Overview and Application of
Superconducting Materials
CHEN 313: Materials
Group 11
Raul Calzada
Chris Gibson
Tasnim Mohamed
Patty Soong
http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/8/8.02T/f04/visualizations/farada
y/16-superconductor/16-12_wmv320.html
Papers Used:
Overview of Superconductivity and Challenges in Applications
Entangling Superconductivity and Antiferromagnetism
Review on Superconductivity: The Phenomenon Occurred at Low Temperature
100 Years of Superconductivity and 50 Years of Superconducting Magnets
Superconductors Beyond 1-2-3
Superconducting Properties of Ag and Sb Substitution on Low-Density YBa2Cu3Ox Superconductor
Fundamentals of Materials Science and Engineering: Magnetic Properties
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Electromagnetic
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meissner_effect
Callister, W.D. 2012, 776-779.
Superconducting
materials have
electromagentic
properties, a unique
structure, are in a
special state of matter,
and will have practical
applications in the
future
http://lrrpublic.cli.det.nsw.edu.au/lrrS
ecure/Sites/Web/physics_explorer/ph
ysics/lo/superc_05/superc_05_02.ht
Cava, J.R. Sci. Amer. 1990.
http://science.nasa.gov/sciencenews/science-atnasa/2003/05feb_superconductor/
http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/education/tutorial http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/sciences/magnetacademy/mri/
at-nasa/2003/05feb_superconductor/
Introduction
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Helium liquefier completed in 1908 in
Leiden
Superconductivity first observed in 1911
by Kamerlingh Onnes
Meissner effect discovered in 1933
First superconducting magnet made in
1954 by George Ynetma
Yttrium Barium Copper Oxide
superconductor with a transition
temperature of 90 K developed in 1987
Figure 3.1: Kamerlingh Onnes
(left) and Van der Waals (right) with
the Leiden helium liquefier.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Heik
e_Kamerlingh_Onnes_and_Johannes_Dideri
k_van_der_Waals.jpg
Callister, W.D. 2012, 776-779
Wilson, N.W.; IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. 2012, 22, 3.
Figure 3.2: Walther Meissner, the
discoverer of damping of the
magnetic field in superconductors
(Meissner effect)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walther_Meissner
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Superconductivity is a state of thermodynamical equilibrium that
affects a material's electric and magnetic properties.
Superconductivity arises from an attractive interaction between
pairs of conducting electrons, and their interaction with lattice
vibrations*
It can be achieved by lowering the material temperature below its
critical temperature
Figure 4.2: Cooper pair
illustrating energy exchange
through phonon interaction.
Figure 4.1: Illustration
of cooper pairs moving
through a lattice.
Cooper pair movement
is thought to be the
reason
superconductivity
occurs.
http://wikis.lib.ncsu.edu/index.php/
Magnetic_Levitation_with_Superco
nductors
http://hyperphysics.phyastr.gsu.edu/hbase/soli
ds/coop.html
Flukiger, R. Rev. Accel. Sci. Tech. 2012, 5, 1-23.
*The advanced theory behind superconductivity is beyond the scope of the presentation
Basic Principles
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In 1957, Bardeen, Cooper, and Schrieffer (BCS) theorized that
superconductivity was the result of electrons binding to form particles
called Cooper pairs
The electrons exchange vibrational lattice energy called phonons
which can result in the electrons becoming attracted to one another
Recently, antiferromagnetism has been linked to the explanation of
high temperature ceramic superconductivity
By changing the chemical composition, BaFe2(As1-xPx)2 has been
observed to have an internal magnetic critical point
As the composition is changed, antiferromagnetism decreases until it
disappears, resulting in superconductivity
Figure 5.1: (Top) Lattice of an antiferromagnet. The
electron spins are antiparallel, leading to cancellation
of the magnetic field. (Bottom) Cooper pair formation.
Electrons bind during superconductivity and create
boson particles called Cooper pairs. Sachdev, S.
Science. 2012, 336, 1510-1511.
Sachdev, S. Science. 2012, 336, 1510-1511.
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Below a critical temperature (Tc), the
resistance of a superconducting
material becomes almost zero
causing current to flow indefinitely
and with no power loss
No voltage difference is needed to
maintain a current.
Above a current density,
superconductivity is lost in the
material.
A supercurrent can flow across an
insulating junction in what is called
the Josephson Effect. Cooper pairs
can do this due to quantum tunneling
Figure 6.1: Critical temperature, current density, and
magnetic field boundary separating superconducting and
normal conducting states. Superconductivity can only occur
within the teardrop figure.
Callister, W.D. 2012, 776-779.
