The Scientific Revolution
16th – 20th Century Philosophy of Science
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New systems: Copernican Revolution,
Galileo, Descartes, Newton
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New reliance on experiment
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Separation of science from politics
(ie religion & government)
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New interest in arguments for the
existence of God, especially the
argument from design
The Argument from Design
Natural Theology – Rev William Paley, 1802
"In crossing a heath, suppose I pitched my foot against a stone
and were asked how the stone came to be there, I might
possibly answer that for anything I knew to the contrary it had
lain there forever; nor would it, perhaps, be very easy to show
the absurdity of this answer. But suppose I had found a watch
upon the ground, and it should be inquired how the watch
happened to be in that place, I should hardly think of the
answer which I had before given, that for anything I knew the
watch might have always been there. Yet why should not this
answer serve for the watch as well as for the stone? For this
reason, and none other, viz., that when we come to inspect the
watch, we perceive what we could not discover in the stone,
that its several parts were put together for a purpose.."
Philosophy of Science
Since Newton, science is:
-Based on reductionist explanations
(Ockham’s razor, parsimony)
-Uses only natural explanations
(methodological materialism)
-Addresses “How”, rather than “Why”
-Testable
-Correctible
-Extendable
Discovery of Deep Time
late 18th century – mid-19th century
-Hutton
No vestige of a beginning,
No prospect of an end
-Cuvier
Following Newton, Kant, Laplace,
Earth must be 100 million years old.
Successive creation & extinction events.
Catastrophism, Progressive creationism
-Lyell, Whewell et al
The search for a natural
explanation for “mystery of mysteries” origin of species.
Charles Darwin
“On the view that species are
only strongly marked and
permanent varieties, and that
each species first existed as a
variety, we can see why it is that
no line of demarcation can be
drawn between species,
commonly supposed to have
been produced by special acts of
creation, and varieties which are
acknowledged to have been
produced by secondary laws.”
Charles Darwin
“There is grandeur in this view of
life, with its several powers,
having been originally breathed
into a few forms or into one; and
that, whilst this planet has gone
cycling on according to the fixed
law of gravity, from so simple a
beginning endless forms most
beautiful and most wonderful have
been, and are being, evolved.”
Reconciling Natural History & the Bible
Major 19th- & 20th- century views:
Gap Creationism-
God created as in the Bible, but there was a gap of
indeterminate length, perhaps millions of years, between the first creation in
Genesis 1:1 & the second creation in Genesis 1:2. Evolution may have
occurred during the long period of Genesis 1:1, but that creation was
replaced with the current one.
Day-Age Creationism –
Interprets the word “day” in Genesis as a
metaphor for a period of time (see Peter 3:8 “with the Lord one day is as a
thousand years and a thousand years is as one day" ”). The days of Genesis
are long time periods or ages depicting the order of events in the creation of
the world as corresponding to what we see in the fossil record, eg the age
of invertebrates, then the age of fishes, then the age of reptiles, the age of
mammals, the age of man, etc.
Reconciling Natural History & the Bible
Major 19th- & 20th- century views:
Progressive Creationism–
Acknowledges the patterns in the fossil
record & among living beings, but says the hand of God creates the new
species, not natural causes
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Theistic Evolutionism –
Progressive creationism grades into theistic
evolutionism, which sees God deriving new forms of life from old ones.
Some theistic evolutionists are very like Progressive Creationists as they see
the hand of God intervening directly in the biology of organisms to create
the new species. Others accept the natural processes of evolutionary biology
as explanatory, but believe that the system was preprogrammed to give rise
to humans. Still others believe God intervened in human evolution at some
point to bestow a soul (possibly around 30,000 years ago when we see the
first clear signs of art & religion). The Pope, and the vast majority of
working scientists in America are theistic evolutionists.
Reconciling Natural History & the Bible
Omphalos Creationism– Acknowledges the appearance of deep time &
evolutionary progression, but interprets this as a sign that God created the
universe with the appearance of age in order to test our faith.
Satanic Tampering– Acknowledges the appearance of deep time &
evolutionary progression, but interprets this as the result of the devil
tampering with God’s creation in order to lead us away from God.
