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After the fall of Rome, the civilizations of Byzantium and the Islamic world linked the Middle East, the Mediterranean, northern Europe, and
Africa.
800 – 1500, in Africa frequency and intensity of contact with the outside world increased due to a growing international network.
Social and religious changes took place influencing many different peoples
Important was the arrival of the followers of the prophet Muhammad

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The spread of Islam revealed the power of the religion and its commercial and military attributes
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Civilizations were changed by Islam but retained their individuality
New religious, economic, and political patterns developed with the Islamic surge, but diversity remained
Islamization cause huge effects on its converts and linked Muslim Africa to the outside world through trade, religion, and politics.
Trade and long-distance commerce linked regions beyond the
Muslim world.

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Until about 1450,
Islam provided the major external contact between sub-Saharan
Africa and the world.
State-building: West
Africa experienced cultural influence of
Islam and its own internal civilization produced great artistic accomplishments
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Powerful state, such a Mali and Songhay, depended more on military power and dynastic alliances than on ethnic or cultural unity.

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There was the development of city-states, with strong merchant communities in west Africa and the Indian
Ocean coast of east Africa that showed similarities to urban developments of Italy and Germany in this period.
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However, there were disparities between the technologies and ideologies of European and
Africans and differences in the ways their societies developed.
Northern Africa and the east
African coast were partly incorporated into the Arab
Muslim world
New centers of civilization and political power arose in sub-Saharan Africa, illustrating the geographic diffusion of civilization
Bantu migration and the formation of large states in the western Sudan persisted

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Differences in geography, language, religion, and politics contributed to Africa’s lack of political unity
Sub-Saharan Africa did not have universal states or universal religions
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Christianity and Islam did find adherents in
Africa and sometimes contributed to formation of large states empires

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Some African societies had rulers who controlled through a hierarchy of official called states; other societies were stateless, organized around kinship
Stateless peoples
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Some organized around either lineages or age sets ( groups of the same age) did not need rulers or bureaucracies
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Some had forms of government – authority could be held instead by a council of families with no need to tax the population to support the ruler, bureaucrats, army or nobles.
Some had little concentration authority affecting only a small part of people’s lives

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Other alternatives to formal government were secret societies
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These incorporated their members after an initiation – knowledge, skills, physical tests
They settled village disputes and also acted to maintain stability, and served as an alternative to the power of state institutions
Stateless societies found it difficult to resist external pressures, mobilize for warfare, organize large building projects, carry on stable long-distance trade with others
All of these concerns contributed to the formation of states in sub-Saharan Africa

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Certain similarities in language, thought, and religion provided some unities
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Bantu-speaking peoples provided a linguistic base a cross much of Africa so that structure and vocabulary allowed some mutual understanding between neighboring Bantu speakers
Animistic religion: belief in the power of natural forces personified as spirits or gods and the role of ritual and worship (dancing drumming, divination, and sacrifice) was central to religion of many
African peoples

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African religions had well-developed concepts of good and evil
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Africans, like, Europeans, believed that some evil, disasters and illnesses were produced by witchcraft; this led to the existence of a class of diviners or priests who guided religious practice
African religion provided a cosmology – view of how the universe worked
Many believed in a creator whose power and actions were expressed through spirits of lesser gods and through the founding ancestors of the group
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Ancestors – seen as the first settlers – thus “owners” of the land and resources and through them the fertility of the land, game, people, and herds could be ensured.

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Religion, economics, and history were thus closely intertwined.
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Family/clan – common organization of African societies had an important role in dealing with the gods.
Deceased ancestors – direct link between living relatives and the spirit world
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Respect of ancestors and gods
– part of the same system

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Settled agriculture and skilled ironwork had been established before or during the postclassical period.
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Specialization encouraged local and regional trade, the basis for many lively markets and large cities
Market life – women and men alike participated actively
Trade – handled by professional merchants
International trade increased in many regions in this period, mainly with
Islamic world and through Arab traders
African state benefited from ability to tax the trade

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International trade furthered the growth of
African merchant groups
No rapid technical or manufacturing shifts within Africa, except important innovation in mining
POPULATION – One of the least known aspects of
African societies before
20 th century
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By 1500, Africa may have had 30-60 million inhabitants

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Africa north of the Sahara had long been part of the world of classical antiquity, where Phoenicians, Greeks,
Romans and Vandals traded, settled, built, battled, and destroyed
Christianity had taken a firm hold in Mediterranean Africa
North Africa was linked across the Sahara to the rest of Africa in many ways.
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With the rise of Islam, those ties became closer

