGY
Advisor: Kimberly Martin, Ph.D.
May, 2014
Hate and the Internet 2
Abstract
Racism and extremist group ideology falls into the area of deviant behavior and deviant
beliefs. When the rhetoric of this ideology becomes discriminatory in nature and creates
oppressionist behavior, as seen with racist hate groups, it is important to study it as an element of
society. Technology, specifically the internet has played a role in propagating and creating an
online haven for such ideology to thrive in. The internet helps facilitate group communication,
expression, and recruitment making action as a group more efficient. Furthermore, the internet
allows the dissemination of norms, mores, and education about ideology in a far more efficient
manner. This study applied Edwin Sutherland’s Theory of Differential Association concerning
learning deviant behavior to twenty-five online communities and websites. Also, elements of
recruitment and proselytization were examined. Aspects of culture, symbolism, and language
were explored as well. Finally elements of socio-political ideology were examined. With a
conclusion that Differential Association is applicable to online extremist hate groups.
Hate and the Internet 3
The Internet
The Internet, or the World Wide Web as it can also be known, has become a part of
common knowledge within most of the global society. The internet is a resource that facilitates
the globalization of communication through fast and efficient electronic transmission. The novel
idea that, electronically, the entire world can be connected has become a basic element of
globalization. However, the elements of the internet that create this global network of
information, tool, and resource all have definitions that contribute to the whole. General
knowledge of the internet allows for the assumption of a definition of the term website.
However, there are many subcategories of website that make up the internet. One category of
this is the Blogosphere. In recent years Social Networking Sites have also become one
cornerstone of the internet. Another element that makes up the internet is forums and chat rooms.
Yet another category is that of image and message boards. Each of these online mediums allows
individuals to interact with a wide variety of the global population whom they would never have
encountered in person.
The Blogosphere
The Blogosphere is the name given to the portion of the internet made up of weblogs,
abbreviated to blogs. A blog, according to Rosenbloom (2004), is a self published online journal.
The blog is a medium of expression on the internet that allows a member of society to create
information and to be published. This information will be viewed by others. In the context of this
paper the term “user” refers to the person operating the personal computer. This could be the
blogger, the viewer, or the reader. Rosenbloom draws a clear picture of the blogosphere. Usercreated content can be disseminated with only the requirement of a computer, internet access,
and an opinion. These author-published web journals, or blogs, allow media censors and
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corporate interests to be bypassed. Blood (2004) discussed the creation of weblog communities
in the early days of the Blogosphere. Blood defines weblog, or blog, as a journal that is posted
online for others to read. According to Blood, the weblog community worked hard to create
reliable and interesting blogger created content, using blog software, the programming that is
used to create the online world. Nardi et. al. (2004) describes the blogosphere as being created by
everyday people using this medium, the blogosphere itself, to communicate and express their
specific interests and ideologies.
The blogosphere is made up of blogs of all topics. Kurubacak (2008) describes blogs as
journals that have specific themes, and cover the latest news, trends, views, and philosophical
reflections. According to Kurubacak (2008:406), as of 2007, “twelve million American adults
maintain blogs; more than 147 million Americans use the internet.” While Kurubacak describes
the blogosphere as having a potential to initiate social change for the positive through expression
of progress through socio-cultural strategies, Kurubacak also notes that there is covert racism in
the blogosphere.
The blogosphere is in many ways un-moderated and un-censored. Censorship and moderation
are central to enforcing societal norms online. The lack of moderation and censorship within
certain online communities can allow the dissemination of extremist ideology that violates
traditional cultural norms. Dissemination of all ideals can be achieved through the creation and
publication of user generated content. Because of this, the blogosphere and weblogs have
advantages that normal publication venues do not; a way for extremist ideology that in many
ways is unpopular or outside of cultural norms to be disseminated to everyone who has access to
the internet. Kurubacak conducted a qualitative study using a catalog of blogs from
weblogawards.org. Kurubacak’s population was made up of 102 individuals contacted through
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email. Kurubacak (2008) found that three forms of Racism exist within blogs, these being: 1)
Open racism expressing freedom of thought and speech, 2) violent racism, promoting acts of
violence to create fear and persuasion, and 3) covert racism, or racism that is performed without
the realization of the racist nature of the material.
Chau and Xu (2007) conducted a study that used data mining, the use of software to
collect data, to conduct a case study on hate groups in blogs. Chau and Xu focused on the
instances of hate activity against Blacks. The population of the study was limited to the blog
hosting site www.xanga.com. Using terms specified as having consistency with hate content,
Chau and Xu created a list of 28 hate groups and conducted a demographical analysis of visitors
to the blogs within these groups. One finding of the study is that the membership of these groups
is very much decentralized and lacks a hierarchical structure; however in spite of this, the social
and political implications are profound. The growth of the internet has increased the popularity
of these groups. This is one example of how the blogosphere has implications for social change
and problems. The social content is produced by bloggers who subscribe to communities and
become members of an explicit internet community. Bloggers within the online communities
have the advantage of the internet when disseminating opinions or positions, all the while,
proselytizing and bringing new members to a group founded upon a particular ideology.
Through the blogosphere, the internet has become a home for political ideology to take
root. Klein (2012) discusses the idea that the blogosphere presents the political concerns and
opinions within the context of political ideology of the general public. The political blogosphere
provides an outlet for unrestrained civic discourse; that allows fringe political ideology to make
network connections with mainstream political ideals. Two examples that Klein provides, is that
of Anti-Israel blogs that open up discourse to anti-Semitic sentiments and anti-immigration blogs
Hate and the Internet 6
that lead the way to anti-Hispanic sentiment. The guise of a mainstream political blog or news
media blog provides a false veil of credibility.
The Blogosphere is just one element of the internet’s resources used by society
disseminate ideologies. As listed before, forums, chat, and image boards also present opinion and
information in an openly available format. Moreover, this openly available network of ideology
has the potential to create communities with similar cultural mores and ideas. Another element of
the internet that more directly creates interpersonal connection through networks is social
networking sites. The creation of social networks in recent years present an ever growing portion
of the internet.
Social Networking Sites
In recent years social networking sites have become one of the most prominently used
types of websites on the internet. While a blog is a communication of one person’s opinions and
positions to a group of readers, a social networking site, such as Facebook, creates a peer group
online. Social networking sites provide a place, online, for individuals to connect with friends in
a brief, and intermittent, yet continuous format. A major difference between blogs and social
networking sites is that it builds upon a real world, not-online, peer framework. The purpose of
social networking is to create interpersonal connections between individuals.
