Section B: Contemporary Media
Issues
Contemporary Media Regulation
And arguments for and against
specific regulation.
• What is the nature of contemporary media
regulation compared with previous practices?
• What are the arguments for and against
specific forms of contemporary media
regulation?
Guess the film/game rating
GROUP DISCUSSION
• What do you know about the BBFC?
• Do you agree with film ratings?
http://www.bbfc.co.uk/about
• The British Board of Film Classification is an
independent, non-governmental body which
has classified cinema films since it was set up
in 1912 and videos/ DVDs since the Video
Recordings Act was passed in 1984.
• Cinema
• The British Board of Film Censors was set up in 1912 by
the film industry as an independent body to bring a
degree of uniformity to the classification of film
nationally.
• Statutory powers on film remain with the local
councils, which may overrule any of the BBFC’s
decisions, passing films we reject, banning films we
have passed, and even waiving cuts, instituting new
ones, or altering categories for films exhibited under
their own licensing jurisdiction.
In 1973 Stanley Kubrick decided to take A
Clockwork Orange out of circulation in the UK; even
though the BBFC deemed the film acceptable at an
‘X’ rating. This was due to allegedly ‘copycat’ killings
surrounding the film.
The film was re-released in 2000 after Kubrick’s
death by his family. The video release was given an
18 rating to replace it’s old ‘X’ rating.
The BBFC’s guidelines ensure that films do not
promote or glamorise violence or drugs. The
film ‘Adulthood’ featured a scene where a
character is burned with an iron, the character
is in obvious pain but you cannot see the full
detail of the assault.
CANIS CANEM EDIT
BBFC also regulates film ratings. In the case of Canes Canem Edit the game was given
a ‘15’ certificate rather than an ‘18’ certificate. This was due to the games
nature….the game player had the opportunity to be as violent or non-violent as they
chose. Just like GTA, the frequency of the violence is dependant on how the player
chooses to play the game. If they want to be violent, the opportunity is there to do
that.
For example, immediately after the opening scene, Jimmy is taunted by school
bullies; he can retaliate by getting involved in a fight or he can ignore them and go to
the Principal's office. Being violent also has its consequences: if the player starts a
fight, a meter builds up in the corner of the screen and, if it builds up too far, the
school prefects immediately appear to take Jimmy away. While they can sometimes
be dodged, it is extremely difficult to do - this mechanic serves as a strong in-game
deterrent against being too violent because it makes progress through the game
more difficult.
The game's title was changed from Bully to Canis Canem Edit in the United Kingdom, although
an update - Bully: Scholarship Edition - was subsequently released.
OBSCENE PUBLICATION ACT
CANNIBAL HOLLOCAUST (1979) This film was released and further went on to be
released onto video in 1982; without BBFC certification. At the time it was not a
formal obligation for films to go through the BBFC and often the film distributors
would release the now called ‘video nasties’ with their own cuts. This meant children
could view them.
It did not take long before the Press launched a campaign to ban unclassified horror
cassettes, which were now being termed 'video nasties'. In response, the Director of
Public Prosecutions drew up a list of videos that he believed were obscene under the
terms of the Obscene Publications Act; Cannibal Hollocaust being deemed the worst.
Cannibal Holocaust was not formally submitted to the BBFC until 2001, largely
because its reputation as a 'video nasty' and its long history of prosecutions for
obscenity seemed to preclude the issuing of a BBFC certificate. When it was
submitted for video and DVD release the BBFC examined the film very carefully in
terms of its own published Guidelines. The film has now been released as an ‘18’ on
to DVD with 5 minutes and 44 second cuts.
The BBFC and homosexuality
• The BBFC has passed gay kissing and gay relationships at
all categories. The BBFC guidelines treat heterosexual
activity and homosexuality equally, just as the law in the
UK demands, stating:
• The portrayal of human sexual activity can range from
kissing and references to ‘making love’ to detail of real
sex. This is reflected in the classification system, in which
progressively stronger portrayal is allowed as the
categories rise. The BBFC Guidelines apply the same
standards to homosexual as to heterosexual activity. It
would be illegal under the Human Rights Act 1998 for the
BBFC discriminate between depictions of heterosexual
and homosexual relationships.
MANHUNT
• Rockstar’s Manhunt was released on the Playstation 2 console
format in November 2003. It was later passed for both Xbox and
PC in 2004. It has been the focus of much controversial reporting
in the National Press and other media since it was discussed and
linked to a British murder case in 2004.
• The game is TPP (third person prospective) and tracks a convicted
man hunted by vicious street gangs and forced to go on a killing
and fighting spree.
• When evaluating the game, BBFC examiners took into account
several factors, including that it has a very well defined mission
structure: any attempt to stray off the mission results in the
player’s likely death, and a frustrating return to the beginning of
the level. This keeps the player constantly aware that they are
acting within the confines of a game, and the stop-start effect
helps to distance them from the intense action on the game
console.