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640 – 700 CE, followers of Muhammad swept across north Africa from Suez to Morocco’s Atlantic shore
711 Berber and Arab armies had crossed into Spain. Were defeated in Frankish Kingdom by Charles at Poitiers (Battle of Tours) in 732 halting Muslim advance in the West
Islam found fertile ground among the populations of north Africa
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Rapid conversion within the political unity provided by the Abbasid dynasty
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This unity eventually broke down, and north Africa divided into separate states and competing groups

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In opposition to the states dominated by the Arabic rulers, the peoples of the desert, the Berbers, formed states of their own
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11 th century – the Almoravids, a puritanical reformist movement, grew among the desert Berbers.
They launched a jihad, holy war, against the kingdoms of the savanna and west into Spain.
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1130 – another reformist group, the Almohadis, followed the same pattern
These north African and
Spanish developments were essential to the penetration of
Islam into sub-Saharan Africa

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Islam offered many attractions – that all Muslims are equal within the community of believers – which made the acceptance of conquerors and new rulers easier
Islamic tradition of uniting the powers of the state and religion under the ruler, caliph, appealed to some African kings to reinforce their authority
Concept – all members of the umma, community of believers, were equal put the converted Berbers and later Africans on an equal footing with the Arabs
Despite these utopian ideas within Islam, practices differed considerable at local levels
Ethnic distinctions also divided the believers

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Christianity had made converts in Egypt and Ethiopia before the conversion of the Roman Empire in the 4 th century CE.
Christian kingdom of Axum, Christian communities thrived in Egypt and Nubia.
Christians of Egypt, the Copts, developed a rich tradition in contact with
Byzantium, translating the religious literature, like the Bible, etc., from Greek to Coptic, their own tongue
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Copts eventually split from the Byzantine connection on doctrinal and political issues
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The Copts were able to maintain their faith, as Muslim rulers recognized them as followers of a revealed religion and thus entitled to a certain tolerance

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Coptic influence spread up the
Nile into Nubia, the ancient land of Kush.
Muslim attempts to penetrate
Nubia were net with stiff resistance in 9 th century that the
Christian descendants of ancient
Kush were left as independent
Christian kingdoms until the 13 th century
The Ethiopian kingdom that grew from Axum was the most important African Christian outpost. Because it was surrounded by pagan neighbors, the Christian kingdom turned inward
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Its people occupied the Ethiopian highlands and lived in fortified towns where they relied on agriculture

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Eventually through a process of warfare, etc a new dynasty appeared under King Lalibela who sponsored a building project of 11 great churches sculpted from rock
13 th – 14 th centuries, an Ethiopian Christian state emerged under a dynasty tracing its origins back to the marriage of
Solomon and Sheba. The dynasty kept its brand of Christianity while facing constant pressure from its Muslim neighbors.
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Their struggle with the Muslim peoples in Somalia shaped much of the history of the region and continues to do so today.
Ethiopia remained isolated, Christian, and fiercely independent

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Several power states emerged combining
Islamic religion and culture – kingdoms of
Mali and Songhay and the Hausa states. These were adaptations of
Islam and its fusion with
African traditions
An Islamic wave spread across north Africa in the form of merchants and travelers using the caravan routes toward the savanna
Africa had 3 important coasts of contact:
Atlantic, the Indian
Ocean, and the savanna

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Formed by the 8 th century by exchanging gold from the forests of west Africa for salt from the Sahara in trade and goods from the Mediterranean north Africa
Camels introduced from Asia improved the possibilities of trade
The Sahel , grassland belt edging the Sahara became a point of exchange between the forests and north Africa
Along the coast, several African states developed between the trading cities
Ghana rose to power by taxing the salt and gold
By the 10 th century its rulers converted to Islam

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Ghana’s power declined after invasions by the Almoravid armies
13 th century, new states had risen in the savanna to take its place of leadership

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Sudanic states were led by the patriarch or council of elders of a particular family or group that established control over its neighbors
Usually these states had a territorial core area of the same linguistic or ethnic background, but their power extended over subordinate communities.
These were conquest states drawing on the taxes, military support, etc. of the subordinate areas
Ghana, Mali, and Songhay were imperial states
Rulers of these states were sacred and surrounded by rituals that separated them from their subjects.