Boyd and Ellison (2007) discuss the cultural context that social networking sites create
surrounding shared interests, political views, or shared racial, sexual, religious, or nationalitybased identities. Boyd and Nicole offer a working definition of social networking sites. Social
networking sites are a web-based service that allows three things, the first being the construction
of an online semi-public or public profile within a bound system. This bound system is created
for the purpose of building an online persona within the social networking site. The second part
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is the creation of a list of members with whom information is shared. The third part is the ability
to interact within this network of kindred individuals on a continuous basis. These three
components contribute to the ability of the internet to host online communities. Part of this
facilitation of community creation on the internet is to create pathways to communicate on the
internet. Forums and Chat sites are central to this.
Forums and Chat
Another type of website format present on the internet is composed of forums and chat
websites. These communication mediums represent a micro element of the internet in its most
basic form. Communication is central to expressing ideology and creating community on the
web. Chat and forums are the most basic medium.
Gifford (2006) describes chat rooms as a place, albeit virtual, that allows people to type
each other messages in real-time or read others conversations in real time. Gifford conducted an
ethnographic study of a chat room for trauma and abuse survivors. During her study Gifford
noted that community exists even within just the basic element of chat, that basic element being
conversation. This community is held together with rules and shared identity. Rules exist,
however some chat is moderated by individuals, aptly labeled “mods”. Not all chats have
moderators. The moderators are most often volunteers. These moderators are given power to
apply sanctions by the host of the chat-site, the proprietor of the web domain. The sanctions
vary from a forced disconnect from the site’s server, to a permanent ban of the individuals IP
address, the address that identifies the person to the website.
Gifford identified rules and norms for the website that the moderators used as guidelines
for their duties. The rules apply responsibility to participants in the chat rooms. An age limit of
eighteen years or older is one rule. Another is the responsibility of the participant to not take out
Hate and the Internet 8
anger or frustrations or be disrespectful to others within the chat room. Rules and norms differ
from site to site.
Gifford (2006) also discusses the two types of communities that can arise from
chat sites. The first is a pre-existing physical community that adds an electronic resource as a
communication tool. The second is a geographically dispersed virtual community formed out of
common interests.
Forums are much the same as Chat communities, in that they are a medium to provide
communication between groups and individuals, except they do not operate in real time. Forums
are discontinuous communication that is often exchange based, or taken in turns. Replies are
posted in a semi-permanent setting. A forum is far easier to archive, as the postings remain part
of the website.
All the resources of the internet, including forums and chat communication mediums
provide an invaluable tool to express ideology and to be exposed to new cultural elements within
society. However, the internet is not a guaranteed resource for all members of society.
Internet Access and Demographics
The internet serves as an important tool and resource at a global level for families and
households. Access to the internet provides convenient and sometimes necessary, indirect, access
to income, education, and news or current events. Access to the internet has become much less
expensive and far more convenient in recent years. However, there are still socio-economic
barriers that prevent some households from readily accessing the internet and it’s many
advantages.
Socio-economic class is a heavy determining factor in access to the internet. Chaudhuri,
Flamm, and Horrigan (2005) explored the different contributors to the likeliness of a household
Hate and the Internet 9
or individual having access to the internet. This study used two existing data sets collected in the
form of surveys of US Households by the Pew Internet and American Life Project, collected over
the phone. The study found that the more education and income a person had, the higher the
likelihood of having ready access to the internet was. Another finding of this study was that
ethnic demographics also play a part. African American’s and Hispanics are less likely to use the
internet that other ethnic categories. Persons who are married are more likely to be able access
the internet as well.
The existence of a difficulty to access the internet with a demographic context contributes
to a societal advantage for those who have access. Dissemination of cultural ideals as well as
access to knowledge provides a benefit. This access also provides access to a freedom of
expression.
Freedom of Speech
Since the advent of the internet, the idea of Freedom of Speech, within the context of the
United States of America’s Constitution, has had to be reinterpreted both at a legislative level as
well as at the level of the individual citizen. This idea of freedom of speech has expanded to
freedom of information. The idea that access to information should be a right has become a part
of recent discussions. Wicker and Santoso (2013) described internet access as being intertwined
with the capability to participate in contemporary political process and dialogue. This freedom of
expression is central to human rights. Wicker and Santoso assert that the internet takes
expression far beyond other modes of communication due to the immense amount of information
available at one’s own finger tips.
Freedom of expression on the internet also applies to fringe ideologies that fall outside of
societal norms. The First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution protects freedom of political and
Hate and the Internet 10
religious expression. To what extent is this right protected? The case of Pastor Terry Jones is an
example of inflammatory speech that is protected by the first amendment. Terry Jones sought to
express his frustration with current events in The United States by burning a Quran publicly in
the context of a religious sermon. Aaron G. Leibowitz (2013) noted that under current
interpretation of the first amendment, protected inflammatory expression, like Terry Jones’
actions, may put others’ lives at risk; in this case soldiers serving overseas in Afghanistan. Terry
Jones planned actions led to a socio-political reaction on the other side of the world that put
United States soldiers at risk of reprisal. Terry Jones actions were globally known primarily
because of the internet’s global transmission of his planned act. This speech is not only permitted
but in many cases protected as well. The internet multiplies the effect that speech of this has with
global reach. This is one example of how the internet, when combined with hate and extremist
ideology can create social problems through global transmission without moderation and
censorship.
Hate and Extremism
One area in which political ideology and freedom of speech have merged is on the
internet. As a social institution and a piece of the United States Constitution, freedom of speech
is an important element that allows United States citizens protection to express their opinions and
ideologies. However, there are ethically gray areas, with regards to freedom of speech, especially
when discussing racist, discriminatory, and inflammatory topics. The protection of political
speech that ascribes to the agenda of racial superiority, purity, racial segregation, and other views
that lay outside the norms of society are some of these gray areas. Other gray areas are political
and religious views that are polarized from each other; Roe v. Wade for example. The internet as
a modern element of society, multiplies the effect of this expression.
Hate and the Internet 11
Recent Historical Context
The United States of America, much like any other nation or society has fringe elements
that ascribe to ideologies outside of the norm. Some of this ideology represents racial ideology,
fascist nationalism, and support of segregation. These elements of American Society became
illicit and deviant with the passing of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, during the 1960’s civil rights
movement. However, even with the passing of several different acts, these fringe groups
continue to operate under the guise of political and ideological free speech. One example of this
is the organization known as the Ku Klux Klan.
With the passing of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 the United States Federal Government
institutionalized programs to eliminate hate groups. Drabble (2008) describes a program called
“COINTELPRO-White Hate” as the Federal Bureau of Investigation’s work to reduce the
effectiveness of the Ku Klux Klan’s ability to operate. The FBI accomplished this by targeting
leaders and parent groups, such as the United Klans of America, and using counter intelligence
techniques to create fake communications, frame leaders as spies, and create fear among the rank
and file members of the organizations.