•
In 2004 the game was mentioned as a factor in the murder of a 14 year-old in Leicestershire. The
murderer was said to be ‘obsessed’ with the game in a series of speculations as to his motives. In
the resultant media coverage some papers called for the game to be banned and Dixons and
Game withdrew copies from their shelves. Other retailers such as HMV reported an increase in
sales.
•
Rockstar issued a statement which extended sympathy to the murder victim’s family but rejected
any suggestion or association between the crime and the sale of the game, adding:
There is a clear certification structure in place and Manhunt was clearly classified as ‘18’ by the
British Board of Film Classification and should not be in the possession of a juvenile.
•
Rockstar Games is a leading publisher of interactive entertainment geared towards mature
audiences and markets its games responsibly, targeting advertising and marketing only to adult
consumers ages 18 and older. Rockstar Games submits every game for certification to the British
Board of Film Certification and clearly marks the game with the BBFC-approved rating.
•
At the beginning of August 2004, the police reported that the murder was a robbery rather than
being related to the game and confirmed that a copy of the game was found in the victim’s
bedroom rather than in the murderer’s possession.
Spider-man was the first film to be awarded the
12a certificate after complaints that the original
‘12’
certificate was deemed too mild.
Spider-Man
12a however, does not apply to video
releases thus causing debate over media
regulations and censorship in the
home.
‘Videos are more easily accessible in the home by young children who could
be considered to be impressionable. In 1994 the Video Recordings Act
adapted to include the ‘Harm Test’ after it was said that the murderers of
Jamie Bulger in 1993 watched a horror film (Childs Play3) and ‘copied’ parts.
Whether this is true or not, one must consider whether we can in factbe
‘harmed’ by something we watch, or are we sensible enough to make a
distinctionbetween fiction and reality’
http://www.scribd.com/doc/50894846/G325-Sect-B-Contemporary-MediaRegulation
BOBO DOLL EXPERIMENT
• The Bobo Doll Experiment was performed in
1961 by Albert Bandura, to try and add credence
to his belief that all human behaviour was
learned, through social imitation and copying,
rather than inherited through genetic factors
Read more: http://www.experimentresources.com/bobo-dollexperiment.html#ixzz1Idi4tpCY
THE HYPODERMIC NEEDLE THEORY
http://www.lotsofessays.com/viewpaper/1708629.html
Reference group theory and
delinquency
by Robert E. Clark.
(1972)
Is the theory that individuals look to groups for
reference on how to behave socially.
GROUP DISCUSSION
• Do you think that audiences are passive when
watching films?
• Do you think that audiences imitate and look
at media as a reference and can have an
impact on how we behave?
Media effects theory
• Effects theory was developed in the 1920′s, and looks at how media
texts influence those who consume them, particularly (in recent
decades) how negative messages, i.e. sexual and violent content,
can affect the most vulnerable of audience groups. You will have
come across the ‘Hypodermic Needle’ model (or ‘Silver Bullet’
approach), where the audience is seen as passive – “empty vessels”
who play no role in interacting with the media texts concerned. The
theory states that these texts function in a one-directional
communication process.
• In recent decades theorists have noted many problems with Effects
theory (a discussion of “Ten Things Wrong with the Effects Model”
is available on the theory.org.uk website:
http://www.theory.org.uk/effects.htm). Many feel it is out of date
and that it vastly underestimates the audiences, and this has led to
the development of more complex theories about active audience
participation in the reading of media texts.
Arguments for and against regulation
•
When talking about BBFC and arguments for and against regulation it boils down
to the following:
•
BBFC is a statutory body with legal duties like Ofcom, however the BBFC is self
regulating but Ofcom is regulated by government, so there is an inconsistency.
•
Whether you agree with self regulation or state regulation comes down to the
following two debates.
Hyperdermic needle vs. uses and gratification and how you view audience
consumption.
The effects debate- whether you think on-screen violence has any effect, which
would mean you want consistent regulation through a government agency.
If you disagree with the need for more regulation you would use David
Gauntletts arguments for what is wrong with the effects model. More
importantly you need to mention the criticisms with the media effects debate,
that this debate is as old as television and film, and one of the problems is it
focuses on the effects of television and not any other media. The effects on
children and on individuals rather than groups, cultures or institutions. One of
the main problems is the research is based on the media’s perceived influence of
children and not the general population.
•
•
•
Problems against hypodermic needle
and in favour of two step flow model
•
Lazarsfeld disproved the "Hypodermic Needle Model
Theory" through elections studies in "The People's
Choice" (Lazarsfeld, Berelson, Gaudet 1944/1968).
Lazarsfeld and colleagues studied voting behaviour
and found the majority of the public remained
unfazed by propaganda surrounding Roosevelt's
campaign. Instead, interpersonal outlets proved more
influential than the media. Therefore, Lazarsfeld
concluded that the effects of the campaign were not
all powerful to the point where they completely
persuaded which was against hypodermic theory of
injecting ideas.