Rev Henry Cole, 1830s “the subtle enemy of God and man” has put “the infernal
artillery” of “the popular new science of Geology” into “the hands of his vassals” to
“aim at this everlasting monument of revealed truth” ie scripture. “sophisticating
geologians have been allured by his implacable subtleties to enlist themselves in the
service of his infernal policy.” Cole rejects the argument from design: “if the word of
God does not satisfy them, no scientific hypotheses will.” … “Let such be turned out
of the field of sacred argument…as not worthy of being heard.”
Theological Issues
These concerns go to the heart of Christianity and are involved in theological
debates that date back over 1500 years.
Even well before the scientific revolution, and due only to close examination of
scripture, the fathers of the church emphasized that a literal interpretation
of Genesis is not possible.
Saint John Chrysostom (ca 347-407 AD) stressed it was essential to bear in
mind that Moses tried to write only of the appearances of things, adapting
his language and metaphors to the mindset of the Isrealites, who had only
recently been released from Egyptian slavery and did not have a long
tradition of scholarship.
Saint Basil the Great (ca 330-379 AD) explained:
“It is probable that something existed before this world; which we may
conceive of in our understandings, but of which no narrative has been left.”
Homil. I in Hexahemeron
Theological Issues
-Martin Luther (1483-1546), leader of the Protestant Reformation
in the introduction to his commentary on Genesis:
“God has reserved to himself alone this majesty of wisdom, and
the sound understanding of this chapter; leaving to us the general
knowledge, that the world had a beginning, and was created out
of nothing by God. This general knowledge is clearly derived from
the text. But with respect to the particular things, there is very
much that is involved in difficulty and doubt, and about which
questions without end are agitated.”
Theological Issues
It is absolutely certain that reason is among all things the most
excellent, the best of all other things in this life, yea, something
Godlike; as it is the inventress and directress of all sciences, the
medical art, jurisprudence, and even of all wisdom, energy, virtue,
and honor that men possess in this life.
God has not deprived reason of this glory since the fall of Adam,
but rather has confirmed it.
What then is contrary to reason, is much more contrary to God.
-Martin Luther
History of Creationism
fmi see Ron Numbers’ book, The Creationists
1855-1900 –
Universal acceptance of Geology among scientists & clerics (ie no
publicatiuons rejecting the antiquity of the earth, or the progressive nature of the
fossil record, nor any attaching geological significance to the Noachian deluge).
Acceptance of evolution by the vast majority of denominations.
1917-1968 – Anti-evolutionism The rise of the fundamentalist
movement included criticism of evolution. Scopes trial 1925, illegal to teach
evolution in many states until 1968. Most fundamentalists of the time were
Day-Age, Gap, or Progressive old-earth creationists. Many, like William
Jennings Bryan, were theistic evolutionists except as regards human beings.
1960s-90s Young Earth Creationism Roots in 7th Day Adventism, 6 literal
days, flood geology. Asserted there was scientific evidence for the Bible’s
creation story & that evolution was at odds with the known laws of physics,
eg 2nd law of thermodynamics.
1980s - “Creation Science” Promoted laws requiring equal time for youngearth creationism in public schools. These laws were opposed by most
Christian denominations, including Southern Baptists, as well as Jewish &
Muslim groups In 1987 US Supreme Court ruled these unconstitutional.
1990s – Neo-Creationism –uses scientists’ tentativeness & criticism of
each others’ ideas to imply that evolutionists are promoting unfounded,
philosophical & political positions as an attack on religious belief.
History of Creationism
Young-Earth Creationism– Interprets the word “day” in Genesis
to mean a literal 24-hour day (even before the sun & planets existed). Sees
no life before Eden, and no death before the Fall. Sees fossils & geological
strata as the result of Noah’s flood. This movement was started by Henry
Morris with his 1963 book The Genesis Flood.
Morris’ most decisive move was to attempt to take Genesis literally, including
not just the special, separate creation of humans and all other species, but
the historicity of Noah's Flood. Although efforts to make a literal
interpretation of the Bible compatible with science, especially geology,
occurred throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, The Genesis
Flood was the first significant twentieth-century effort. This book made it
possible for religious antievolutionists to argue that evolution was not only
religiously objectionable, but also scientifically flawed. This led to the
“Creation Science” movement.