Drabble (2008) continues to chronicle the efforts of the federal government and their
prosecution of members for terrorist acts, however also chronicled the difficulties of attaining
convictions against the Ku Klux Klan members. One of the difficulties that the Federal
Government had with prosecution was the cooperation of local law enforcement, in Alabama for
example. An issue of this is that members of local law enforcement were often members of the
extremist group in question.
Prior to the civil rights movement, the Ku Klux Klan had a role in the creation of
communities and racial movement and migration in the post World War Two southern United
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States. The Ku Klux Klan’s acts of terror and aggression manipulated interracial movements that
opposed white supremacy in the southern states, such as Alabama. This was also affected by the
voting power of the segregationists, those who condoned the old ways prior to the Civil Rights
Act of 1964 (Drabble, 2008). The former legislation was the foundation that the Ku Klux Klan
wanted to keep in place.
Hate and Extremism in Politics
The Ku Klux Klan persisted through the governmental efforts to shut them down by
shifting their ideological struggle to the political realm and the socialization and proselytization
of their racial ideals. The Ku Klux Klan is a historical organization that in many ways sprouted
new groups that exist in the political realm. One of these groups is the Nationalist Party of
America. Dentice (2011) explores the Nationalist Party of America, it’s motivations, and it’s
leader, Billy Roper, in detail. Billy Roper is an example of a public figure who strives to push
fringe ideology very similar to the Ku Klux Klan’s ideology into legislation through political
office. Roper seeks public office as a fiscal conservative who aspires to represent White
American’s interests over those of minorities. Roper’s followers are often former Skin-heads,
neo-Nazis, and Ku Klux Klan members. Roper Identifies himself as a White Nationalist. Billy
Roper has positioned himself as a valid candidate that could use tea party inroads to gain
election.
These hate groups and communities seek political representation of their ideals. The
Nationalist Party of America is a good example of this. Another example given by Dentice
(2008) is the political successes of David Duke, a former Ku Klux Klan Grand Wizard that
gained a seat in the Louisiana Legislature in 1990 and held the seat until 1992. He has run for
many offices, including the office of the President of the United States.
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Dentice (2008) looks at the information age, the advent of the internet, as a window of
opportunity for another situation like that of David Duke with federal level effects. The
availability of the internet as a form of expression and proselytization is a large benefit to Roper.
This is a medium that did not exist in a functional form during David Duke’s efforts to gain
elected office. The creation of a constituency and voting base for Roper comes largely from the
availability to reach and socialize individuals to his deviant and extremist ideology.
Socialization and Institutionalization of Deviance
The Ku Klux Klan operates on a heavy foundation of socialization. Bates (2007)
chronicles his interaction with the Ku Klux Klan, noting that children are extremely important to
the community. Mothers and Fathers want to pass down their belief system to their children. In
his observations, Bates found that children are protected aggressively and socialized to continue
the race ideology of their parents.
Another form of socialization within the Ku Klux Klan and other hate groups is that of
gender socialization. According to Blee (1996) women most often separate themselves from
politics and ideology within extremist racist communities. Their only political involvement is
through men. Their boyfriend’s, husband’s, or father’s ideology is their ideology.
Blee also discusses a contrasting effort on behalf of fringe hate ideological groups to
diversify membership beyond the southern white male. Blee is creating an image that the women
are socialized with the male ideologies and norms. The other part of the picture is that the female
population within these groups is growing far more active. One problem that Blee points out is
the lack of scholarly work concerning female activity within the racist and hate community.
Socialization and the institutionalization of cultural ideals are central to the survival of
ideologies within society. This is even further essential to fringe ideologies outside of society’s
Hate and the Internet 14
norms. The internet facilitates the socialization and institutionalization of these groups’
ideologies. Furthermore it assists in the propagation of these groups.
Extremist and Hate Groups on the Internet
The internet as a societal tool allows for global expression and dissemination of ideology.
This is as true for information and opinions concerning hobbies and news as it is for extremist
and hate ideology. The internet allows hate groups and extremist groups to propagate and
progress their group with members that they may never have had the opportunity to reach prior
to the advent of the internet. For this reason the internet has become a haven for hate groups and
extremism.
Early Online Hate and Extremism
The earliest recorded instance of the use of the internet to propagate a racist and extremist
agenda within the United States was by a man named Louis Beam. Stern (2001) chronicled the
recent history of the use of computer networks by Louis Beam to promote anti-government
rhetoric prior to the popular arrival of the home personal computer. Louis Beam called for acts
of sedition, including the assassination of progressive political leaders and FBI agents. In the
1980’s the use of computer networks was novelty due to personal computers still being
extremely new to the market. This weakened the effect that Louis’ network had. Gerstenfeld,
Grant, and Chiang (2003) chronicled the efforts of Tom Metzger, a white supremacist leader in
the mid 1980’s, to create online bulletin boards
By the 1990’s a few hundred online bulletin boards were in use by racist groups (Stern,
2001). This use evolved to the use of less secure newsgroups, also known as Usenet. The use of
the internet by anti-government extremist groups continued to propagate up to the Oklahoma
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City Federal Building Bombing in 1995. Timothy McVeigh, the man convicted of the bombing
was a follower of the Usenet groups and the online extremist ideologies.
Following the Oklahoma City Bombing, society witnessed the founding of the first
website dedicated to the extremist, nationalist, and racist ideologies. Don Black, a long-standing
neo-Nazi, served prison time for a failed attempt at capturing the small island of Dominica to
attempt to form a government that supported his ideology and agenda. During his prison time
Black learned about computers and the internet. Don Black followed the example of David
Duke, a friend of his, and made attempts to modernize the movement and make it more
presentable to the public. From this Stormfront was founded (Stern, 2001).
Meddaugh and Kay (2009) took a look at Stormfront from the perspective of identity and
how identity is attributed to individuals in society through the discussion of the in group and out
group in a rhetorical content analysis. The in group is the self, the oppressed white man who is
threatened by ideological opponents. The out group, according to Meddaugh and Kay, can be
described in four ways. The “other as tyrannical” looks at the out group as an oppressor, the
federal government as a racial state. The “other as a manipulator” represents the fear of Jewish
society as the puppet master. The “other as genocidal” represents the cooperative effort of Blacks
and Jews to eliminate white culture and society. The “other as inferior” targets the AfricanAmerican demographic as well as other non-white demographics. This rhetoric the Stormfront
uses to represent the threat to their agenda is at the core of their ideologies. Through this fear
and common ideologies, Stormfront created a strong virtual community. The first of its’ kind, the
only predecessor being the weak network of bulletin boards and usenet, Stormfront set a
precedent for online extremist groups to follow in community building.
