BUSS 213
Multimedia in Organisations
Lecture 9
Interaction & Interactivity
Usability & Actability
Clarke, R. J (2001) L213-09:
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Notices (1)
Announcements
 If you are a BCom student who is close to
finishing your degree there is an Honours
Information Session being held by the
Department of Information Systems,
October 8 12:30-1:30 in the Function
Rooms, Unicentre
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Notices (2)
Submission of Assignment 2
 Assignment 2 is due today however we have
extended the time. You may now submit by 5:30pm
rather than the previously advertised 10:30pm.
 this enables you to finalise your assignment, and
also enables your tutor to explain how to submit
your files
 unless space is available, only students enrolled in
particular tutorials will be allowed into a given
tutorial class
 class rolls may be called and will be strictly
enforced if necessary
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Notices (3)
General Notices
 Due to a time extension on Assignment 2 no
formal tutorial file will be available this week
 Make sure you have a copy of the BUSS213
Subject Outline and Please check the class roll
on the Departmental Notice Board or on my door
for your allocated tutorial slot
 BUSS213 is supported by a website, where you
can find out the latest Notices and get Lecture
Notes, Tutorial Sheets, Assignments etc
www.uow.edu.au/~rclarke/buss213/buss213.htm
Clarke, R. J (2001) L213-09:
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Agenda
 so far we have examined media in isolation and in
combination, we have looked at multimedia systems from
the point of view of the interfaces they present to users
and modelling the applications that sit behind the interface
 you will recall that in the first lectures we claimed that
multimedia systems are different to other traditional
systems…
 …now we draw our attention back to the user again to
consider those aspects of multimedia systems which are
absent from conventional systems that use multiple media
 they include:
 Interaction and Interactivity
 Usability and Actability
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Interaction & Interactivity
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Degrees of Interactivity
 interactivity is an extremely difficult concept to
grasp, yet it appears to be central to any definition
of multimedia- we tend to know it when we have it
 interactivity is a kind of defining characteristic
which separates multimedia from other types of
systems or systems which utilise multiple media
 in the apparent absence of a theory of interactivity
from within the field of organisational multimedia,
we turn in stead to traditional education and
pedagogic applications of multimedia and see
what insights this theory can provide (if any)
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Interaction & Interactivity
Windows 2000 Explorer with Thumbnail
view selected- is an application that supports
multiple media – but is not a multimedia system
 as with most aspects of user
interface design and
multimedia systems in
particular, surprising little is
known about the nature of
interaction and interactivity
 we must be able to understand
these issues because…
 …they are central to
understanding the differences
between conventional
information systems that
display information in the form
of collections of multiple
media versus multimedia
systems
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Interaction & Interactivity
 interactivity is central to any definition of
multimedia
 it is arguably the most crucial means by
which other systems supporting multiple
media can be distinguished from multimedia
systems
 there are several ways in which interactivity
can be understood- a long standing way of
understanding interactivity is by theorising it
from an education psychology (learning
theory) approach
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Show OnSite 3.0 demo
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Interaction & Interactivity



 the images opposite are from
the OnSite! 3.0 training CD-ROM
developed by CEDIR at UoW for
the construction industry
 the top most image is the
opening screen which uses an
office metaphor as a kind of
generalised desktop metaphor
 various courses are available by
clicking the filing cabinet shown
in the bottom sequence of
images
OnSite! contains a range of learning resources
for building and construction workers,
trainees, apprentices and students. It is
flexible, interactive and engaging, with a mix of
text, illustration, animation and video material
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Degrees of Interactivity
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Degrees of Interactivity
 interactivity is an extremely difficult concept to
grasp, yet it appears to be central to any definition
of multimedia- we tend to know it when we have it
 interactivity is a kind of defining characteristic
which separates multimedia from other types of
systems or systems which utilise multiple media
 in the apparent absence of a theory of interactivity
from within the field of organisational multimedia,
we turn in stead to traditional education and
pedagogic applications of multimedia and see
what insights this theory can provide (if any)