•
Lazarsfeld introduced the two step flow model and
other communication theories suggest that the media
does not directly have an influence on viewers
anymore. Instead, interpersonal connections and even
selective exposure play a larger role in influencing the
public in the modern age (Severin, Tankard 1979).
Problems with Media Effects.
• In Moving Experiences (2005)
• David Gauntlett argues:
– The effects model tackles social problems
backwards.
– The effects model treats children as inadequate.
– Assumptions within the effects model are characterised by
barely-concealed conservative ideology.
Problems arguments against
– The effects model inadequately defines its own objects of
study.
– The effects model is often based on artificial elements and
assumptions within studies.
– The effects model is often based on studies with misapplied
methodology.
– The effects model is selective in its criticisms of media
depictions of violence.
– The effects model assumes superiority to
the masses.
– The effects model makes no attempt to
understand meanings of the media.
– The effects model is not grounded in
theory.
• Gauntlett, D., 2005. Moving Experiences.
Eastleigh: John Libbey. pp 143-151.
• Censors often act in self-serving ways – political.
• Effects model easy to demolish.
– i.e easy to see conservative ideology, highlighted by David
Gauntlett.
• The popular media can start a news spiral that creates a
‘folk devil.’
– i.e Child’s Play 3, Crash, etc.
But…
• Films, and increasingly videogames, are still being
blamed for violence in society:
– Virginia Tech shootings – April 16th 2007.
– Student Seung-Hui Cho, killed 32 fellow students, and himself.
– He sent a video and photographs of himself threatening the
massacre to NBC news, the previous day.
– Some newspapers blamed the film OldBoy (Park Chan-Wook,
2003).
http://www.miamipoetryreview.com/2007/04/
vtech-shooting-oldboy-cho200407.html
• The movie was titled "Natural Born Killers"
and its director was Academy Award-winner
Oliver Stone. Its release in 1994 inspired a
young couple from Oklahoma to set out on
what they planned to be a killing spree that
left one person dead and another paralyzed
from the neck down.
Video Recordings Act state that we must pay
special regard to the effects of works that may
cause ‘harm to society through the behaviour of
those who are exposed to them’.
However, the BBFC’s steady liberalisation since the late 1990s, and the
creation of Ofcom has led to more emphasis on ‘self-regulation.’
Regulation should now be in the hands of the individuals/parents, not
institutions.
Contradiction?
Due to the relatively unregulated internet?
The future of film and television
• BBFC’s research has found that audiences are concerned
about violence and drug-taking, rather than sex. (NOTE:
BBFC Guidelines for sex on a ‘15’ certificate, allow ‘strong verbal
references to sexual behaviour’)
• Now, more films being passed at ’18’ certificate featuring
explicit sexual scenes.
• Ai No Corrida (Oshima, 1976)
suddenly passed at ’18’
video in the
was
certificate for
late 90s.
• The Pornographer (Bonello, 2001)
was passed at ’18’ certificate, but a
6-second scene of ejaculation was cut.
• Academic and anti-censorship
campaigner, Linda Williams (University
of Southampton) argued that this was
ridiculous.
• A few years later, 9 Songs
(Winterbottom, 2005) was passed at ’18’ uncut for
cinema and video exhibition.
Shortbus
• In 2007, Shortbus (John
Cameron Mitchell) was
released uncut on DVD in the
UK.
• The film contains some of the most sexually explicit
content ever seen, and was notable for its graphic
depiction of heterosexual and homosexual sex.
• So, what happens online, impacts what other content
providers do – it’s all connected.
– Channel 4 plan to ‘test’ Ofcom’s power by showing the filmprobably on its More4 digital channel.
– This will hugely impact upon television censorship.
– Adult digital channels will probably feel that they can show
more ‘hardcore’ material – only currently available at ‘R18’
certificates from licensed premises.
KEVIN SMITH
• The latest dispute involves the threat of the NC-17 rating – which
is considered the kiss of death for box office prospects in the US
because so many media outlets refuse to carry advertising for
anything beyond an R rating. Through the appeals process Smith
and his distributor, The Weinstein Company, reached a
satisfactory compromise on that score, but not before several
different trailers and the poster had been rejected. In the US, the
original poster – in which Seth Rogen and Elizabeth Banks
appeared fully clothed – has been replaced with stick figures and
lots of text. As Smith is the first to admit, at least it’s an
appropriate indication of his rudimentary visuals and dialogueheavy style. Even now, cinemas in several states have refused to
show the film simply on the strength of its title. (Here the BBFC
has given the film an 18 rating.)
GROUP DISCUSSION
Thoughts and opinions?
TASK: research the BBFC website –
http://www.sbbfc.co.uk/
QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER……
• So, can the BBFC survive, if content it deems
unacceptable is available online?
• Or, will regulation shift subtly towards information and
education?