What was the impact of the
Sino-Japanese War on the Reform
Movement?
L/O – To analyse the significance of the Sino-Japanese War
and identify the causes & effects of the 100 Days Reform
Emperor Guangxu
Battle of the Yalu River - 1894
Introduction
• The Self-Strengthening Movement had
made considerable strides in modernising
Qing China but resistance to reforms was
still widespread amongst large sections of
the population.
• With defeat in the Sino-Japanese War of
1894-95, it became apparent that
modernisation needed to be accelerated.
• Reform-minded officials and scholars
continued to demand reforms, persuading
the Emperor Guangxu to back radical
reforms to the entire system.
Emperor Guangxu
Introduction
• This resulted in the ‘100 Days Reform’
in 1898. Emperor Guangxu issued a
torrent of reform edicts. It was ended
by Cixi, who returned from semiretirement and put the Emperor under
house arrest.
• Led by Cixi, the Qing Court returned to
anti-foreign policies, which became
heightened as imperial powers began
to demand more concessions from
China. This in turn sparked the Boxer
Uprising of 1899-1900.
Empress Dowager Cixi
Causes of the Sino-Japanese War
• In the 1870s, China was becoming
increasingly concerned about growing
Japanese influence in Korea, one of its
tributary states.
• These fears became real in 1876 with the
Treaty of Kangwha which gave Japan rich
trading concessions throughout Korea.
• In the 1882 Imo Incident and 1884 Gapsin
Coup, both China and Japan had sent
troops to Seoul to put down uprisings
against the Korean King. This had nearly
led to war.
Causes of the Sino-Japanese War
• Tensions eased slightly in 1885 when
Japanese PM Itō Hirobumi met with Li
Hongzhang in Tientsin to discuss relations.
• In the Convention of Tientsin, both sides
promised to withdraw their troops and
inform each other first before sending
troops in future.
• Despite this, China was determined to
reassert its influence, appointing Yuan
Shikai as ‘Imperial Resident of Seoul’. He
effectively dictated Korean government
policy for the next ten years.
Li Hongzhang
Itō Hirobumi
Yuan Shikai
Causes of the Sino-Japanese War
• Tensions came to a head in 1894. The
Tonghak Rebels were advancing on Seoul
when King Kojong called on China for aid.
• Both Japan and China rushed troops to
the region to protect their interests.
Japan got their first, seizing the Royal
Palace and installing a pro-Japanese
government.
• China rejected this new government and
in-turn, Japan claimed China had not
informed it of sending troops. War
loomed.
Events of the War
• It finally broke out on 25th July 1894
when Japanese ships sunk a Chinese
troop transport.
• By September, the main Chinese force
at Pyongyang had been defeated along
with the Chinese Beiyang Fleet at the
Battle of the Yalu River.
• In October Japanese forces crossed
into Manchuria, taking Lushan (Port
Arthur) in November where they
massacred civilians.
Sinking of the Kowshing
Events of the War
• In January 1895, 20,000
Japanese troops marched
across the Shandong Peninsula,
capturing the defensive forts
surrounding Weihaiwei and
turned the gun on the
remnants of the Chinese
Beiyang Fleet, completely
destroying it.
• By March, Japanese forces had
captured the Pescadore Islands
on the way to Taiwan. By April,
China was defeated and sued
for peace.
Capture of Weihaiwei 1895
The Treaty of Shimonoseki
• Li Hongzhang and Prince Gong
were sent to negotiate the
peace. They signed the Treaty
of Shimonoseki on 17th April
1895. It stipulated:
• China had to recognise Korean
independence
• Ceded the Liaodong Peninsula
• Ceded Taiwan & Penghu Island
• Gave 200 million Kuping Taels
• Japanese allowed to operate on
the Yangtze River and other trade
concessions
Prince Gong
Li Hongzhang
Effects of the War on the Reform Movement
• The war had a profoundly
significant effect on China. It had
shown that despite reforms, China
was no match for the recently
modernised Japan.
• The humiliating Treaty of
Shimonoseki angered many
Confucian scholars and officials
into demanding further and
immediate reforms. In this sense,
the spirit of Self-Strengthening
lived on.
Effects of the War on the Reform Movement
• Conservative Scholars like Zhang
Zhidong & Weng Tonghe were reawakened to the need for reform
and a consensus emerged that
reform was necessary.
• Zhang developed the idea of ‘TiYong’ which gave many people
hope and reassured conservatives
– ‘Chinese learning should remain
the essence, but Western Learning
should be used for practical
development.’