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Degrees of Interactivity
Categories of Educational Software








presentation
drill
tutorial
database
expert system
intelligent tutor
performance support system
hypermedia







model
emulation
simulation
microworld
adventure
role play
virtual reality
Presumed Complexity: how much control is
provided to the learner and how much interactivity
from an information systems point of view
do you see anything wrong with this kind of typology
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Degrees of Interactivity
Categories of Educational Software
 this kind of continuum of educational software is
dubious
 but is certain is that these kinds of educational
software have been developed within certain kinds of
cognitive theory:






socratic dialogue
behaviourism
fragmentism
experiential learning
constructivism
metacognition
Bawden’s (1992) types of learning
Propositional- being Told
Practical- being Shown
Experiential- transforming our
own experiences
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Degrees of Interactivity
Pedagogic Dimensions of Educational S/W…
 pedagogical dimensions include such factors
as philosophy, teacher roles, and learner
control
 each pedagogic dimension can be
represented as a continuum with a more or
less specified range of values
 most interactive learning systems are
described in terms of many dimensions,
 the dimensions proposed are not
comprehensive of mutually exclusive
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Degrees of Interactivity
…Pedagogic Dimensions of Educational S/W














Epistemology
Pedagogic Philosophy
Underlying Psychology
Goal Orientation
Instructional Sequencing
Experiential Value
Role of Instructor
Value of Errors
Motivation
Structure
Accom. Ind. Differences
Learner Control
User Activity
Co-operative Learning
Objectivism vs Constructivism
Instructivist vs Constructivist
Behavioural vs Cognitive
Sharply-focused vs Unfocused
Reductionist vs Constructivist
Abstract vs Concrete
Teacher-proof vs Egalitarian Facilitator
Errorless learning vs Learning from Experience
Extrinsic vs Intrinsic
High vs Low
Non-existent vs Multi-faceted
Non-existent vs Unrestricted
Mathemagenic vs Generative
Unsupported vs Integral
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Degrees of Interactivity
Traditional Design (after Sims 1991)
Introduction
Present
Information
Question &
Response
Feedback &
Remediation
Judge
Response
Summary
 based on behavioural
psychology using a
fact-questionfeedback model
 reflects educational
theories of Socrates
and Skinner
 useful for basic skills
training- interactivity
at a very low level
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Degrees of Interactivity
Information Systems Design (after Sims 1991)
 high degree of learner control as learners are free to browse in
whichever direction they wish & find information when necessary
 there is no instruction, assessment and judgement compared to
educational software
 learning theory encompasses neural networks, fragmentism and
constructivism
Introduction
Topic A
Topic B
Topic C
Topic D
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Degrees of Interactivity
Hypermedia Design (after Sims 1991)
 related to e so-called information systems design is hypermedia
design in which additional hyperlinked structures are
superimposed over the top of the hierarchical structure of topics
provided by the information systems design model
 reminds one of web sites!
Oz
Introduction
& Main Menu
Oz
Oz
Topic A
Oz
Topic B
Oz
Topic C
Oz
Topic D
Oz
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Degrees of Interactivity
Experiential Learning (after Sims 1991)
Introduction
Present
Learning
Environment
Allow
Student
Interactions
System
Update
Judge
Response
Access
Knowledge
Base
 avoids judgement includes
simulations and role plays
 present learners/users with a
learning environment instead
of presenting them with
information
 an attempt to contrive a
contexts in which the fact scan
make sense
 built onto of an information
system or a knowledge base
Summary
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Degrees of Interactivity
Critique of Pedagogic Classifications
 these kinds of classification schemes are
based on contingencies (in this case
dimensions)
 they are not based on any particular
theory of interaction- remember that this
type of (psychological) theory was
demonstrated as problematic for
organisational multimedia because it
tends to preclude the social
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Interactivity as Engagement (1)
 Wells (1996) is correct when she says that
interactivity is engagement rather than
point and click (but interestingly you do
not need educational theory to come to
this conclusion)
 the notion of interactivity goes beyond
free-range browsing, beyond providing
learner control (read user control)
 Bender in Laurel (1991) defines
engagement as…
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Interactivity as Engagement (2)
 Engagement…is similar in many ways to the
theatrical notion of the willing suspension of
disbelief, a concept introduced by the early
nineteenth century critic and poet Samuel Taylor
Coleridge. It is the state of mind that we must attain
in order to enjoy a representation of an action.