Hate and the Internet 16
Hate and Extremism in Online Communities
The creation of differing online communities with hate and extremist views, and in turn a
like minded online society as a whole with hate and extremist views has been a huge benefit to
persons who hold racist and extremist ideologies. The benefit created is the result of the negation
of the factor of geographical location and the creation of a more efficient medium of expression
and communication via the internet. The communities are made up of individuals whom without
the internet would most likely never have met offline. The creation of communities is central to
the survival of fringe ideology that functions outside the norms of society.
Hate groups and extremist communities on the internet form out of similar ideology. This
foundation upon similar ideology creates a bond between individuals that may never meet in real
life. Brown (2009) explores the ideology of such online extremist groups by specifically
exploring the construction of a Whiteness Ideology. Brown’s study examines three online
websites using qualitative content analysis to take a look at ideology. These three sites were
chosen through yahoo.com listings. The National Alliance, Stormfront, and Church of the
Creator were examined by Brown, specifically using three criteria. The first criterion was that of
words, clichés, and phrases that created exaggerated racial ascriptions, specifically towards
Blacks. The second looked for racial stereotypes and labels that focused upon racial stereotypes.
The third criterion was that of linking key linguistic devices to the creation of white supremacist
discourse. Browns focus was a creation of hate speech that framed the Ideologies of these three
communities. Brown’s conclusion found that this creation of the idea that Black’s opposed the
Whiteness ideology, increasing the strength of the communities ideological connection.
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Ideology of Hate Groups
Shared ideology is the glue the holds communities together. Online, ideology shapes the
actions and expression of individuals beyond just meaningless interaction or banter that many
websites propagate. Angie et al. (2011) explores the elements of ideology within online extremist
and hate groups. Ideological groups are held together by similar beliefs and shared values. The
population used in the case study was made up of a list of ideological groups that both were
labeled violent and nonviolent, as well as ideological and non-ideological. Angie et al. used a
Kruskal-Wallis test, stated as equivalent to an ANOVA, to measure the intercorrelations and
differences between the website communities.
Angie et al.’s measurements looked at the formation of values and identity within the
online communities. These values form the framework for the ideology that in turn shapes the
actions of the members. Angie asserts the creation of community through the expression of the
individual. The individual, through expression of the shared ideology, becomes a stronger
member of the online community. Their identity is affirmed as a member of the community.
Furthermore, the creation of this identity as a member pressures the individual to ascribe to the
moral norms of the community. The growth of the internet has allowed the growth and
expansion of Ideological groups. Angie et al. (2011) concluded that there is an undeniable impact
from the internet on group communication and membership.
An example of shared ideology on the internet, within a hate group, is that of active selfdefense. This ideology pertains to the idea that Whiteness is under attack by other races. Active
Self Defense, according to Douglas et al. (2005), is the response to this idea that Whiteness is
under attack. Douglas et al. conducted an investigative study on the tactics used by violent online
racist communities for self enhancement. Douglas et al. used a population selected from The
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Hate Directory, an online database of hate groups and websites based upon violence. Douglas et
al. found that this shared ideology of Active self-defense is one example of creativity. One form
of creativity that propagates and assists in the survival of extremist ideology is the
proselytization and globalization of extremist and racist ideology.
Proselytization and Globalization of Extremist Ideology
Hate groups have gained a significant benefit with the advent of the internet. The
efficient cultural transmission of ideology through the internet has led to a global audience and
recruitment pool. The internet has allowed individuals that never would have met or shared
ideologies to come face to face, virtually. Perry and Ollson (2009) examined the globalization of
cyberhate as a form of entrenching and facilitation of a global movement. Perry and Ollson assert
this benefit by stating that the globalization of technology has assisted with the increase of online
hate groups and cyberhate related activity on a global level.
Gerstenfeld, Grant, and Chiang (2003) state, in their content analysis, that the internet is
used for a variety of purposes by internet hate groups. Two of the primary purposes are
communication between current members, and recruitment of new members. Gerstenfeld et al.
conducted a qualitative content analysis of web content within extremist and hate groups online.
Their population was determined through the use of www.hatewatch.org and was made up of
157 websites. The criteria used was categorical in nature, the categories being: type of site
(targeted demographic), external links and where they lead, content type including language and
ideology, and membership type. Gerstenfeld et al. found that internet communities rely heavily
on globalization to make prosecution and sanctions difficult for governments. These
communities also rely on internet recruitment at both a domestic level and a globalized level.
Hate and the Internet 19
What aspects of these communities promote recruitment and growth? How can theory be
applied to the proselytization of Extremist Ideology? Deviant behavior, especially within
criminal elements of society is often looked at from the theoretical perspective of Differential
Association.
Edwin Sutherland and Differential Association
Edwin Sutherland was a major deviance theorist who authored the Theory of Differential
Association. Edwin Sutherland’s theoretical contributions to social science concerned the origins
of criminally deviant behavior. Using a symbolic interactionism perspective, one of Sutherland’s
approaches towards these social issues studied the interaction between individuals as well as
membership in groups. From this perspective Edwin Sutherland created Differential Association
Theory (Goodwin, 2013).
During Professor Goodwin’s lectures, he detailed Differential Association Theory.
Sutherland’s theory focused on deviance as a learned behavior within a group setting.
Furthermore, this deviation from societal norms can lead to criminal behavior. This can occur
with solo behavior as well as group behavior. Hochstetler, Copes, and De Lisi (2002) explore
the theory of Differential Association within the context of learned behavior. Hochstetler et al.
explain that pressures from cohorts within a deviant group can affect the social norms within said
group and set an influential example.
Hochstetler et al. (2002) studied the likelihood that a youth would commit a crime based
upon data sets from the 1970’s-1980’s. Their focus was on whether crime was committed alone
or in a group context. The study incorporated the responses of the participants regarding attitudes
towards deviance, perceptions of friend’s attitudes towards deviance, and perceptions towards
peer participation in the offenses. Hochstetler et al. found that all three of these elements were
Hate and the Internet 20
significant determinants. This look at Differential Association Theory shows us that
membership in group behavior is affected by peer involvement. Does this extend to internet
deviance?
Conclusion and Discussion
The internet has played the role of modernization and globalization of Socio-political
Ideology. Deviant ideology has much farther reaching breadth with the advent of the internet
carrying it. How does this affect the cultural elements of online hate groups and extremist
communities?
When looking at extremist and hate groups that exist on the internet how does a
researcher approach examining the cultural elements of the community? Differential Association
Theory as applied to deviance may explain some of the elements that contribute to the
propagation of extremist ideology and racism on the internet. In conclusion the next logical step
is to explore Sutherland’s Differential Association Theory in the context of online deviance.
Specifically, research can be directed towards the creation of cultural elements in online
extremist and racist communities.