Zhang Zhidong
Weng Tonghe
Causes of the 100 Days Reforms
• This clamour for reform boiled over in
Spring 1895 when 600 Confucian
Scholars, gathered in Beijing for the Jinshi
examinations, wrote a long memorial to
the emperor – urging continued
resistance against the Japanese through
modernisation.
Kang Youwei
Liang Qichao
• They were led by the scholars Kang
Youwei and Liang Qichao. Kang & Liang
were of a new school of reformers, who
advocated drastic institutional change.
Kang was also friends with the Emperor’s
tutor, Weng Tonghe, who saw that the
young Emperor would read it.
Weng Tonghe
Imperial Court Politics
• The Imperial Court was dominated by
conservative Confucian officials. They all
realised that reform was necessary but
competed to lead these reforms in order to
retain power.
• These officials were divided into two main
groups: the ‘Northern Party’ led by Hsü T’ung
and the ‘Southern Party’ led by Weng Tonghe.
Zhang Zhidong
• The Northern Party appointed Zhang Zhidong
to lead the reform movement within Court.
However this was blocked by Weng Tonghe
who appointed promising young scholars like
Kang Youwei. Kang turned out to be far more
radical then expected!
Weng Tonghe
Causes of the 100 Days Reforms
• Emperor Guanxgu was interested in the
proposals but had no real power as the
Court was still dominated by Cixi and
her conservative friends.
• But by the 1890s, calls for reform by
were becoming widespread and the
young emperor was looking to regain
power to implement reforms.
• In June 1898, the Emperor even had a
private audience of over 5 hours with
Kang Youwei. Listening to his ideas he
become determined to institute a
reform programme and made Kang his
advisor.
Empress Dowager Cixi
Emperor Guangxu
Kang Youwei
Kang: “The four barbarians are all invading us and their attempted partition is
gradually being carried out: China will soon perish.”
Emperor: “Today it is really imperative that we reform.”
Kang: “It is not because in recent years we have not talked about reform, but
because it was only a slight reform, not a complete one; we change the first thing
and do not change the second, and then we have everything so confused as to incur
failure, and eventually there will be no success.”
“The prerequisites of reform are that all the laws and the political and social systems
be changed and decided anew, before it can be called a reform. Now those who talk
about reform only change some specific affairs, and do not reform the institutions.”
Emperor: “Your reform program is very detailed.”
Kang: “…why not vigorously carry it through?”
Emperor: “What can I do with so much hindrance?”
Kang: “According to the authority which Your Majesty is now exercising to carry
out the reforms, if he works on only the mist important things, it will be sufficient to
save China…”
Highlights of the five-hour interview by Liang Qichao, in I.C.Y Hsu, Rise of Modern China, p369-370
The 100 Days Reforms
• Suddenly in June 1898, the
Emperor began issuing an
extraordinary series of edicts
and decrees in quick
succession.
• Over 200 edicts were issued
between June and September
(103 days) and called for
changes in four main areas of
Qing government and life:
Education, Government, the
Military and the Economy.
Emperor Guangxu
Education Reforms
A. Replacement of the eight-legged essay in the civil service
examination by essays on current affairs
B. Establishment of an Imperial University at Peking
C. Establishment of modern schools in the provinces devoted to
the pursuit of both Chinese and Western studies…
D. Establishment of a school for the overseas subjects
E. Creation of a medical school under the Imperial University
F. Publication of an official newspaper
G. Opening of a special examination in political economy
Government Administration Reforms
A. Abolition of sinecure and unnecessary offices
B. Appointment of the progressives in government
C. Improvement in administrative efficiency by
eliminating delays and by developing a new,
simplified administrative procedure
D. Encouragement of suggestions from private citizens,
to be forwarded by government offices on the day
they are received
E. Permission for the Manchus to engage in trade
Economic Reforms
A. Promotion of railway construction
B. Promotion of agricultural, industrial,
and commercial developments
C. Encouragement of invention
D. Beautification of the Capital
Other Reforms
A. Tour of foreign countries by high
officials
B. Protection of missionaries
C. Improvement and simplification of legal
codes
D. Preparation of a budget
How did the Reforms end?
• Unfortunately, most of the reforms were
boycotted by senior officials in the court
and in the provinces. Some officials were
willing but had not the ability to carry out
reforms.
• At first, Cixi and officials supported
reforms but soon disliked the radical
changes as they challenged their positions.
The reforms to education would have
destroyed the power of Confucian officials.