Figure 6.2:
Schematic of the
Josephson Effect;
this effect allows
electrons to jump
through insulators
Flukiger, R. Rev. Accel. Sci. Tech. 2012, 5, 1-23.
Patel, M.J. et. al. Nat. Confer. Rec. Trend. Engr. Tech. 2011.
Sachdev, S. Science. 2012, 336, 1510-1511
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/solids/squid.html
Superconductors can be classified into
two types according to their interaction
with an external magnetic field:
Type I
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Type I superconductors expel all
magnetic flux
Superconductivity ends when a
critical flux is applied. Examples
include mercury, lead, and tin.
http://www.gitam.edu/eresource/Engg_Phys/semester_2/supercon/type_1_2.ht
m
Figure 7.1: Type I superconductors are different than Type
II superconductors. This figure shows the comparison of
graphs Bc vs Tc in both types. Type II has a mixed state
while Type I does not.
Callister, W.D. 2012, 776-779.
Patel, M.J. et. al. Nat. Confer. Rec. Trend. Engr. Tech. 2011.
Type II
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Type II superconductors, unlike type I,
have two critical fields.
After the first critical field is reached,
magnetic flux partially penetrates the
material and it enters a state of mixed
normal and superconductivity.
After the second critical flux is passed,
superconductivity abruptly ends. Type II
superconductors usually have higher
critical temperatures.
Examples include YBCO, vanadium,
and BSCCO
Callister, W.D. 2012, 776-779.
Patel, M.J. et. al. Nat. Confer. Rec. Trend. Engr. Tech. 2011.
http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superconductor_de_tipo_II
Figure 8.1: Graph illustrating magnetization versus
magnetic field strength. Type I is red and Type II is
blue. If an external magnetic field is applied, Type
II's field gradually declines while Type I has a sharp
drop off. This demonstrates a significant difference
between the types.
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Superconductor
Conductor
The phenomena of expelling magnetic flux
experienced by superconductors is called the
Meissner Effect.
The Meissner Effect can be understood as perfect
diamagnetism, where the magnetic moment of the
material cancels the external field or M = - H.
The critical field and temperature are
interdependent through:
Bc= B0[1-(T/Tc)2 ]
This is observed in Type I superconductors, but it can
also be used to approximate the behavior of Type II
Callister, W.D. 2012, 776-779.
Flukiger, R. Rev. Accel. Sci. Tech. 2012, 5, 1-23.
Patel, M.J. et. al. Nat. Confer. Rec. Trend. Engr. Tech. 2011.
Fig 9.1: Comparison of superconductor
and standard conductor in a magnetic
field. The superconductor excludes itself
from the field while the field passes
through the conductor.
Callister, W.D. 2012, 776-779.
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The strange magnetic properties
created by superconductors can
cause the material to levitate in
place over a magnet
The superconductor will remain a
certain distance from the magnet
but will not flip over or reorient
This video demonstrates this
phenomena and potential for
levitation applications
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6lmtbLu5nxw
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In most metals such as titanium,
copper, or lead, resistivity
decreases as temperature
decreases
Table 11.1: Critical Temperatures of Conducting Materials
Material
Critical Temperature
Tc (K)
(tesla)
However, the resistivity suddenly
drops to near zero at a critical
temperature (Tc)
Critical Magnetic Flux
Bc
Metals and metal alloys have a
critical temperature of less than
about 20 K, which is extremely
low and difficult to achieve.
Yttrium Barium Copper Oxide
(YBCO) has a critical
temperature of 92 K and others
are even higher. These
temperatures can be achieved
by utilizing liquid nitrogen, a
relatively cheap coolant.
Figure
adapted from
Callister, W.D. 2012, 776-779.
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Some metals become superconductors at
extremely low temperatures
Some of these include mercury, lead, tin,
aluminum, lead, niobium, cadmium, gallium,
zinc, and zirconium
Unfortunately, the critical temperatures are too
low for practical application
For example, Aluminum has a Tc of only 1.20K,
nearly impossible to reach by conventional
methods
Fig. 12.1: Aluminum tubing can become
superconductive at very low
temperatures.http://www.globalmetals.com/aluminumtubestubing.html
Fig. 12.2: Lead can also become superconductive at
low temperatures.http://39clues.wikia.com/wiki/Lead
Patel, M.J. et. al. Nat. Confer. Rec. Trend. Engr. Tech. 2011.
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Metal alloys like Nb-Ti, and Nb-Zr are
usually Type II superconductors
Metal Alloys have higher critical
temperatures and magnetic fluxes than
pure metals.
