Rhonda Oliver
Curtin University
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Comprehensible input
(necessary but insufficient)
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Comprehensible output
(essential but context determines opportunity)
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Interaction, including feedback
(questions remain about the utility of different
types e.g., NfM, f-on-f, NF, NfF, LEs)
Child L2 learners do engage in interactions that
facilitate SLA. For example, they can provide
comprehensive input to each other:
A:
B:
A:
B:
A:
B:
A:
How tall is the tree?
How – tall?
Yeah
Just this one?
How tall?
That one or the other one?
No, this one (draws a line going up). I mean
it’s like this. How tall?
B: Oh. Yeah, ah, seven.
Oliver, 1995
Child L2 learners can engage in producing
comprehensible output:
X: This girl had a like this.
The boy, this boy er like a straw too.
Y: Mm?
X: They are think like last time. You know?
Y: Is-is it, is it girl and-an on other side is a
boy?
X: No. This one.
The, from the –the same place, and, from
the left side to boy is a five centimetres.
Y: Do-do they have a girl in the picture?
X: Yeah. Here is girl and here is boy.
Oliver, 1998
Child L2 learners can provide feedback, and
use feedback provided to them:
W: Where is the-the, where is the [life] go?
Y: (Pause)
What you say?
W: The [life].
Y: The life?
W: The b[r]ead knife.
Oliver, 1998
Child L2 learners do have the capacity to focus-onform:
Younger children
M:
S:
M:
S:
How many bay legs?
How many … legs?
Bay -How many BEAR legs?
Is four.
Older children
R: Do horse have a have wool?
H: What?
R: What’s that word? Wool.What that mean?
Oliver, Philp and Duchesne ( In preparation)
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All individuals will differ in their SLA because
of such things as their:
context for learning
aptitude,
intelligence,
motivation,
attitude,
age
A: (To tape recorder) She is just, I don’t want to be her
partner anymore
L: Red
A: Xx xx there’s no red allowed to be on that
L: Gonna tell the teacher
A: Will you stop it… Will you stop it… Will you stop it
(saying it in funny voice to tape recorder) right now
Lito… Lito
L: I’m telling the teacher
T: Yes
L: She can’t put I say a colour she can’t put an animal…
she says is not a red animal is not a pink animal
Oliver, Philp and Duchesne, (In preparation)
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Rate of acquisition vs ultimate achievement
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Given the differences in rate and outcomes it
is not sufficient to apply, without
modification, the results of adult SLA
research to child SLA learners
This is true both in terms of research
methodology and with respect to pedagogy

Although the field of SLA has a number of
seminal research studies that investigated the
language of children
e.g., Dulay & Burt (1974); Wagner-Gough & Hatch
(1975); McLaughlin (1984, 1985); Wode (1981);
Pienneman (1984);Foster-Cohen (1999); Paradis (2007)
there is a general lack of focus on child SLA.

Child SLA has seldom been “studied as a subfield
with its own issues and questions separate from
adult L2 acquisition on the one had, or
bilingualism and educational outcomes on the
other.”
Paradis, 2007, p.387
From Nicholas and Lightbown (2008):
ATL (3yo) and his grandmother are at the park.
Although she is bilingual in French and English,
she usually speakers only English to ATL and he
normally replies only in French. Responding to
the other children and parents at the park who
are speaking French, ALT’s grandmother speaks
French as well, not only to them, but also to ATL
himself. After several minutes, ATL grasps the
sides of the climbing frame, looks down sternly
at his grandmother and says, “Grandmama. Parle
comme il fait!
Later when alone he says to her “Parle Anglais!”
Who are child L2 learners?
Are they not just bilingual learners?
Range of views:
 Some say child SLA = additive bilingualism
(Grammar *of two languages worked out in
tandem, learning L2 similar to L1 learning)