Coleridge believed that any idiot could see that a
play on stage was not real life… Coleridge noticed
that, in order to enjoy a play, we must temporarily
suspend (or attenuate) our knowledge that it is
pretend. (Laurel 1991, 113)
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Interactivity as Engagement (3)
 “The kinds of information we receive from our
surroundings are quite varied. and have different
effects upon us. We obtain raw, direct information in
the process of interacting with the situations we
encounter. …Processed, digested, abstracted secondhand knowledge is often more generalised and
concentrated but usually effects only intellectuallylacking the balance and completeness of experienced
situations… Information communicated as facts loses
all its contexts and relationships, while information
communicated as art or as experience maintains and
nourishes its connections” (Bender in Laurel 1991, 119)
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Interactivity as Engagement (4)
 Bender’s observations have been supported quite
persuasively by the multimedia revolution in computerbased educational activities. Likewise, educational
simulations (as opposed to tutorial and drill-and-practice
forms) excel in that they represent experience as opposed
to information. Learning through direct experience has, in
many contexts, been demonstrated to be more effective and
enjoyable than learning through ‘information communicated
as facts’. Direct multi-sensory representations have the
capacity to engage people intellectually as well as
emotionally, to enhance the contextual aspects of
information, and to encourage integrated, holistic
responses” (Laurel 1991, 119)
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Interaction Typology
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Interaction Typology
Flexible Media and Media Spaces
 some years back Clarke (1997) won a small CEDIR
grant to examine the theory behind a proposal I had
developed called flexible media and media spaces
 this proposal was developed in response to
educational developments on campus referred to as
‘flexible delivery’- this debate which been raging on
this campus for at least 5 years, is a consequence of
the expansion of university courses to different sites
(Nowra, Bega, Dubai) and the need to provide the
delivery of educational services to many places at
once
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Interaction Typology
Debates concerning ‘Flexible Delivery’
 to illustrate some of the different views or positions
surrounding the term ‘flexible delivery’:
 flexible delivery is the same as distance education!- in which
case it represents nothing new- an old concept in new clothes
 flexible delivery is the educational use of ‘new technologies’
for example, PowerPoint slides shows and web sites for onand off-campus subjects- its therefore simply a phenomenon
defined by technology having no enduring value
 flexible delivery is simply a way of casualisation of academics
by forcing them to teach off-campus as part of there basic
contracts- this demonstrates the social nature of multimedia
 flexible delivery is something qualitatively different- this was
my position- it was an opportunity to rethink how we create
and use media objects
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Interaction Typology
Multimedia with many kinds of Interaction
 my ‘solution’ was to propose (multi)media objects
which support different types and levels of interactivity
 in effect this solution to the question of what is flexible delivery
is to propose that every unit of content- every media object
should support more than one kinds of interaction
 in effect the same flexible media behaves differently in different
usage contexts
 well of course I never got to implement any of these media
objects because I ran out of time and money
 but some of the ideas are interesting and suggestive of ways
we can extend object orientation beyond multimedia
development to include multimedia deployment and use
 … these ideas rely on an interaction typology
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Interaction Typology
Flexible Media and Media Spaces
 flexible media consists of multimedia objects
which form media resources or components
(Clarke 1997)
 if we were talking about an educational
application of flexible media then each
component describes or illustrates a single
concept or group of independent concepts
 these components are arranged within a media
space which forms a multimedia framework and a
context of use for the flexible media
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Interaction Typology
Hypothetical Example …
 an individual component might consist of a
digital video sequence showing a workplace
while a subsequent component might
describe the concept of a system boundary
 depending on the order in which these
objects is arranged in the media space the
system boundary component might be
applied to the workplace component in order
to show the system boundary of the
workplace
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Interaction Typology
… Hypothetical Example …
 in principle the arrangement of flexible media
components within a media space is arbitrary
(no specific arrangement is required apriori)
 however, the actual arrangement of flexible
media units is specific to the kind of
application the media space is supporting- for
example, in teaching contexts the
arrangement of flexible media attempts to
model the specific curricula
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Interaction Typology
… Hypothetical Example …
B
b1
b2
a3
a2
a4
a1
a5
A
 diagram shows
flexible media
consisting of two
separate groups of
components, A and B
 Component group A
consists of specific
components a1, a2, …
a5, while component
group B consists of
specific components
b1 and b2
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Interaction Typology
… Hypothetical Example …
B
b1
b2
a2
a3
a4
a1
a5
a2
A
a1
a4
Users
Viewplane
 Group A is closer to the
users viewpoint and
therefore its components
will appear larger on the
screen that those of Group
B.