Morris founded the Institute for Creation Research in CA. It was the most
influential creationist organization in the late 20th century, but has recently
been challenged by groups with different creationist philosophies, eg
Reasons to Believe, the Discovery Institute, and Answers in Genesis.
History of Creationism
The legal battle over “Creation Science”
Laws from the Scopes era were struck down in 1968 because they privileged
one religious view over others, a clear violation of the Constitution.
The idea emerged among some fundamentalists that even if it were no longer
possible to ban evolution, they could get around the establishment clause of
the Constitution by presenting their religion as science. In 1978, a Yale law
student named Wendell Bird wrote an article in the Yale Law Review
presenting a legal justification for teaching both evolution and creation
science, saying that the any scientific evidence in favor of creation should be
given "equal time" in public school classrooms.
Bills promoting "equal time" for creation science were introduced in at least
26 state legislatures. Most of them were clones of a model bill developed by
a South Carolina respiratory therapist, Paul Elwanger, which was influenced
by an ICR model resolution for equal time. The bills defined creation science
as including the ideas of "a worldwide flood" and other YEC mainstays,
including the special creation of human beings.
History of Creationism
“Creation-Science” or “Scientific Creationism”
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6.
Sudden creation of the universe, energy, and life from nothing;
The insufficiency of mutation and natural selection in bringing about
development of all living kinds from a single organism;
Changes only within fixed limits of originally created kinds of plants and
animals;
Separate ancestry for man and apes;
Explanation of the earth's geology by catastrophism, including the
occurrence of a worldwide flood; and
A relatively recent inception of the earth and living kinds
1981 Arkansas Equal Time Law
Is it Science?
Sudden creation of the universe, energy, and life from nothing
Criterion
Yes/No
Based on reductionist explanations
Maybe
Uses only natural explanations
Maybe
“How”, rather than “Why”
Maybe
Testable
Yes
Correctible
Yes
Extendable
Maybe
Basically, the assertion is too vague to tell just what it’s claiming except that the
universe had a beginning, this issue is somewhat contentious in physics, but is
supported by considerable data in the reductionist mode. The word “sudden”
is especially unclear. If it means that life appeared at the same time as energy
and matter, then there is no evidence to support it & a great deal that
demonstrates otherwise – that the universe began about 14 bya, and life on
Earth began about 4 bya .
Is it Science?
The insufficiency of mutation and natural selection in bringing
about development of all living kinds from a single organism
Criterion
Yes/No
Based on reductionist explanations
No
Uses only natural explanations
No
“How”, rather than “Why”
Yes
Testable
Maybe
Correctible
Maybe
Extendable
No
The assertion does not make a positive claim. It is a statement of
doubt, not a hypothesis. It might be testable depending on how
the word kinds is defined. It does not offer a research program.
Is it Science?
Changes only within fixed limits of originally created kinds of plants
and animals
Criterion
Yes/No
Based on reductionist explanations
No
Uses only natural explanations
No
“How”, rather than “Why”
Maybe
Testable
Yes
Correctible
Yes
Extendable
Maybe
The claim is contradicted by a tremendous number of examples of evolving
lineages in the fossil record (eg fish to tetrapod, reptile to mammal,
reptile to bird, ape to human) as well as the genetics of all life forms thus
examined.
Is it Science?
Separate ancestry for man and apes
Criterion
Yes/No
Based on reductionist explanations
No
Uses only natural explanations
Maybe
“How”, rather than “Why”
Maybe
Testable
Yes
Correctible
Yes
Extendable
Maybe
The claim contradicts hundreds of fossils and all the genetic and
embryological data on living primates. The correction is simple:
Common ancestry for humans and apes.
Is it Science?