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Islam became something of a royal cult. Much of the population never converted
Several savanna states rose among the various peoples in the
Sudan.
Of these Mali and Songhay were examples of the fusion of
Islamic and indigenous African cultures

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Empire of Mali between Senegal and Niger rivers and was the creation of the Malinke people who had broken away from
Ghana (13 th c)
Mali became a model of the Islamicized Sundanic kingdoms
Economy – agriculture combined with trade in various products and gold producing areas
Malinke merchants, or juula, formed partnerships to trade throughout much of west Africa
Malinke expansion is attributed to Sundiata, a brilliant leader whose exploits were the foundation of a great oral tradition

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Griots, professional oral historians, began their epic historys of Mali with Sundiata, the “Lion Prince”. He became the mansa, or emperor who was said to have divided up the world so he was considered the originator of social arrangements
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16 clans – to bear arms
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5 clans – devoted to religious duties
4 clans – specialists like blacksmiths and griots
Created political institutions of rule allowing for regional and ethnic differences
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Stationed garrisons to maintain loyalty and security
Travel was secure – what he considered very important in a commerce state
Died 1260; successors expanded the borders of Mali to control most of the Niger Valley to the Atlantic coast

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Mali grew wealthy from the trade
Mansa Kankan Musa (1312-1337) – most famous of
Sundiata’s successors
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Made a pilgrimage to Mecca which brought much attention to Mali
Distributed so much gold along his trip to Mecca, the Sudan, and Egypt that a devaluation of currency took place
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Mansa Musa brought back an architect, Ishak al-Sahili, who directed the building of several important mosques.
Mali’s contact with the outer world brought change and innovation

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Cities of the western Sudan had a distinctive local architectural style
Towns were commercial and included craft specialists and foreign merchants
Military expansion of Ghana, Mali, and later Songhay contributed to their commercial success because the state protected traders
Cities like Jenne and Timbuktu (pop. 50,000) flourished
Timbuktu and its mosque contained a library and university
(book trade was the most lucrative business)

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Life for most people in the empire of Mali and other Sudanic states was centered on agriculture and the village
Crops of grains, fruits, and vegetables provided the basis of daily life and supplied the caravan trade
Polygamy, practice of having multiple wives, was common

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As the power of Mali waned, Songhay, which dominated areas of the Niger valley, began to form as an independent kingdom, perhaps under a Berber dynasty.
Its capital was Gao and the rulers were Muslims.
Songhay began to thrive as new sources of gold from the west
African forests passed through its territory. Gao became a large city with a foreign merchant community and mosques
Sunni Ali (1464-1492) became the leader of Songhay.
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He was a well trained tactical commander and ruthless leader
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His cavalry expanded the borders and seized Timbuktu and Jenne

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Sunni Ali was followed by a line of Muslim rulers who took the military title askia
Askia Muhammad the Great, extended the boundaries of the empire and by the mid-16 th century Songhay dominated the central Sudan
The fusion of Islamic and pagan populations and traditions continued
Muslim clerics imposed a strict interpretation of the law of
Islam
Songhay remained the dominant power in the region until the end of the 16 th century when a Moroccan Muslim army defeated the forces of Songhay

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After Songhay’s demise other states rose among the Hausa peoples of northern Nigeria, based on cities such as Kano
Kano’s leader in the 14 th c turned the city into a center of
Muslim learning
Hausa cities ruled over the animistic villages and protected their trade with a powerful cavalry
These cities reproduced many of the social, political, and religious forms of the great empires of the grasslands

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Village communities, clans, and ethnic groups continued to organize many aspects of life
Development of unified states allowed various groups and communities to coexist
Common religion and law provided solidarity and trust to merchants
Ruling families used emir or caliph to reinforce their authority and used literate Muslim advisors and scribes in government administration
In Africa, as elsewhere in the world, formation of states heightened social differences and made these societies more hierarchical

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In all Sudanic states, Islam was fused with existing traditions and beliefs. Rulership was based on the ability to intercede with local spirits
Islam in this stage of the Sudan tended to accommodate pagan practice
Fusion of traditions is clear in the position of women as some
Sudanic societies were matrilineal and recognized the role of women within the lines of kinship, contrary to patrilineal customs in Sharia

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SLAVERY
Slavery became a more widely diffused phenomenon, and a slave trade in Africans developed on a new scale
Conversion of slaves to Islam did not guarantee freedom
Slaves were used as servants and laborers and used as soldiers and administrators
Trade caravans transported slaves as well as gold
Slave trade extended over 700 years and affected a large area
It was one more way that Islamic civilization changed sub-
Saharan Africa

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Some Islamcized
African ports were tied to trade across the
Indian Ocean and dotted the east African coast. African custom and the
Bantu Swahili language represented a cultural fusion

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Bantu migration reached the east African interior. Bantuspeaking herders mixed with older populations in the region
From Indonesia or Malaya, immigrants settled on ;the island of
Madagascar and introduced new foods which were popular and spread rapidly along the coast and into central Africa
Visitors and refugees from Oman and the Persian Gulf established themselves at some of these villages because of their attraction of the possibilities of trade with the land of
Zanj.
These villages were transformed into more cosmopolitan and diverse communities.