Research Questions
R1: What elements of Sutherland’s Differential Association Theory are part of Extremist Hate
group websites online?
R2: In what ways do cultural elements such as symbolism, ideology, and language transfer to the
internet?
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R3: How do Hate Groups and Extremist Groups proselytize to individuals who are not part of
the community?
R4:What socio-political elements are present in Extremist and Hate group communities on the
Internet?
Methods
Population
The population used for this research was made up of twenty-five websites that are
categorized as having extremist or hate ideology. Initial methods for finding research subjects
included names of organizations from the “Hate Map” from the Southern Poverty Law Center
(SPLC), which were then searched by using a Google search by name. This method proved
difficult, as there was no definitive sample list. The SPLC Hate Map has repeated organizations
as it is organized into and listed by States. Groups that overlapped are listed in many states.
After initial methods were exhausted, snowballing from external web links within the
researched groups was utilized. This allowed for similar ideological hate groups to be
researched. One drawback could be that this would narrow the demographic.
Measures
The research instrument utilized for this research was an open-ended survey with 4
sections. This survey conducted a qualitative content analysis of the 25 websites making up the
population. The first section, Cultural Elements, evaluated the cultural aspects of each group.
Measure 1)”Is there specific Jargon and language?” Elaborated with “Is it Derogatory and
Explicit?” This evaluated the use of culture specific terminology as well as gave specific
examples of “hate speech”. Measure 2) “Is Symbolism Apparent?” elaborated with “If so, what
kind of symbolism?” and “Colors?” evaluates the existence of symbolism within each group.
Hate and the Internet 22
Measure 3) “Is there a membership to the group?” Evaluated with “Type? Paid? And Cost?
Description:” evaluates the existence of an in group and membership to the group. Measure 4)
“Does the group meet up offline, if observable?” evaluates the existence of the hate group
outside of the Internet.
The second section of the research instrument, Proselytization, evaluated the active or
inactive state of recruitment through social and membership connections. Measure 5) “Is access
limited by a membership?” Evaluated the level of restriction for non-member access to the
website. Measure 6) “Is the number of members stated?” Evaluated the use of population
numbers to recruit. Measure 7) “Does the site reach out to members of the out group? (I.e. Non
Aryans)” evaluated the restrictions on interaction with outside communities and individuals and
the level of strict membership of a group. Measure 8) “Are there weblinks to other groups with
similar ideology and beliefs?” evaluated and provided examples of community links and macro
communities. Measure 9) “Are there other extremist site advertised?” evaluated the placement of
advertisements on the site including commercial advertisement.
The third section of the research instrument, Socio-political elements, evaluated the
connection groups had to political ideology. Measure 10) “Does the group label itself with a
political view?(I.e. Libertarian, republican, nationalist, separatist, etc.)” evaluated the political
identity of the group. Measure 11) “Does the group link to a political campaign /candidate
pages?” evaluated the connection between the group and political campaign finance and support.
Measure 12) “Does the group support/endorse candidates?” elaborated on previous measure.
Measure 13) “Does the group claim to raise money for political efforts?” Elaborates on the
previous two measures. Measure 14) “Does the group ‘ educate’ on policy, voting, and political
efforts?” evaluated the group’s efforts to socialize and politically indoctrinate members.
Hate and the Internet 23
The final section of the research instrument, Sutherlands Differential Association,
evaluates the application of Edwin Sutherlands theory to the groups. Measure 15) “Is there a list
of norms? (platform, credo, etc.)” evaluated the groups governing and teaching of behavior and
ideology to members. Measure 16) “Is there an ideological statement?” evaluated the groups
specificity in ideology. This measure looked for a specific statement or phrase. Measure 17)
“Are there education resources? Description? For free?” evaluated the aspect of teaching deviant
ideology to members.There was also space for field notes concerning each area on the research
instrument.
Procedures
Each section of the research instrument was applied to the sample qualitatively and
descriptively. Examples were provided for each measure when needed. Each website had a
different structure or purpose. This made applying the measures different for different
circumstances. The data collected was analyzed proportionally and comparatively. Data was
qualitatively described.
Results
The aforementioned research instrument was applied to twenty-five hate groups as
indicated by the hate map at the Southern Poverty Law Center. The ideologies, symbolism,
religious belief, and socio-political beliefs among other elements separate the demographic into
several categories.
Demographics
Within the twenty five sample sites the demographic information for the different
communities is limited as the study focused on the websites and communities and not specific
individuals. The websites do not represent specific individuals with few exceptions, one being
Hate and the Internet 24
David Duke, as seen with European-American Unity and Rights Organization. Geographically,
all but one site was hosted in the U.S., the exception being the Racial Volunteer Force being
from the United Kingdom. Further geographic location is vague or not observable as the study
was conducted on the internet and there being much overlap from state to state. Ideology also
separated the sites categorically.
The twenty-five website sample can be evaluated based upon ideology. However, there is
too much overlap for there to be demographic categories. The ideological elements within the
sample included white supremacism, anti-Semetic, anti-Islamic, racist, anti-multicultural,
fundamentalist Christian, and homophobic.
Symbolism
The first section of the research instrument concerned the visual representation of culture
and symbolism, also including language on the different sites. Eight out of twenty-five, or 32%,
of the web communities showed patriotic symbolism. The American Freedom Party
(american3rdposition.com) represented this with Eagle’s, the Liberty Bell, and the American
Flag as part of the banner for the site. The Loyal White Knights of the Ku Klux Klan
(www.kkkknights.com) displayed the American Flag alongside the Confederate Flag. The
Nationalist Socialist Movement expressed this symbolism with swastikas that had red white and
blue American Flag motif.
Eight of the twenty-five site sample (32%) had religious symbolism present. The
Creativity Movement (creativitymovement.net), stated as a non-theistic religion, displayed
original symbolism for their world belief. This was described as the “Simulacrum Candidus”
which represented the sanctity of the white race. The Creativity Alliance (creativityalliance.com)
used the same symbolism. Another example of this is the Aryan Nations (www.aryan-
Hate and the Internet 25
nation.org), which uses a sigil made up of a Shield, Crown, and Sword representing different
aspects of Christianity and the White Races.
Seven of the twenty-five sites (28%) displayed Nazi or German Nationalist symbolism.
All of these seven sites displayed swastikas. Some other unique examples include The American
Nazi Party (americannaziparty.com) using actual Nazi Brown Shirt uniforms, the Racial
Volunteer Force (rvfonline.com) displaying a Thunderbird grasping a three pointed Swastika (As
opposed to the four pronged), and the Sadistic Souls MC (sadisticsoulsmc.org) using the Nazi SS
logo.