 Note that component a1
occludes (that is blocks)
component a3- the user
literally cannot see a3 prior
to interacting with the
media
a5
a5
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Interaction Typology
… Hypothetical Example
 the interface to such a
system might be reminiscent
of the interfaces we looked
at from MIT
 these interfaces were
developed by Lisa
Strausfeld to provide a
volumetric representation of
a sample portfolio of seven
separate mutual funds but
they could be adapted to
display flexible media in
media spaces
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Interaction Typology
… Hypothetical Example …
 the point however is that each of these
flexible media objects supports a set of
different interactions or modes of use
 in principle, flexible media in should exhibit
some dynamic behaviour- the space
comprising flexible media objects should be
similar to seeing a set of interesting stories
in a newspaper- each one competing for the
users immediate attention
 three levels of interaction were identified…
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Interaction Typology
Zero-level & Low-level Interaction
 zero-level interaction: is referred to as the
‘rest-state’ of the media
 what it does when it is not being directly
manipulated by the user
 flexible media are intended to cycle through a
number of steps which are designed to show
off their major features
 low-level interaction:
 initiating or triggering a particular designed
state
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Interaction Typology
Example: Zero- & Low-level Interaction
 in fact the BHP CD-ROM,
the digital video template
used the concept of
combining zero- and
low-level interaction
within the same interface
component
 a default video sequence
played unless the user
selected an alternative
view of the action
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Interaction Typology
High-level Interaction
 high-level interaction
 were media components communicate with
each other- message passing in the objectoriented view and change each others state
 similar to the example of a workplace clip and
a boundary flexible media object interacting
with each other (polymorphism)
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So far…
 we do not yet have a theory of interactivity- it would
seem that interactivity is very difficult to define
 there are however some interesting ideas in the
educational multimedia literature that we have
investigated, these include:
 the inadequacy of information- a users experience is not
necessarily completely in response to information and
multimedia systems do not simply provide information
 the importance of context- although so far we do not have
a theory of context
 interactivity involves not just media and what it does, but
users and what they need to do
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Contextual Theory of Interaction
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Contextual Theory of Interaction
 we need to describe two things:
 what it is possible for a user to select- to
describe the range of options they have
available to them at a given point in time- this
is given a special name paradigmatic
dimension
 to describe the actual options and sequences
of options that they do select- this is given a
special name it is called the syntagmatic
dimension
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Paradigms as Field Taxonomies
User Interfaces and System Networks
One way we can describe what is possible
- the realm of the paradigmatic dimensionis to gather information in the form of a
so-called field taxonomies
this idea comes from linguistics but it is a
very neat way of describing any set of
options- just like those found in user
interfaces
in order to build a field taxonomy of the
user interface we use a special graphical
notation called a system network
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Paradigms as Field Taxonomies
Least Delicate and Most Delicate Options
system networks are read from left hand
side, the so-called least delicate, to the right
hand side, the so-called most delicate
the following diagrams show the four major
notations used and are based on Broman
(1994, 80 modified after Eggins 1994, 205206; Halliday 1991, 43)
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Paradigms as Field Taxonomies
Logical OR; Realisation
a
If the entry condition of x applies,
then either a or b must be chosen
x
b
a
If the entry condition of x applies,
then either a or b must be chosen.
b is realised by p.
x
b
p
Figure G1: Graphical notation (right) and an explanation of their meanings (left) used
in system networks. The networks should be read from left (least delicate) to right
(most delicate). Diagram after Broman 1994, 80 (modified after Eggins 1994, 205206; Halliday 1991, 43)
a
If the entry condition of x applies,
then either a or b must be chosen
x
b
a
If the entry condition of x applies,
then either a or b must be chosen.
b is realised by p.
x
b
p
a
b
If the entry condition of x applies,
then either a or b and either c or d.
x
c
d
'go'
'stop'
Recursive system: If the choice is 'go'
then we are in an iterative process
whether either 'go' or 'stop' can be
chosen again. This iterative process
goes on until the choice 'stop' is made
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a
If the entry condition of x applies,
then either a or b must be chosen.
b is realised by p.
x
Paradigms as Field Taxonomies
b
Logical AND; Recursion
p
a
b
If the entry condition of x applies,
then either a or b and either c or d.