As a consequence of their properties,
they are more useful for practical
applications than pure metals
http://www.intechopen.com/books/applications-of-high-tc-superconductivity/superhardsuperconductive-composite-materials-obtained-by-high-pressure-high-temperaturesintering
Fig 13.1: Lattice structure of Nb-Ti
metal alloy. The different composition
allows the Tc to be higher than metals.
Patel, M.J. et. al. Nat. Confer. Rec. Trend. Engr. Tech. 2011.
Cava, J.R. Sci. Amer. 1990.
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Yttrium Barium Copper Oxide was the first
superconductor developed with a Tc above
the boiling point of Nitrogen (Tc=90 K).
Thallium Barium Calcium Copper Oxide
has the highest Tc out of all
superconductors (Tc=125 K)
Copper Oxides are believed to be good
superconductors partly due to the JahnTeller effect, which causes the 2 oxygens
on opposite sites of the octahedron to be
farther from the copper than the other 4
oxygens of the octahedron.
Iron
Copper
http://www.chemistryexplained.com/St-Te/Superconductors.html
This suggests that the electrons interact
strongly with the positions of copper and
oxygen in the lattice (Cooper pair).
Antiferromagnetism must be eliminated for
superconductivity to appear.
Cava, J.R. Sci. Amer. 1990.
Figure 14.1 (top): Illustration of a ceramic lattice.
The Jahn-Teller effect causes the superconductivity
here.
Figure 14.2 (bottom): Levitation caused by the
interactions of electrons and oxygen, and therefore
superconductivity.
Fig 15.1: Other copper oxides that are also superconducting. These ceramics show potential
for applications. For industrial setting, the toxicity of the materials should be considered. Cava,
J.R. Sci. Amer. 1990.
Figure 16.1: As time continues, superconductors with higher Tc values are being developed
and discovered. The trend moves upward.
Flukiger, R. Rev. Accel. Sci. Tech. 2012, 5, 1-23. (modified)
Superconducting Properties of Ag and Sb Substitution
http://www.kreynet.de/asc/ybco.html
on Low-Density YBa2Cu3Oδ
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Different concentrations of Silver (Ag) and Lead
(Sb) were introduced as impurities into a YBCO
ceramic compound
It was found that the addition of Ag at an optimum
concentration enhanced both the critical
temperature and current density of YBCO. Above
and below this concentration the properties
diminished
Sb impurities did not affect the superconducting
properties of the YBCO ceramic.
Silver (Ag)
http://www.hobart.k1
2.in.us/ksms/Periodi
cTable/antimony.ht
m
Lead (Pb)
As impurities of Ag and Pb were added to YBCO,
the transition temperature range, delta Tc was
affected
The correlation between concentration of Ag or
Pb versus transition temperature difference
appeared to be random
Azhan, F.; et al. J. Supercond. Nov. Magn. 2013, 26, 921-935.
http://www.galleries.com/Lea
d
Figure 17.1: Adding Ag and Pb impurities to
the lattice structure of YBCO can alter its
superconductive properties slightly.
Fig 18.1: The onset temperature is the upper range of the transition range. The zero
temperature is the lower range. The table shows the varying effect of adding impurities in the
YBCO on the transition temperature range.
Azhan, F.; et al. J. Supercond. Nov. Magn. 2013, 26, 921-935.
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From the work, the transition temperature
range of YBCO can be controlled using
impurities of metals
This experiment was useful because it
shows that adding impurities to YBCO can
alter its Tc and Jc values slightly
This may be helpful for figuring out new
ceramic superconductors. For example,
another experiment could be adding gold or
platinum impurities to YBCO to see its effect
on its superconductive properties
This experiment will also help elucidate the
molecular working of superconducting
materials by showing different crystals
structures were superconduction occurs.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:YBCO-3D-balls.png
Azhan, F.; et al. J. Supercond. Nov. Magn. 2013, 26, 921-935.
Figure 19.1: Lattice structure of
YBCO showing its complexity. In this
experiment, YBCO was modified to
test its properties.
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Superconductors have potential to create a new
variety of electrical and magnetic technologies
Superconductors will need to be improved by
researching and synthesizing a ceramic
superconductor with a high critical temperature
value
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HgBa2Ca2Cu3Ox
By doing this, either minimum cooling, or no
cooling at all would be needed to create
superconductive properties in the material
For example, YBCO only requires liquid
nitrogen for cooling. Conventional freezers
could be used if the Tc could be increased to
around 190 K
Since superconductors can be applied
without solid understanding of the theory
behind it, they are an attractive material
Figure 20.1: Applied Magnetic Field vs
Critical Temperature. As the critical
temperature increases, the applied
magnetic field decreases.
http://www.imagesco.com/articles/superconduct
ors/determining-critical-magnetic-field.html
(modified)
Flukiger, R. Rev. Accel. Sci. Tech. 2012, 5, 1-23.