Empress Dowager Cixi
• Many officials begged Cixi to stop the
reforms. Cixi believed the reforms were an
attempt to wrestle power from her.
How did the Reforms end?
• The reformers feared Cixi would try to
depose the Emperor. They planned to
carry out a palace coup against Cixi and
asked Yuan Shikai to support them.
• Yuan Shikai betrayed the Emperor and
informed Cixi of the plot. She
immediately raided the Emperor’s palace
and imprisoned the Emperor on 21st
September 1898.
• She announced publicly that a ‘serious
illness’ had overcome the emperor, and
she need to rule for him.
Yuan Shikai
How did the Reforms end?
• Orders were quickly issued to arrest Kang.
He and Liang fled to Japan, with other
reformers being executed. Provincial officials
that did support the reforms were stripped
of their titles.
The ‘six gentlemen’
• Most of the reforms were reversed:
newspapers closed, formation of reform
societies prohibited and the eight-legged
essay reinstated.
• However some reforms continued. Peking
University and provincial schools remained.
Cixi made it clear that reform was not bad
but Kang Youwei had carried it out badly.
Kang Youwei
Reasons for the Failure of the Reform
• The historian Hsü (2000)
argues that there were three
main reasons for the failure
of the reform:
1. Inexperience of the
Reformers
2. Powerful Conservative
Opposition
3. The Power of Cixi
1. Inexperience of the Reformers
• Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao had no
previous experience in government
service and had limited understanding
of Western culture and institutions.
They were naïve to think the support of
the Emperor was enough and ignored
the obvious fact that Cixi had real
power.
• Reforms were too radical and
ambitious: education reforms angered
students, elimination of traditional gov.
offices angered officials, military
reforms angered Manchu Officers etc…
Kang Youwei
Liang Qichao
2. Powerful Conservative Opposition
• The reforms were seen by conservative
scholars as a war on the whole
Confucian state and society and saw
Kang’s interpretations of Confucius as
blasphemous.
• Moderate conservative reformers like
Weng Tonghe were alienated by the
speed and extent of change.
• Manchu officials were worried about
their positions as all the reformers
were Han Chinese.
“Kang’s face is
Confucian… but his
heart is barbarian… The
Modern Text school of
today is not the same as
that of the Han period;
the latter honoured
China whereas the
former, the barbarians…
even if Kang’s words
might be accepted, he as
a person should never be
used… [he has the
respect for] …neither the
sovereign nor the
fathers.” Yeh Te-hui &
Wang Hsien-ch’ien
3. The Power of Cixi
• Though in retirement since 1889, Cixi
commanded huge influence over political
and military affairs.
• Confidants in the Grand Council reported
to her all policy decisions and eunuchs in
the palaces spied on the Emperor.
• She also had the loyalty of the military
surrounding Peking. Kang and the
reformers had no power base other then
the Emperor himself. Yuan Shikai held the
key but he chose Cixi over the Emperor.
Effects of the 100 Days Reforms
1. Revolutionary Growth - Progressive
reform from the top down now seemed
impossible. Only overthrow of the Qing
Dynasty and revolution could change
this. Led to the growth of Sun Yat-sen’s
revolutionary movement.
Sun Yat-sen
2. Growth in Anti-foreign Feeling at Court –
The re-establishment of conservative
influence at Court led to growth of antiforeign feeling as Western Powers
opposed Cixi’s coup and helped Kang to
escape. Cixi would later support the antiforeign Boxer Uprising in 1900-1901.
Effects of the 100 Days Reforms
3. Growth in Chinese Nationalism- Diehard conservative Manchu officials
were re-appointed, leading an antiChinese policy to punish reformers.
This led to growing anti-Manchu and
Qing feeling, indirectly leading to
1911 Revolution.
“Reform benefits
the Chinese but
hurts the
Manchus. If I
have properties, I
would rather
give them to my
friends than let
the slaves share
the benefit.”
4. Continued Reforms – Despite ending
the 100 Days Reforms, she realised
that reform was necessary, paving the
way for the late Qing reforms in 1901- Grand Secretary
Kang-i
1911.
Plenary
1. What effect did the Sino-Japanese War have on the SelfStrengthening Movement?
2. Which officials spearheaded the reform movement after
the war?
3. How was Kang Youwei different from the conservative
reformers?
4. What types of reforms were announced by Guangxu?
5. Why did the Reforms fail?
6. What were the effects of the 100 Days Reform on China?
Did we meet our learning objective?