x
c
d
'go'
'stop'
Recursive system: If the choice is 'go'
then we are in an iterative process
whether either 'go' or 'stop' can be
chosen again. This iterative process
goes on until the choice 'stop' is made
Figure G1: Graphical notation (right) and an explanation of their meanings (left) used
in system networks. The networks should be read from left (least delicate) to right
(most delicate). Diagram after Broman 1994, 80 (modified after Eggins 1994, 205206; Halliday 1991, 43)
a
If the entry condition of x applies,
then either a or b must be chosen
x
b
a
If the entry condition of x applies,
then either a or b must be chosen.
b is realised by p.
x
b
p
a
b
If the entry condition of x applies,
then either a or b and either c or d.
x
c
d
'go'
'stop'
Recursive system: If the choice is 'go'
then we are in an iterative process
whether either 'go' or 'stop' can be
chosen again. This iterative process
goes on until the choice 'stop' is made
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Microsoft PowerPoint Interface
File, Edit, View, Insert and Format Submenus
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Field Taxonomy for part of
Microsoft PowerPoint
interface
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Contextual Theory of Interaction
 there are several interesting things about
field taxonomies and systems networks:
 they reveal a very powerful idea implicit in
paradigms that is directly applicable to user
interface design that the choices that users make
constrain the kinds of actions that they can
subsequently do
 also we can describe the specific set of options
that they take through the network – their usage
syntagm
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Contextual Theory of Interaction
 unlike the kind of educational pedagogic theory
we described earlier which is based on
psychology and therefore by definition has a very
hard time bridging the gap between the individual
and the social…
 …a contextual theory of interaction has no
problems with describing what users do because
we now have an understanding of the choices
they can possible make
 these field taxonomies (represented in system
networks) are social resources for meaning
making- and so this level of description is highly
appropriate in organisational contexts
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Usability
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Typical Usability Laboratories
 these are one of
the most
commonly
available ways of
determining
whether software
is useful or not
SINTEF Usability Lab (Oslo)
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Sun’s Usability Lab
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



Formal, experimental
usability testing
Rapid turnaround
user interface
development and
testing
Observation of small
group meetings with
or without a
technology or
communications
component
“Touch and try"
prototype and
product evaluations
Swinburne Computer Human Interaction Laboratory (SCHIL)
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Usability Laboratories
 the User Room within the
Department’s own Usability
Laboratory is instrumented so
that what is being typed and
what is occurring in the room
is recorded
 many facilities also trap the
output of the system into a
form known as a keystroke
transcript which can be
analysed latter to view
repeating patterns which may
signal poor interface design or
inefficient use of the software
ATUL Usability Laboratory: Users Room
Department of Information Systems, University of Wollongong
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Usability Laboratories
ATUL Usability Laboratory: Observers Room
Department of Information Systems, University of Wollongong
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Conclusions
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Conclusions
 Interactivity is an illusive aspect of multimedia- point
and click does not equal interactivity
 Educational and pedagogic applications of multimedia
cannot bridge the gap between the individual and
social and there cannot explain interface use from a
social (read organisation) perspective
 an organisationally relevant theory of interactivity
must be contextual, and must relate the use of an
interface to particular groups in organisations
 we describe a contextual theory of user interfaces
which allows permits developers to document and
analyse interfaces using the dual concepts of
paradigms and syntagms
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Readings
 Clarke, R. J. (1997) Media Space: Representation and
Implementation” CEDIR Grant, Centre for Educational
Development and Interactive Resources, University of
Wollongong
 Dede. C. (1995) “The Transformation of Distance Education to
Distributed Learning” (Online)
http://www.hbg.psu.edu/bsed/intro/doc/distlearn/ July 1995
 Gaines, B. R. & M. L. Shaw (1995) “Concept Maps as Hypermedia
Cpomponents”
http://ksi.cpsc.ucalgary.ca/articles/ConceptMaps/CM.html,
November 1995, 5pp.
 Laurel, B. (1991) Computers as Theatre Addison-Wesley
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Readings
 Reeves, T. (1992) Effective Dimensions of Interactive Learning
Systems in ITTE 92 Information Technology in Training and
Education University of Queensland, 1992, pp. 99-115
 Wills, S. (1996a) “Beyond Browsing: Making Interactive
Multimedia Interactive” Educational Media Services, University of
Wollongong Reprint 96/004
 Wills, S. (1996) “Interface to interactivity: Technologies and
techniques” Educational Media Services, University of
Wollongong Reprint 96/003
 Wills, S. and R. Swart (1996) “The book is dead, long live the
book: Designing interactive publications” Educational Media
Services, University of Wollongong Reprint 96/012
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