Patel, M.J. et. al. Nat. Confer. Rec. Trend. Engr. Tech. 2011.
http://gigaom.com/2010/10/06/superconducting-wire-powering-up-korean-smart-grid/
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If a high critical temperature
superconductor is developed that has a
critical temperature that is higher than
HBCCO (133 K), more practical
applications will become feasible
Electrical power transmission through
superconducting materials and wire
o Low power loss
o Low voltage required for high current
o Utilizes less physical space
Computer signal transmission
o Low resistivity allows for computing
speed to increase greatly
Figure 21.1,2: Power lines
demonstrating the great
reduction of space needed by
utilizing superconducting wire
rather than standard cables.
Callister, W.D. 2012, 776-779.
Flukiger, R. Rev. Accel. Sci. Tech. 2012, 5, 1-23.
http://nextbigfuture.com/2009/12/cost-and-benefits-of-2g-superconducting.html
http://gigaom.com/2010/10/06/superconducting-wire-powering-up-korean-smart-grid/
Figure 22.1: Example of a superconducting cable. The liquid nitrogen coolant is part of
the cable in order to keep the superconductor wire below the critical temperature.
These cables can greatly reduce the physical space needed in our electrical
infrastructure.
Callister, W.D. 2012, 776-779.
Flukiger, R. Rev. Accel. Sci. Tech. 2012, 5, 1-23.
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Some applications are used today:
o Magnetic Resonance Imaging
o Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
Spectroscopy
Future applications can benefit from
interesting magnetic properties displayed
by superconductors
Particle Accelerators
Magnetic Levitation
o High-Speed Magnetic Levitation
Trains for mass transport
o By utilizing levitation, friction between
the train and the track is eliminated
o This can allow trains to increase their
speed dramatically
Figure 23.1,2 (top/middle): MRI
scanners currently utilize
superconductors.
Figure 23.3 (bottom): Mag-Lev
train demonstrating the potential
of using superconductors in
mass-transport.
http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/educatio
n/tutorials/magnetacademy/mri/fullart
icle.html
Callister, W.D. 2012, 776-779.
Flukiger, R. Rev. Accel. Sci. Tech. 2012, 5, 1-23.
Patel, M.J. et. al. Nat. Confer. Rec. Trend. Engr. Tech.
2011.
http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2003/05feb_superconductor/
http://www.cis.rit.edu/class/schp730/lect/lect-17.htm
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Superconductivity is a state of thermodynamical equilibrium
where the electrical resistance is 0 and that is achieved at near 0
K temperatures
External magnetic flux is expelled from the superconductor in
what is called the Meissner effect. The application of an external
magnetic flux also lowers the critical temperature at which
superconductivity is achieved. After a critical flux,
superconductivity can no longer be achieved
Using superconducting materials in circuit elements would mean
zero power loss due to resistance. Also, no voltage difference
would be needed to maintain the current.
Adding impurities to ceramic superconductors can alter the
critical temperature and critical current density
Superconducting ceramic materials have shown the most
promise for future technologies because of their relatively high
critical temperatures
The underlying principles of superconductivity are explained
through an interactive attraction between electrons (Cooper pair)
and their interaction with lattice vibrations (phonons).
http://physics.aps.org/story/v9/st12
Figure 24.1: Structural
interpretation of a ceramic
superconductor. Notice how
there are layers of molecules
sandwiched between others.
Azhan, F.; Fariesha, F.; Yusainee, S. Y. S.; Azman, K.; Khalida, S.; Superconducting Properties of Ag
and Sb Substitution on Low-Density YBa2Cu3Oδ Superconductor. J Supercond Nov Magn. 2013,
26, 921-935.
Callister, W.D.; Rethwisch, D.G. Fundamentals of Materials Science and Engineering. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. 2012, Magnetic Properties, p776-779.
Cava, J.R.; Superconductors and beyond 1-2-3. Scientific American 1990.
Flukiger, R. Overview of Superconductivity and Challenges in Applications. Reviews of Accelerator
Science and Technology. 2012, 5, 1-23.
Patel, M.J.; Agrawal, D.H.; Pathan, A.M. Review on Superconductivity: The Phenomenon Occurred at
Low Temperature. National Conferences on Recent Trends in Engineering & Technology. 2011.
Sachdev, S. Entangling Superconductivity and Antiferromagnetism. Science. 2012, 336, 1510-1511.
Wilson, N.W. 100 Years of Superconductivity and 50 Years of Superconducting Magnets. IEEE
Transactions on Applied Superconductivity. 2012, 22, 3.