Explanation of the earth's geology by catastrophism, including the occurrence
of a worldwide flood
Criterion
Yes/No
Based on reductionist explanations
No
Uses only natural explanations
Maybe
“How”, rather than “Why”
Maybe
Testable
Yes
Correctible
Maybe
Extendable
Maybe
The claim for a universal flood is not supported by the enormous quantity of
data geologists have accumulated so far. As no date is given, it’s hard to
tell what exactly is meant. It’s not out of the question that the entire
land surface of the Earth might have at some point been entirely covered
with water. However, thus far, plate tectonics suggests that some land
surface has always been above water.
Is it Science?
A relatively recent inception of the earth and living kinds
Criterion
Yes/No
Based on reductionist explanations
Maybe
Uses only natural explanations
Maybe
“How”, rather than “Why”
Maybe
Testable
Yes
Correctible
Yes
Extendable
Maybe
The assertion makes a positive claim. The claim is inconsistent with a
mountain of data. The corrected statement is: A relatively ancient
inception of the earth and living kinds, specifically an origin
approx. 4.6 bya for planet Earth, and at least 3.9 bya for life.
ICR Tenets of Scientific Creationism
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The physical universe of space, time, matter, and energy has not always existed, but was supernaturally
created by a transcendent personal Creator who alone has existed from eternity.
The phenomenon of biological life did not develop by natural processes from inanimate systems but was
specially and supernaturally created by the Creator.
Each of the major kinds of plants and animals was created functionally complete from the beginning and did
not evolve from some other kind of organism. Changes in basic kinds since their first creation are limited to
"horizontal" changes (variation) within the kinds, or "downward' changes (e.g., harmful mutations,
extinctions).
The first human beings did not evolve from an animal ancestry, but were specially created in fully human form
from the start. Furthermore, the "spiritual" nature of man (self-image, moral consciousness, abstract
reasoning, language, will, religious nature, etc.) is itself a supernaturally created entity distinct from mere
biological life.
The record of earth history, as preserved in the earth's crust, especially in the rocks and fossil deposits, is
primarily a record of catastrophic intensities of natural processes, operating largely within uniform natural laws,
rather than one of gradualism and relatively uniform process rates. There are many scientific evidences for a
relatively recent creation of the earth and the universe, in addition to strong scientific evidence that most of
the earth's fossiliferous sedimentary rocks were formed in an even more recent global hydraulic cataclysm.
Processes today operate primarily within fixed natural laws and relatively uniform process rates but, since
these were themselves originally created and are daily maintained by their Creator, there is always the
possibility of miraculous intervention in these laws or processes by their Creator. Evidences for such
intervention should be scrutinized critically, however, because there must be clear and adequate reason for any
such action on the part of the Creator.
The universe and life have somehow been impaired since the completion of creation, so that imperfections in
structure, disease, aging, extinctions, and other such phenomena are the result of "negative" changes in
properties and processes occurring in an originally-perfect created order.
Since the universe and its primary components were created perfect for their purposes in the beginning by a
competent and volitional Creator, and since the Creator does remain active in this now-decaying creation, there
do exist ultimate purposes and meanings in the universe. Teleological considerations, therefore, are appropriate
in scientific studies whenever they are consistent with the actual data of observation, and it is reasonable to
assume that the creation presently awaits the consummation of the Creator's purpose.
Although people are finite and scientific data concerning origins are always circumstantial and incomplete, the
human mind (if open to the possibility of creation) is able to explore the manifestations of that Creator
rationally and scientifically, and to reach an intelligent decision regarding one's place in the Creator's plan.
ICR Tenets of Biblical Creationism
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The Creator of the universe is a triune God: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. There is only one eternal and
transcendent God, the source of all being and meaning, and He exists in three Persons, each of whom
participated in the work of creation.
The Bible, consisting of the thirty-nine canonical books of the Old Testament and the twenty-seven canonical
books of the New Testament, is the divinely-inspired revelation of the Creator to man. Its unique, plenary,
verbal inspiration guarantees that these writings, as originally and miraculously given, are infallible and
completely authoritative on all matters with which they deal, free from error of any sort, scientific and historical
as well as moral and theological.
