Interest Groups and American
Politics
Chapter 11
Proliferation of Interest Groups
• Four reasons why interest groups are so
common in the United States.
– The more divisions there are in a society, the greater
the variety of interests that will exist.
– Our system of government multiplies the number of
points at which interest groups can gain access to the
government.
– Public laws exist that permit certain nonprofit groups
to own property without paying taxes on it.
– Political parties are weaker, so interest groups can
operate directly on the government.
Types of nonprofit organizations
• Section 501 (c) (3) organizations
– May legally address political matters, but may not
lobby or campaign.
– Donations to these are tax deductible.
– NOW Foundation
• Section 501 (c) (4) organizations
– Permitted to lobby and campaign
– Donations to these are not tax deductible
– NOW (half million members with 550 chapters)
History of Interest Groups
• 1770s- Groups for independence
• 1830s-1840s- religious associations and
rise of antislavery movement
• 1860s- Trade unions, Grange
• 1880s-1890s- Business associations
• Early 20th Century- (Chamber of
Commerce, AMA, NAACP, Urban League,
American Jewish Committee)
History of Interest Groups
• Roughly 70% of interest groups
established their Washington offices after
1960, half after 1970.
• Wave of interest groups in the 1960s led to
emergence of environmental, consumer,
and political reform organizations
Reasons for rise of interest groups
• Broad economic developments create new
interests and redefine old ones
• Government policy creates interest groups
• Enthusiastic young organizational
entrepreneurs arise at certain times to
exercise leadership on certain issues
• When the government undertakes more
activities, more organized groups will
become interested in those activities.
Types of Interest Groups
• Institutional Interests
– Individuals or organizations that represent other
organizations
– When groups that make up the organization aren’t
diverse, the interest group can carry out clear policies
that reflect the interests of its clients.
– Chamber of Commerce example
• Large and diverse membership, so it can only
speak out clearly on issues where most
businesses take the same position.
Types of Interest Groups
• Membership Interests
– Groups like the NRA, NAACP, Sierra Club,
AARP
– Most people who are sympathetic to these
groups do not join.
– They will not join unless they get something
out of joining.
Reasons to join interest groups
• Incentives- Something of value one cannot get
without joining an organization
• Solidary incentives- social rewards that lead
people to join political organizations
• Material incentives- Money or services that can
be valued in monetary terms that lead people to
join political organizations.
• Purposive incentives- A benefit that comes from
serving the cause or principle of an organization
Ideological interest group vs.
public-interest lobby
• Ideological interest groups
– American Conservative Union (ACU)
– Americans for Democratic Action (ADA)
– Gain members by appealing to ideological principles.
• Public-interest lobbies
– A political organization whose goals will principally
benefit nonmembers.
– American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU)
– Nader’s groups
– Tend to have largest support when issues are hot.
These organizations have a powerful interest to stay
in the public eye, otherwise they lose membership
and support.
Interest Groups and Social
Movements
• Civil Rights in the 1960s
• Environmental Movement in the 1970s
• Feminist Movement in many different time
periods (1830s, 1890s, 1920s, 1960s)
• Modern day social movements tend to be
more liberal, but in the past this was not
always the case.
Environmental Movement
• Sierra Club begins in the 1890s with the
conservation movement
• Wilderness Society and National Wildlife
Federation in the 1930s- Conservation
• Environmental Defense Fund and
Environmental Action in the 1960s and
1970s.
Feminist Movement
• Three kinds of feminist organizations
– Solidary (League of Women Voters)
– Purposive (NOW and NARAL)
– Caucus- These take on specific issues that
have material benefit to women.
• Women’s Equity Action League (WEAL)
• National Women’s Political Caucus
• National Federation of Republican Women
Union Movement
• As the social movement behind labor reform
has died out, the organizations that fought for
the reforms still remain.
• Labor Union membership has been falling for
sometime (2.2 million decline from 1983-2005)
• Only 10% of workers today covered by unions
• Government workers and teachers still have
large numbers in unions, and teachers are still
the most significant unions in terms of lobbying.
Funds for Interest Groups
• Foundation grants are a large source of
funding, especially for liberal publicinterest lobbying groups.