L/O – To analyse the significance of the Sino-Japanese War
and identify the causes & effects of the 100 Days Reform
Paper 3 - Exam Question 1 (2013)
• Discuss the reasons for, and the consequences of, the Hundred Days
Reform (1898) in China. (20 marks)
Guangxu (Kuang-hsu) became emperor in his own right in 1889, though initially he was still heavily influenced by the Empress Dowager,
Cixi (Tz’u-hsi). The humiliating defeats of the 1884–1885 Sino–French War and the 1894–1895 Sino–Japanese War and the subsequent
scramble for concessions by the European powers indicated that the limited modernization of the Self-Strengthening Movement had
failed. Various scholars and intellectuals advocated more progressive reform. The radical reformers, who believed in constitutional
monarchy and institutional reform from the top, similar to the Meiji reforms in Japan, gained support from the Emperor. The main
proponents of these changes were Kang Youwei (K’ang Yu-wei) and Liang Qichao (Liang Ch’i-ch’ao). By 1898 the Empress Dowager had
removed herself from active participation in government and the Emperor was thus able to introduce the reforms by decree over a period
of 103 days. The reforms covered the modernization of education, including the abolition of the traditional examination; political
administration; industry; improvement and simplification of the legal codes; the preparation of a budget; and other matters. The
conservatives opposed the changes in administration, education and the examination system, which would have weakened their
influence. The Empress Dowager became alarmed at the extent of the reform programme and brought it to an end. Candidates may use
Hsu’s analysis for the reasons why the Hundred Days Reform Movement failed: the reformers’ inexperience and naivety; the power of Cixi
(Tz’u-hsi); the strength of the conservative opposition. The immediate consequences were the placing of Guangxu (Kuang-hsu) under
house arrest and Cixi (Tz’u-hsi) taking over the regency again; the reversal of most of the reform measures; the execution of key reformers
and persecution of others. The long term consequences included: progressive reform from the top was no longer a viable option for
China; the return of Cixi (Tz’u-hsi) and the conservatives to power and hence a rigidity in approach to government; anti-foreign sentiments
grew and influenced the 1900–01 Boxer Rebellion; the punishment of the reformers widened the division between Manchu and Han;
repercussions with regard to the loyalties of some Han provincial leaders; disillusionment amongst the middle class in the treaty ports;
many Chinese intellectuals fled into exile; reformist and revolutionary groups flourished in exile; a growth in the belief that the violent
overthrow of the Qing (Ch’ing) dynasty was the only option; support for the ideas of Sun Yixian (Sun Yat-sen) and his Revive China Society
and later the 1905 Tongmenghui (T’ung-meng hui) or Revolutionary Alliance.
Paper 3 - Exam Question 2 (2005)
• Why, and with what consequences for China, did the 100 Days
Reform of 1898 fail? (20 marks)
The question focuses on the reforms initiated by Kang Yuwei (K’ang Yu-wei) and
Emperor Guangxi (Kuang-hsu) between 11 June and 20 September 1898, when some forty
to fifty decrees were issued to reform education, government administration and the legal
system, to promote railways, industry and commerce and to improve agriculture. The main
reasons for failure were the inexperience of the reformers, their misguided strategy for
introducing reform, the opposition of powerful conservative groups, and the reluctance of
the Empress Dowager to surrender power. The effects of failure were far-reaching. It made
clear that the court was in need of new leadership and that reform could not be imposed
from the top against the opposition of the Empress Dowager and the conservative elite. The
inability of the Emperor to order the regional authorities was demonstrated. Anti-foreigner
sentiment increased, leading to the Boxer Rebellion and its consequences. Reformers
wishing to retain the Manchus were discredited and the movement to overthrow the
Manchus and to impose more radical reform grew in strength. Both parts of the question
need to be addressed.
Paper 3 - Exam Question 3 (2006)
• “The Hundred Days Reforms (1898) had no chance of success.” How
far do you agree with this statement? (20 marks)
The reforms were introduced by the Emperor Guangxu (Kuang H’su),
advised by the reformer Kang Youwei (K’ang Yu-wei), after the
humiliation of defeat in the Sino-Japanese War (1894–5) and the
consequent Scramble for Concessions. The Empress Dowager had
removed herself from active participation in government and the
Emperor was thus able to introduce the reforms by decree. The
reforms covered education, political administration, industry, the
preparation of a budget and other matters. However, conservatives
opposed the changes in administration, education and the exam
system, which would have weakened their influence. The Empress
Dowager became alarmed at the extent of the reform programme
and brought it to an end.