Five of the twenty-five site samples (20%) displayed symbolism of ethnic heritage. The
National Socialist Movement displayed Germanic and Celtic symbols. The National Vanguard
used Futhark, an ancient Northern European rune script. Faith and Heritage’s primary display is
a Celtic cross.
Three of the twenty-five site sample (12%) had confederate symbolism. The League of
the South (dixienet.org), Loyal White Knights of the Ku Klux Klan (kkkknights.com), and The
Hammerskin Nation (hammerskins.net) all displayed the flag of the Confederacy.
Language, Terminology, and Jargon
Sixteen of the twenty-five websites (64%) used a set of jargon. This included racial or
racist terminology, socio-political terminology, spiritual or biblical terminology, anti-Semitic or
anti-Islamic, and biological or scientific jargon. Thirteen of the twenty-five websites (52%) used
racial or racist terminology. This included derogatory terms used for outgroups, such as
“Nigger”, “mudraces”, and so on; as well as terms used for the ingroup, Aryan for example. The
Hammerskin Nation (hammerskins.net) used the word “Nigger” repeatedly. Stormfront
Hate and the Internet 26
(stormfront.org) hosted the posting of racist derogatory statements from users. Stormfront was a
forum based web service.
Concerning anti-Semitic terminology or language, ten of the twenty-five (40%) websites
used derogatory descriptive terms for the Jewish people. The National Socialist Freedom
(nsfm.sharepoint.com) Movement made references to a “Jewish Parasite” as well as the
“Holocaust hoax”, The Creativity Alliance (creativityalliance.com) referred to Jews as being a
deadly enemy. Jewishfaces (jewishfaces.com) a site created to “out” Jewish celebrities, made
descriptive references to Jewish hair and Jewish noses. On both Aryan Nations (Aryannation.org) and the Aryan Kindred Church of Yahweh there are repeated statements that Jews are
the children of Satan. One site (4%) posted anti-Islamic terminology in the form of criticism and
warnings of Islamic takeover. Islamicthreat.com used Islamic terms such as Sharia and Jihad in a
negative context.
Six of the twenty-five websites (24%) used spiritual or biblical terminology. Both the
Creativity Movement (http://creativitymovement.net/) and the Creativity Alliance
(creativityalliance.com) use terminology and language consistent with their created religion.
Members of the organizations are called “Creators”. Healthy living, according to the
community’s norms, is called Salubrious. The use of Christian Scripture can be seen with the
Westboro Baptist Church (godhatesfags.com), Aryan Nations, The Church of the Sons YHVH,
and the Aryan Kindred Church of Yahweh.
Sociopolitical terminology was present in five of the twenty-five websites (20%). The
American Freedom Party expressed their ideology using terms such as big brother, and police
state and expressed support of deregulation. The American Nationalist Union used terminology
along the lines of political belief and identified itself as a third party.
Hate and the Internet 27
Two of the twenty five sites used genetic terminology in their argument for their belief
system. The Creativity Alliance and The Creativity Movement both make use of terms such as
alleles and natural superiority in explaining their belief in White Supremacy. The Racial
Volunteer Force uses biological terms as Jargon concerning naming the elements of their
organization. A cell of several white male operators is referred to as a Leukocyte, for example.
Variable/Values
Symbolism
Patriotic
Religious/Spiritual
Nazi
Ethnic Heritage
Confederate
Language
Set of Jargon
Racist Terminology
Anti-Semitic
Biblical/Spiritual
Anti-Islamic
Socio-political
N
%
8
8
7
5
3
32
32
28
20
12
16
13
10
6
1
5
64
52
40
24
4
20
Membership
Of the twenty-five sites sampled, nineteen or 76% had membership services. One or 4%
had access to membership at one point but is no longer accessible. Five of the twenty-five sites
were not membership based. The fees for membership application varied from site to site.
Membership dues also varied.
Requirements for membership varied as well. A common requirement is that of being
white or Aryan, with seven of the twenty five sites (28%) stating this implicitly. Three (12%) of
the sites have a requirement of not being affiliated with Law Enforcement. Imperial Klans of
America (kkkk.net) states that no Jewish descent is a requirement. The Aryan Nations requires
Hate and the Internet 28
gainful employment. Race or “whiteness” is determined by a photo and a phone call by many of
the sites. Also, background checks are part of many of the applications.
Twelve of the twenty-five websites (48%) hold meetings outside of the internet. These
include conferences, rallies, as well as congregation meetings. The Council of Conservative
Citizens and The American Nazi Party both hold conferences. Aryan Nations, Sadistic Souls
MC, and the Loyal Ku Klux Klans all hold rallies. Some of the communities function in a meet
up capacity, such as the Racial Volunteer Force and the Creativity Movement.
Proselytization
Only one (4%) of the sites limited access without membership. This was Stormfront, due
to forum moderation being dependent upon membership. Only three (12%) of sites have the
amount of members posted, only within the forum sections. This included Stormfront,
Hammerskin Nation, and the American Nazi Party. One site (4%), reached out to non group
members. The American Nazi Party reached out to non Aryans as sympathizers for their cause.
Twelve out of the twenty-five sites (48%) linked to other extremist sites and
communities. The American Freedom party linked to dailykenn.com, a self proclaimed news
source that reports on black on white racial violence. The American Nazi Party linked to
whitehonor.com, and ns88records. Aryan Nations linked to many of the sites in the sample
population. These sites included Hammerskin Nation, Racial Volunteer Force, and the Aryan
Kindred Church.
Sites within the population also advertised with links and banners to other sites. The
difference between advertisement and link is that the banner was used for marketing purposes.
Seven of the twenty-five sites (28%) advertised for other sites. The National Socialist Freedom
Hate and the Internet 29
Movement linked to a site with Aryan Clothing. The League of the South advertized Southern
heritage Products and literature.
Variable/Values
Membership
White requirement
Cannot be law Enforcement
Meet ups offline
Proselytization
Linked to Similar Sites
Advertised other sites
Posted population
Limited Access w/o Membership
N
19
7
3
12
%
76
28
12
48
12
7
3
1
48
28
12
4
Sociopolitical Elements
Many of the websites within the sample showed political views. Seven out of the twentyfive sites (28%) stated a specific political belief system. This included Socialist and Nationalist,
conservative, anti-establishment, and nationalist. The American Freedom Party, for example,
declared itself a populist nationalist site and a third party. The American Nationalist Union
declared themselves a third party and represents a Nationalist viewpoint.
Many of the sites educate on policy. Nine out of the twenty-five sites (36%) educated on
policy, voting, and legislature. The American Freedom Party claims to educate on border
legislation, gun rights, and runs third party candidates. The National Socialist Freedom
Movement educates on the topic of freedom of speech. The League of the South educates on the
states’ rights to secede from the Union. Only two sites (8%) links to candidates pages, those
being the American Freedom Party and European-American Unity and Rights Organization.