All things in the universe were created and made by God in the six literal days of the creation week described
in Genesis 1:1-2:3, and confirmed in Exodus 20:8-11. The creation record is factual, historical, and
perspicuous; thus all theories of origins or development which involve evolution in any form are false. All things
which now exist are sustained and ordered by God's providential care. However, a part of the spiritual creation,
Satan and his angels, rebelled against God after the creation and are attempting to thwart His divine purposes
in creation.
The first human beings, Adam and Eve, were specially created by God, and all other men and women are their
descendants. In Adam, mankind was instructed to exercise "dominion" over all other created organisms, and
over the earth itself (an implicit commission for true science, technology, commerce, fine art, and education)
but the temptation by Satan and the entrance of sin brought God's curse on that dominion and on mankind,
culminating in death and separation from God as the natural and proper consequence.
The Biblical record of primeval earth history in Genesis 1-11 is fully historical and perspicuous, including the
creation and fall of man, the curse on the creation and its subjection to the bondage of decay, the promised
Redeemer, the worldwide cataclysmic deluge in the days of Noah, the post-diluvian renewal of man's
commission to subdue the earth (now augmented by the institution of human govemment) and the origin of
nations and languages at the tower of Babel.
The alienation of man from his Creator because of sin can only be remedied by the Creator Himself, who
became man in the person of the Lord Jesus Christ, through miraculous conception and virgin birth. In Christ
were indissolubly united perfect sinless humanity and full deity, so that His substitutionary death is the only
necessary and sufficient price of man's redemption. That the redemption was completely efficacious is assured
by His bodily resurrection from the dead and ascension into heaven; the resurrection of Christ is thus the focal
point of history, assuring the consummation of God's purposes in creation.
The final restoration of creation's perfection is yet future, but individuals can immediately be restored to
fellowship with their Creator, on the basis of His redemptive work on their behalf, receiving forgiveness and
etemal life solely through personal trust in the Lord Jesus Christ, accepting Him not only as estranged Creator
but also as reconciling Redeemer and coming King. Those who reject Him, however, or who neglect to believe
on Him, thereby continue in their state of rebellion and must ultimately be consigned to the everlasting fire
prepared for the devil and his angels.
History of Creationism
1980s - “Creation Science”
Arkansas' equal time law was declared unconstitutional in 1982 after a full trial.
Opposing the law were leaders of many religious organizations. Joining the lead
plaintiff, Methodist Rev. Bill McLean, were bishops & other leaders of Roman
Catholic, Episcopalian, African Methodist Episcopal, Presbyterian, and Southern
Baptist churches, and Reform Jews. A leading New York law firm assembled an allstar cast of witnesses from the fields of science, philosophy of science, education,
and theology. The McLean v. Arkansas decision was a rousing victory for the
anticreationists: Federal District Judge Overton not only struck down the law, but
declared that creation science failed as science. Having lost badly, the state did not
appeal.
The failure of the Arkansas equal time law slowed but did not halt the effort to pass
legislation. At virtually the same time as the Arkansas decision was being issued,
Louisiana passed a similar equal time law which was challenged by both proponents
and opponents: one side suing to immediately implement the law, and the other
requesting an injunction. The was no full trial. In 1987, the US Supreme Court
decided in Edwards v. Aguillard that equal time laws like Louisiana's violated the
establishment clause of the First Amendment of the Constitution because they
promoted the views of a particular religious sect.
History of Creationism
The religious agenda of Creation-Science is clear:
"God used processes which are not now operating anywhere in the natural
universe. This is why we refer to divine creation as special creation. We cannot
discover by scientific investigation anything about the creative processes used
by God." --Duane Gish, Evolution: The Fossils Say No, p. 42
"As a missionary organization, ICR is funded by God's people. We believe God
has raised up ICR to spearhead Biblical Christianity's defense against the
godless dogma of evolutionary humanism. Only by showing the scientific
bankruptcy of evolution, while exalting Christ and the Bible, will Christians be
successful in 'the pulling down of strongholds; casting down imaginations, and
every high thing that exaltheth itself against the knowledge of God, and
bringing into captivity every thought to the obedience of Christ' (II Corinthians
10:4,5)." --ICR Webpage
“The only way we can determine the true age of the earth is for God to tell us
what it is. And since he has told us, very plainly, in the Holy Scriptures that it is
several thousand years of age, and no more, that ought to settle all basic
questions of terrestrial chronology." --Henry Morris, Remarkable Birth, p. 94
History of Creationism
1990s-present:
Neo-Creationism
Intelligent Design Creationism- a homage to Paley’s argument from
design, in large part, Intelligent Design Creationism is used today as an
umbrella anti-evolution position under which creationists of all flavors may
unite in an attack on scientific methodology in general. A common tenet of
IDC is that any acceptance of evolution equates to metaphysical materialism
(ie the belief that all aspects of reality are explained by natural causes, ie
that science has proven that there is no God.).