• Federal Grants and Contracts
– Expansions and cutbacks can help and hurt
interest groups
– Money is not given to support lobbying, but to
support projects groups undertake.
Federal Grants and Contracts
• When money is won by a group, it allows them
to provide services or create projects that will
help support the organization as a whole.
• This puts organizations in a position to press
Congress for policies the group favors, including
policies that will give them more grants and
contracts.
• This is why recipients of federal grants and
contracts rarely change. (Self-perpetuating
cycle)
Federal Grants
• The groups that receive most of federal grants
and contracts rarely have to undergo
performance audits to see how effectively they
are using money.
• BUSINESSES still receive far more money
through federal contracts than nonprofit groups,
and large corporations still get the most.
• Lockheed Martin- biggest federal contractor
Direct Mail
• Unique to the modern interest group
• To bring in more money than the groups spends
on the mailing, usually at least 2 percent of the
names on the list must send in money.
• Tactics used to get money through mailings
–
–
–
–
Teasers
Emotional Arousal
Celebrity Endorsements
Personalization of the Letter
The Problem of Bias with Interest
Groups
• Upper-class Bias
– Well-off people are more likely than the poor
to join and be active in interest groups
– Professional and Business interest groups are
more numerous and usually take in more
money than other groups.
• This idea only takes into account inputs.
• Business-oriented interest groups are often
divided among themselves.
What is the bias in American
politics and interest groups?
• Most conflicts over policy are conflicts
within the upper middle class, or among
the political elites
• Interest groups activity represents the
divide among the upper middle class more
than anything else.
• Political resources are extremely
important, but they are only clues.
Activities of Interest Groups
• Information
– Single most important tactic is supplying credible
information
– Presenting material in an organized, persuasive, and
factual manner.
– Having the confidence of legislators is essential for a
lobbyists success
– Information is most successful on narrow or technical
issues.
– Political Cues- signals that tell a legislator what
values are at stake in a vote, and how the issue fits
into his/her political party agenda.
– Ratings systems done by interest groups help create
public support for legislators. Can be helpful to
voters, but are many times biased.
Public Support
• While an insider strategy is still valuable, the
outsider strategy is becoming increasingly used
by groups.
– Grassroots lobbying
• Lobbyists target undecided or wavering
legislators and try to persuade them public
opinion on an issue is in one direction.
• Legislators will sometimes go against public
opinion unless it is an issue that could mean
losing the next election.
• “Dirty Dozen”
• In American politics, no interest group is a lobby
that cannot be beaten. The media may portray a
group as invincible, but this is rarely, if ever, the
case.
Money and PACs
• Money is actually one of the least effective
ways for an interest group to influence
politicians
• Two effects of campaign finance law
(1973)
– Restricted amounts interest groups can give
to candidates
– Made it legal for corporations and unions to
create PACs
Money and PACs
• Both parties have become dependent on PAC
money, yet the typical PAC contribution is being
spread out over many candidates, and the
amount of money any one PAC can give is small
• Business PACs split money between Democrats
and Republicans
• Influence of money shows up in other ways than
votes
– Access to legislators
The Revolving Door
• People leaving jobs in the federal
government to go work as lobbyists or
consultants for private firms and
industries.
• No clear pattern of abuse in this system,
but from time to time it does happen.
Interest Groups and Trouble
• Both sides of the political aisle have used disruption,
display, even violence to get views across
• Suffrage, civil rights, some antiwar movements (civil
disobedience) are proper ways of using disruption.
• Creates a no-win situation for politicians
– If you ignore the disruption, you are arrogant or
insensitive.
– If you give in to demonstrators, it encourages more
demonstrations.
– Call in police and you risk violence and injuries (Bad
Publicity)
Regulation of Interest Groups
• Interest Group Activity is protected by the First
Amendment
• 1946 Federal Regulation of Lobbying Act did
very little in real effect.
• In 1995, Congress passed a bill to tighten
regulations
– Broadened the definition of a lobbyist
– Lobbyists are required to report names of clients,
income and expenditures, and their issues twice a
year
– Grassroots organizations are exempted.
– No organization for enforcement.