EURO links to David Duke, a former political party candidate that was a member of the Ku Klux
Klan.
Hate and the Internet 30
Variable/Values
Sociopolitical Elements
Stated Political Belief System
Educated on Policy, Voting, etc.
Linked to Candidates Page
N
%
7
9
2
28
36
8
Sutherland’s Differential Association
The websites all have information on the sites and specific belief systems. Eighteen of the
twenty-five (72%) websites in the sample have a list of norms or a platform posted on their page.
The National Socialist Movement and the National Socialist Freedom Movement for example,
have a twenty-five point thesis posted in twenty-one different languages. It demands changes to
how the United States is governed. The creativity movement and the Creativity Alliance both use
the same holy book and 16 commandments while differentiating themselves from each other at
the same time. Both the Imperial Klans of America and the Aryan Nations have the list of
statements starting with the phrase “We Believe” outlining their belief system and ideologies.
Eight of the twenty-five (32%) sites displayed an ideological statement. This statement is
differentiated from a platform or list of norms by clarifying it as a motto, slogan, or phrase. Both
the American Nazi Party and the Hammerskin nation use the same “14 words”, those being “We
must secure the existence of our people and a future for White Children”. Westboro Baptist
Church uses the same phrase as their domain name “God Hates Fags”. The European-American
Unity and Rights Organization uses “Equal Rights For All – Even European Americans”
Eighty-eight percent, or twenty-two out of twenty-five websites provide access to
educational materials in several different ways. Many of the sources are free access to articles,
ebooks, and online materials, as is the case with the League of the South, United Northern and
Southern Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, the Aryan Kindred Church of the YHVH, and Faith and
Heritage. Another form is a periodical in the form of a newspaper or magazine. This is the case
Hate and the Internet 31
seen with the American Nationalist Union, the National Socialist Movement, American Nazi
Party, and the National Alliance/ Vanguard. Also books, cassettes, compact discs, and
recordings are sold. There is also access to youtube videos by most of the sites.
Variable/Values
Differential Association
Provided Education Materials
Specific List of Norms, Platform, etc.
Meet ups offline
N
%
22
18
8
88
72
32
Discussion and Conclusion
Culture, Symbolism, and Language
The transition of culture from in person, interpersonal transmission, and “real world”
circumstances to an online virtual format is one of the most significant changes to occur in
society in recent history. This is no different in the deviant sub cultures and counter cultures of
society. The internet has the capability of increasing the reach of the message of a deviant
subculture far beyond the boundaries of real interpersonal interaction. This is not to say that
online interaction is not real interpersonal interaction. Online interaction and transmission of
culture, socialization and teaching allows a broader context of imagination. You can talk to
someone you have never met; become friends three thousand miles away.
In reviewing literature, no studies were found that explored the creation of extremist
communities on the internet. Literature explained how the internet is structurally formed as well
as how hate is propagated. With a solid foundation on the history of racism, some of the groups,
as well as the foundations of the internet itself, there was a realization that the creation of a
unique study was required. Exploration of culture required descriptive qualitative data.
The development of online cultures is observable in the symbolism represented by the
sample in this study. Patriotism, Racism, Nazi Symbolism, and religious symbolism are all
Hate and the Internet 32
present. In some ways contradictory symbolism can become intertwined. This is seen with the
American Nazi Party’s use of the Swastika adorned with the Flag of the United States of
America, historically enemies. Also when the American Flag is flown next to a Confederate
Flag this overlap of ideology is observed, again with historical enemies. Ethnic Heritage can be
seen in a smaller portion of sites through connection to ancestral descent and the use of runes or
script. This is all representative of pride in the counterculture or subculture present on the sites.
When observations are made concerning the use of language and terminology, the
deviant beliefs, discriminatory beliefs, and the sociopolitical systems begin to come into focus. A
large percentage, 64%, of the websites use a specific set of jargon. The sites used racist or racial
terminology, socio-political terminology, legalese, spiritual or biblical terminology, anti-Semitic
or anti-Islamic terminology, and in some cases genetic or scientific terminology. This use of
different jargons and sets of terms makes clear the perspective and motives of a website.
Fifty-two percent made use of racial or racist terminology. This included the use of
derogatory race terms such as “Nigger”, speaking negatively of “mudraces”, while also including
speaking of White Superiority. Forty percent of the sites used Anti-Semitic terminology. This
included references to Jews being the children of Satan as well as insinuating that the Jewish
Holocaust was a hoax. This language is considered deviant in the public arena. On the internet it
is used frequently and without hesitancy. Some of the sites use scientific jargon to justify their
deviant beliefs concerning race. The use of the word Allele was noted on two different sites, The
Creativity Movement and the Creativity Alliance.
Biblical or spiritual terminology was also used by several of the sites. This indicates a
deeper connection to in group membership. The Creativity Alliance and The Creativity
Movement both had terminology devised specifically for their belief systems. This included the
Hate and the Internet 33
use of Latin as well as the creation of new distinct words, Salubrious for example. This creation
of terminology could create a more solid group cohesion. The Aryan Nations and the churches,
such as the Aryan Kindred Church of Yahweh, The Church of the Sons of YHVH, and the
Westboro Baptist Church use scripture and biblical terms to frame their ideologies and express
their belief systems. This creates connections to mainstream Christian ideology while
maintaining their deviant beliefs concerning the interpretation of the bible within the context of
race, natural law, and superiority.
A smaller portion of the sites (20%) used sociopolitical terminology. The expression of
extreme political views phrased in a moderate way again seems to be an effort to merge with the
mainstream. An example of this, the American Freedom Party, labels itself as a third party and
with that relegates itself to be within the realm of the American Democracy, despite the fact that
third party candidates usually weaken their ideological kindred.
Membership and Proselytization
These web communities function with the idea that their beliefs and ideologies are
spreading. That being said, membership of a website is important. Seventy-six percent of the
websites surveyed had membership based services. An interesting aspect of this is that
membership in many of the sites provided only a subscription to a newsletter or magazine.
Membership often supported the community financially with fees and dues. The requirements
for membership differ from community to community and are expressed on the applications. The
most prevalent of these, the requirement of being white or Aryan, clearly establishes an in group.
One site, The American Nazi party, reached out to the out group, labeling them as sympathizers
if they chose to support the site. The out groups in this context were non Aryans who cannot be
members because of their ethnicity.
Hate and the Internet 34
The online world is not completely separated from the offline world. Many of these
groups meet up offline for national conferences, rallies, or protests. Some of the sites function in
a brick and mortar form with the internet acting as a source of proselytizing. These meet ups
contradict the use of the Internet as a haven for deviant beliefs and ideology. That being said
many of the meet ups are portrayed as family friendly and completely legal affairs.