Non-Christian Creationisms- Accept various anti-evolution arguments
(like those of Intelligent Design) but say their religion offers a more
adequate creation account.
History of Creationism
Intelligent Design relies on the failure of scientific
explanations. If those explanations should happen not
to fail, “Design” would become “superfluous.”
"What I want to focus on here, however, is not the testing of Darwinism and
design against the broad body of biological data, but the related question of
which theory can accommodate the greater range of biological possibilities...
First off, let's be clear that design can accommodate all the results of
Darwinism. Intelligent design does not repudiate the Darwinian mechanism.
It merely assigns it a lower status than Darwinism does. The Darwinian
mechanism does operate in nature and insofar as it does, design can live
with its deliverances. Even if the Darwinian mechanism could be shown to
do all the design work for which design theorists want to invoke design (say
for the bacterial flagellum), a design-theoretic framework would not destroy
any valid findings of science. To be sure, design would then become
superfluous, but it would not become contradictory or self-refuting.”
-William Dembski
http://www.meta-list.org
How do Young Earthers differ from Progressive Creationists?
Example: Hugh Ross & Duane Gish – debate on Jim Dobson’s
Focus on the Family evangelical radio program:
Gish: Now Hugh in his view - in his big bang cosmology, big bang cosmology is
a natural process that begins with this big bang, and following the big bang
then as this hydrogen and helium distributed itself throughout the universe
and as stars evolved and galaxies evolved and our solar system created
itself and so on.. That's been going on for, say, 15, 16, 17, 18 billion years.
Well in a process like that, you see, I don't see any difference between that
view and that of any atheist cosmologist or any unbelieving cosmologist who
believes in the big bang, I can't see the difference and I don't see the
agreement between this natural evolutionary origin of the universe and the
universe that God created in the book of Genesis. In other words certainly if
creation is not finished - Hugh believes that stars are still forming today you
see, so we still - evolutionary creation has been going on for 18 billion
years.
How do Young Earthers differ from Progressive
Creationists?
Dobson:
For those who have not read on this subject - they may be lost already explain what the big bang theory is.
Ross:
Well the big bang theory is the theory that there's a beginning - a creation
event, and that moreover this creation event was caused by a being that
transcends matter energy length, width, height and time - that's what I
mean by transcendent. If you go into Hinduism or Buddhism they say that
time is eternal that the cosmos is eternal, that the cosmos oscillates. And
what the big bang does for us is prove that these religions are false and that
only the Christian interpretation of the cosmos is correct.
"Evolution is at the foundation of communism, fascism,
Freudianism, social darwinism, behaviorism, Kinseyism,
materialism, atheism, and in the religious world, modernism and
neo-orthodoxy"
-Henry Morris 1963, Genesis Flood p. 24
Theological Debates
”There is still a great need today to reaffirm the fundamental
doctrines of Christianity, especially when we consider "The Jesus
Seminar," "Evangelicals and Catholics Together," the
current push by the Mormons to present themselves as just
another Christian denomination, and a host of other groups
claiming to be Christian who deny these core truths. John
MacArthur's book Reckless Faith, published by Crossway Books
is an excellent, brief analysis of present day doctrinal
compromise.”
From The Fundamentals website:
http://www.xmission.com/~fidelis/index.html
Theological Debates
“We are concerned with Christian faith; not
Catholic or Protestant faith.
There is only one Christ. There is one God.”
-Billy Graham