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13 th c. – urbanized east African trading ports had developed along the coast sharing Bantu-based and Arabic-influenced
Swahili (means “coastal”) language and other cultural traits.
Towns such as Mogadishu, Mombasa, and Kilwa eventually contained mosques, tombs, and palaces of stone and coral
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The Arab traveler Ibn Batuta was impressed with the beauty and refinement of these towns.
Kilwa was particularly wealthy because it controlled the port of
Sofala which had access to the gold produced in the interior
Kilwa flourished in international trade as did several other cities
These cities were tied to each other by an active coastal commerce to the interior by a caravan trade

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MIXTURE OF CULTURES ON THE SWAHILI COAST
Islamic influence promoted long-distance commerce
13c – period of great Islamic expansion. Faith spread eastward to India and Indonesia providing a religious bond of trust and law facilitation trade throughout ports of the Indian
Ocean
Ruling families in east African trading ports claimed to be descendants of immigrants from Persia
Rulers and merchants tended to be Muslim but the majority of the population retained their previous beliefs and culture

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Swahili language was essentially used and was written in Arabic script
Ruling families conversed in Arabic
Islam itself penetrated very little into the interior
Islamization was to some extent class based
Family lineage was traced both through the maternal line, which controlled property (tradition African practice), and through the paternal line, as was the Muslim custom
By the time the Portuguese arrived on this coast around 1500, the Swahili culture was widely diffused.
Kilwa had declined; the focus of trade had shifted to Malindi and Mombasa
Commerce across the Indian Ocean continued
Portuguese raided port cities; their outpost on Mozambique Island put much of the gold trade in their hands.

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Societies were based on varied agriculture, herding and most societies used iron tools and weapons
Organized in small village communities; however, states had formed
Many sub-Saharan African societies were preliterate and transmitted their knowledge, skills, and traditions by oral methods and direct instruction
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Artists and Kings: Yoruba and Benin
Ancient inhabitants of Nok practice agriculture and used iron tools
Their artistic traditions influenced other peoples

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Remarkable terra-cotta and bronze portrait heads of past rulers were produce among the Yoruba-speaking peoples of Nigeria at the city if Ile-Ife
Their lifelike quality place them among the greatest achievement of African art. Their artists also worked with wood and ivory
Much of the art is associated with kings and authority of kingship
Ile-Ife, like other Yoruba states, had an agricultural society dominated by a ruling family and an aristocracy

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Ile-Ife was seen as the holiest city of the Yoruba, their place of birth
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Yoruba spoke a non-Bantu language which had an affinity between themselves and the
Hausa
The Yoruba were highly urbanized, strong authority of regional kings – considered divine
Benin – large city-state formed in the 14 th c under Ewuare the
Great
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Benin’s control extended from the Niger River to the coast
Benin was described as a city of great population and broad avenues
Art of ivory and cast bronze are characteristic of Benin

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Bantu farmers and fishers had reached beyond the Zambezi and by the 13c had neared the southern end of the continent
Mostly beyond the influence of Islam, these central African peoples had state formation by about 1000CE evolving from kinship-based societies to using political authority based on kingship
Rule was based on the control of territory and the development of ri9tuals that reinforced the ruler’s power.

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15 th c this kingdom, Kongo, flourished on an agricultural base but its people had other skills – weaving, pottery, blacksmithing
Division of labor between men and women:
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Men – cleared forests, produced palm oil and palm wine, built houses, hunted and traded
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Women – in charge of cultivation, household, duties care of domistic animals, collected seashells that served as currency in the Kongo kingdom
Capital, Mbanze Kongo, population 60,000 to 100,000 by 16 th c

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Kingship – hereditary
Konbgo kingdom – confederation of smaller states controlled by manikongo, or king and by 15 th c was divided into eight provinces
Another Bantu confederation developed between the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers
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Built royal courts of stone
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Great Zimbabwe (impressive stone house site) was the center of the kingdom and of religious importance, associated with the bird of God, an eagle that served as a link between the world and the spirits

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A centralized state ruled from Great Zimbabwe controlling the interior of SE Africa to the Indian Ocean
King Mwene Mutapa rapidly expanded his state in the late 15 th to 16 th c
Dominated sources of god giving him advantages in commerce
16 th c internal divisions and rebellion had split the kingdom apart