It is interesting that the sites are for the most part not limited by membership, meaning
you do not require a membership to access most of the content. Only Stromfront, a forum limited
the access of non-members. This was due to the difficulty of moderating non-members posting.
Forty-eight percent of the sites linked to other sites. This effectively creates an online network of
deviant communities. This made it easy to traverse the larger community of extremist ideology
sites online. This seemingly made it much more efficient to reach out for new members or have
overlap with similar communities.
Socio-political Elements
A portion of the sites surveyed, 28%, specifically identified a political ideology. This
ranged from socialist nationalist to conservative, to anti-establishment ideologies. A repeated
theme on the different sites was deregulation and reduction of the powers of the federal
government. This is seen in the National Socialist Movement, the American Nationalist Union,
and the Council of Conservative Citizens. Ascribing to political ideology polarizes the belief
systems and could lead to a stronger homogenous in group membership. Two of the sites linked
to specific candidates, taking ideology from a belief system to action in the political arena. This
is seen with the European-American Unity and Rights Organization (EURO) with David Duke,
aforementioned in the Literature Review. This is also seen with the American Freedom Party
Hate and the Internet 35
which runs third party candidates. Thirty-six percent of the sites made efforts to educate on
policy and politics.
Sutherland’s Differential Association
Sutherland’s differential association theory looks at deviant behavior and how it is
learned, or taught. Taking this and applying it to the online communities in the sample required
looking at the norms, ideologies, and education methods of the groups. Seventy-two percent of
the websites had a set of norms or a platform outlined in a formal way. This took the form of a
dedicated page for norms or a platform, as seen with the American Freedom Party, or the
National Alliance/Vanguard. Another form of this is religious commandments as seen with the
Creativity Movement and Creativity Alliance. The National Socialist Movement posted a
platform in twenty-one different languages. Many of the sites used biblical scripture and
interpretation of said scripture to frame the ideology and norms of the community.
With a formal list of norms to follow, new members have the opportunity to acquaint
themselves with the norms and mores, as well as the stricter rules of the community. This
socialization to the norms of the subculture, the deviant counterculture, is an important element
of Differential Association. These individuals become part of the in group and in turn become
less and less associated with the norms of regular society.
Added to this is the eighty-eight percent of the sample that provides educational
materials. These materials, some free while some is for sale, provide another source of
socialization and enculturation into these communities. The deviant ideology is further
reinforced by these materials. The materials include books, magazines, sermons, radio
recordings, propaganda pieces, and articles. All of which provide information from the
communities perspective.
Hate and the Internet 36
Conclusion
Looking at these twenty-five sites provided qualitative support for the application of
Edwin Sutherland’s Differential Association Theory. Deviant ideology and behavior is both
taught and learned by members of these sites. Education is central to a significant majority of the
sites in both free and for sale forms. The norms of the sites are outlined and set a framework for
social expectations and ideology. The development and transfer of culture online is very present
in terms of symbolism, the use of language and terminology, and ideology. Sociopolitical
elements are present as well, again in the form of education as well as in a smaller part support
for third party politics.
However, there may be a few weaknesses in this study. The sample was relatively small.
This was due to very little population information available. Post current study, a clearer picture
of what can be studied in more depth can be seen. Future studies in virtual ethnographic form
would be very beneficial to understand the culture and communities. These said studies could be
conducted with one community as the subject of the study.
In conclusion, the internet has become a new home for hate, and extremism. Societal
sanctions are prevented due to the internet being a fairly un-moderated medium of
communication and social existence. Communities that are too deviant to exist in comfort offline
can easily find a home on the internet. Added to this the efficiency and ease of communication
and spreading of ideology on the internet is a solid benefit to these extremist hate communities.
This is an important subject that requires far more research to explore different aspects.
Hate and the Internet 37
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Hate and the Internet 39
Appendix A:
Research Instrument
Hate and the Internet 40
Research Instrument
Cultural Elements
1. Is there use of specific jargon and language? Yes
2. Is it Derogatory and Explicit? (Racial Terminology for example) What language, terms, words are
used?
3. Is symbolism apparent?
a. If so, what kind of symbolism:
4. Is there a membership to the group?
a. Type? Paid? Cost? Description:
5. Does the group meet up offline, if observable?
Notes:
Proselytization
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Is access limited by a membership? No
Is the number of Members stated? (population) No
Does the site reach out to members of the out-group? (I.e. Non Aryan’s) Not observed
Are their web links to other groups with similar ideology and beliefs?
Are there other extremist sites advertised?
Notes:
Socio-political elements
11. Does the group label itself with a political view? (I.e. Libertarian, republican, nationalist,
separatist, etc)? If so which one?
12. Does the group link to political campaign/candidate pages?
13. Does the group support/endorse candidates?
14. Does the group claim to raise money for political efforts?
15. Does the group “educate” on policy, voting, and political actions?:
Notes:
Sutherlands Differential Association
16. Is there a list of norms (platform, credo, etc.)?
17. Is there an ideological statement?
18. Are there educational resources? Description? For free?
Notes:
Hate and the Internet 41
Appendix B
Web Domain Directory for Research Sample
Hate and the Internet 42
Web Domain Directory
The American Freedom Party - http://american3rdposition.com/
American Nationalist Union - www.anu.org
American Nazi Party (ANP) - http://www.americannaziparty.com/index.php
Aryan Kindred Church of Yahweh http://www.aryankindred.org/
Aryan Nations - http://www.aryan-nation.org/
Council of Conservative Citizens - http://topconservativenews.com/
The Creativity Alliance - http://creativityalliance.com/
The Creativity Movement - http://creativitymovement.net/
The Church of the Sons of YHVH - http://www.churchofthesonsofyhvh.org/
European-American Unity and Rights Organization (EURO) - http://www.whitecivilrights.com/
Faith and Heritage - http://faithandheritage.com/
Imperial Klans of America IKA http://www.kkkk.net/
Islamthreat.com
The Hammerskin Nation - http://www.hammerskins.net/
http://www.jewishfaces.com/
Hate and the Internet 43
League of the South - http://dixienet.org/
Loyal White Knights of the Ku Klux Klan - http://www.kkkknights.com/
National Alliance/National Vanguard - http://www.natvan.com/
National Socialist Movement - http://www.nsm88.org/
National Socialist Freedom Movement - http://nsfm.sharepoint.com/Pages/default.aspx
Racial Volunteer Force RFV [UK] - http://www.rvfonline.com/
Sadistic Souls Motorcycle Club - http://sadisticsoulsmc.org/
Stormfront - http://www.stormfront.org/
United Northern and Southern Knights of the Ku Klux Klan - http://www.unskkkk.com/home/
Westboro Baptist Church - http://www.godhatesfags.com/