CHAPTER TWO
LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS
AND PROCESSES
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Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to
do the following:
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Describe patterns of behavior that
leaders frequently exhibit.
Identify the effects of specific leader
behaviors on followers' psychological
reactions and performance.
Discuss the impact of situational and
follower characteristics on leader
effectiveness.
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Learning Objectives (cont.)
After reading this chapter, you should be able
to do the following:



Explain how leaders can utilize specific
types of situational and follower
characteristics to increase their
effectiveness.
Describe the sources of power and
influence tactics often used by leaders.
Describe the Leadership Process Model
for influencing followers’ behavior.
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Core Behavior Patterns
of Leaders
DIRECTIVE
Assigns
followers specific tasks,
explains methods, clarifies
expectations, sets goals,
and specifies procedures.
SUPPORTIVE
Shows
consideration, acceptance,
and concern for the needs
and feelings of followers.
REWARD & PUNISHMENT
Provides
intrinsic and extrinsic
benefits. Punishes for
unwanted follower behaviors.
BEHAVIOR
PATTERNS
OF
LEADERS
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PARTICIPATIVE
Involves
followers in making
decisions by consulting
to get suggestions
and ideas.
CHARISMATIC
Displays
high expectations, confidence
& competence. Communicates
vision with ideological goals
which reflect follower needs.
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Supportive Leadership Behavior
This behavior pattern refers to the leader’s role in
showing concern for the comfort and well-being
of followers; demonstrating a considerate, kind,
and understanding attitude in dealing with
followers; being friendly and informative; and
encouraging open two-way communication and
follower development. Familiar terms associated
with supportive leadership are consideration,
relationship-orientation, or concern for people
leadership.
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Directive Leadership Behavior
This pattern refers to the leader’s behaviors in
assigning followers to specific tasks, explaining
the methods to be used in completing the tasks,
clarifying expectations regarding quantity and
quality of follower performance, setting goals for
followers, planning and coordinating followers’
work, and specifying rules and procedures to be
followed. This behavior pattern has also been
known as or is closely related to initiating
structure, instrumental leadership, or taskoriented leadership.
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Participative Leadership Behavior
The leader who uses this approach involves followers
in the decision-making include holding one-on-one
meetings with individuals or groups of followers to
gather input for decisions; it may involve a group
decision-making effort initiated by the leader; or it
may involve assigning a particular problem to a
follower to resolve. Each of these options represents
different degrees or types of processes. Participative
leader behaviors may participative leader behavior.
Participative leadership is sometimes referred to as
consultative, democratic, or delegatory leadership.
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Leader Reward and
Punishment Behavior
With this leader behavior, when followers provide
services to the organization, the leader rewards them
with tangible and intangible benefits. The rewards
may be monetary, or they may consist of praise.
Punishments may come in the form of a reduction in
pay or a notice to the follower that work needs
improvement. Rewards and punishments may be
provided based on follower performance
(contingently) or based on the leader’s whim
(noncontingently). Rewards and punishments based
on performance are usually the most effective.
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Charismatic Leadership Behavior
This pattern of behavior involves the leader
communicating a vision of the future that has
ideological significance to followers (often
through use of powerful imagery and metaphors),
arousing follower needs which are relevant to
goal accomplishment, serving as a role model,
expressing high expectations and confidence in
followers’ capabilities, and projecting a high
degree of self-confidence.
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Leadership Model for Influencing
Follower Behaviors
LEADER BEHAVIORS
FOLLOWERS/GROUP
PSYCHOLOGICAL REACTIONS
Perceptions Attitudes
Feelings
Motivations
Expectations
FOLLOWER BEHAVIORAL
OUTCOMES
Performance
Absenteeism
Turnover
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Leadership Model Applied to
Eisenhower’s Leader Behavior
LEADER BEHAVIORS
Eisenhower’s participative leader behaviors encouraged
and allowed other generals to present and defend their
position on military strategies.
PSYCHOLOGICAL REACTIONS
of Other Generals
Feelings of involvement and influence
Commitment to the decision process and decision outcomes
Satisfaction with the process and the resulting decisions
BEHAVIORAL OUTCOMES
High effort
Cooperation
Effective military strategies
High performance
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Factors That Influence Leader
Effectiveness
LEADER
CHARACTERISTICS
behaviors
traits and skills
sources of power
SITUATIONAL
CHARACTERISTICS
task
group
organizational
FOLLOWER
CHARACTERISTICS
abilities and skills
attitudes and values
needs and motivations
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Situational Factors that Enhance
Leadership Effectiveness
Leadership enhancers are situational or follower
characteristics that increase the leader's
influence on followers
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Cohesive work groups with strong norms to
cooperate with leaders enhance participative
leadership.
Stressful, dangerous, or dissatisfying job tasks
enhance supportive leadership.
A large number of followers enhance directive
leadership.
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Situational Factors that Neutralize
Leadership Effectiveness
Leadership neutralizers are situational or follower
characteristics that can decrease the effectiveness
of the leader's influence on followers

A large spatial/geographic distance between leaders
and followers inhibits leaders from effectively directing
followers.
 Organizational reward systems based on seniority,
union contracts, or civil service policies prevent
leaders from adequately rewarding the best
performers.
 Senior managers who countermand or modify effective
directions by a lower-level manager prevent leaders
from having the influence that is needed.
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Situational Factors that Substitute
for Leadership Behaviors
Some characteristics of followers, their work tasks,
or the organization can provide task guidance and
incentives to such an extent that they substitute for
certain leader behaviors
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Followers' training and experience may substitute for
directive leadership.
Intrinsically satisfying work tasks may substitute for
supportive leadership.
Networked computer systems and computer integrated
manufacturing may for directive leadership
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Power, Influence, and Authority
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Power - the ability of one person to cause
another person to do something.
Influence - the use of power or power in
action.
Authority - Authority is a specific type of
power. An individual has authority if she
has a legitimate right to require another
person to do something, usually because
the individual with authority holds a certain
position.
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Types of Power

Person Based Power:
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Position Based Power:
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Expert Power—leader has special knowledge.
Referent Power—followers admire or identify with
the leader.
Legitimate Power—the leader has the right to make
requests.
Position and/or Person Based Power:


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Reward Power—followers comply to obtain rewards.
Coercive Power—followers comply to avoid
punishments.
Connection/Resource Power—leader provides
needed resources or relationships.
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Leadership Process Model for
Influencing Follower Behaviors
LEADER BEHAVIORS
SITUATIONAL FACTORS
THAT INCREASE LEADER
EFFECTIVENESS
Enhancers of Leader
Behavior
Follower characteristics &
situational characteristics
which increase
leaders’ direct influence
Factors that Substitute
for Leadership
Follower characteristics &
situational characteristics
that replace the need for
leadership by influencing
psychological reactions and
behavioral outcomes
FOLLOWER/GROUP
PSYCHOLOGICAL
REACTIONS
Perceptions
Attitudes
Feelings
Motivations
Expectations
SITUATIONAL FACTORS
THAT DECREASE LEADER
EFFECTIVENESS
Neutralizers of Leader
Behavior
Follower characteristics &
situational characteristics
which decrease
leaders’ direct influence
FOLLOWER BEHAVIORAL
OUTCOMES
Performance
Absenteeism
Turnover
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