Some say child SLA ≠ bilingualism (ie distinct)
(L1 grammar already ‘in process’ and therefore it
is different from L1 learning, but also from adult
L2 learning)
* Grammar in the broader sense of the word
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Whilst some argue around 3 years of age
distinguishes bilinguals from L2 learners, Nicholas
and Lightbown (2008) argue the age is around 2
years.
Further, they argue 2-7 year olds are different from
older children in their SLA.
Generally there is a need to recognise differences
between children of different ages. These differences
include linguistic, cognitive and social.
In addition, this extends through to older children:
Research by White (2008) and Alcon & Garcia Mayo
highlight the problem of equating adolescent and
adult SL learners.
Children of different ages will vary cognitively,
emotionally and socially.
Stages of childhood
Early childhood (2-5)
Middle childhood (5/6-11)
Early adolescence (12-14)
Later?
(e.g. Krause et al. 2003, Munoz, 2007)
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2-3yrs, producing 3 word sentences, development
of grammar
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overextension or underextension
◦ “don’t fall me down daddy” [drop me]
Eloise 2.4yrs
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overregularisation
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Grouping --> sequencing --> causal relationships
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◦ “I goed to the zoo with nana and we seed a baby giraffe”
concepts paralleled in language (and, then, because)
Pragmatics
◦ Adjusting to the interlocutor, using language to regulate
the behaviour of others
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Highly developed L1, ever increasing vocabulary
size and grammatical complexity
Developing metalinguistic awareness and
increased language knowledge and skill, but not
necessarily the accompanying social skills
(pedantic and contrary natures)
Developing literacy
Context: home / school (with more time spent in
multiparty settings and with peers)

Language seen as being adult-like, but still
developing (along with their social/emotional development)
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Adolescents are innovative language users
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Language use important for establishing identity
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Recent research in Australia identifies the needs
of adolescent learners as being distinct from
adult migrants (Moore et al, 2008; Haig & Oliver, 2007)
Messaging via Facebook
Mum:
Son:
Mum:
Son:
Have a snack if you are hungry,
dinner won’t be until 7pm.
mk
MK?
Mmmm’k.
Therefore…
The following example could only come from children
E
Y
E
E
R
Y
R
Y
E
Y
E
that’s blu:e. What’s this? Zebra?
yeah
<Very colourful zebra> [baby talk]
[several turns later]
[Roberta arrives]
oh hello Roberta I thought
you were sick.
no mum XX
[excitedly] look at the zebra very colourful
zebra isn’t it? Very very colourful
what’s this?
tiger [laughing]
I’ll eat you [sing song voice]
ele::phant
yeah elephant
And they differ according to age!
Oliver, Philp and Duchesne (In preparation)
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Adult L2 learners
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Children from different age groups
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Off-task behaviour (dissimilar to adult off
task behaviour)
Confrontational interactions
Less bound by task conditions
Interactions may contain frivolity,
spontaneity, enjoyment, creative play and
language play (i.e., fun)
Younger children
I: the balloon, bye bye my balloon.
So this, car car car [giggling]
Older children
B: I’m hungry.
K: Me too. Hey, look the picture.
B: I like it.
Oliver, Philp and Duchesne (In preparation)
A: (To tape recorder) She is just, I don’t want to be
her partner anymore
L: Red
A: Xx xx there’s no red allowed to be on that
L: Gonna tell the teacher
A: Will you stop it… Will you stop it… Will you stop it
[saying it in funny voice to tape recorder] right now
Lito… Lito
L: I’m telling the teacher
T: Yes
L: She can’t put I say a colour she can’t put an
animal… she says is not a red animal is not a pink
animal
Oliver, Philp and Duchesne (In preparation)
Younger
T:
oh you dumbo answer I don’t want to be your
partner any more
-------M: excuse me he shout at me
O : no you shout at me
M: [angry frustrated noises] no I didn’t
RA: c’mon boys be nice
Older
R: Hey wait we can’t draw this one you gotta draw them
H: How many oval in this photo?
R: Henry you gotta draw them here.
H: You draw them!
Oliver, Philp and Duchesne, (In preparation)
J: Put in the - the R:
Pick up what? A bread?
J:
Huh?
R:
Pick up a bread?
J:
Um bread? No I don't have a bread.
Have you a - oh sorry.
(Locates picture of bread)
Um put it where?
R:
In the bread.
J:
Huh?
R:
In the table. Table.
J:
No I want to put in the - in the
bread I like here.
(Points to a different position for
the bread).
Children aged 5 – 7 years (Oliver, 2009)
Younger children
I: Does a horse have a tail?
P: Yes
I: Yes>
P: What?
I: Do:ng do:ng
Older children
R: Let’s see oh here’s car’s wheels,
tree (sing song voice)
Oliver, Philp and Duchesne, (In preparation)
This may serve two functions:
1. Language play - spontaneous, just for the fun of it
2. Language play as practice (Lantolf, 1997; Ohta
2001)
It appears to change in character according to age
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Sound play e.g. puns, songs, rhyme and rhythm,
alliteration
Semantic play
Play language
R
S
Y
S
Y
S
I’ve got a sticker
I’ve got a sticker
hey [Roberta]
hey [Roberta] I’ll tell you something
rubber rubber
rubber rubber rubber
R
S
rub rub rubber
rubber rubber rubber
[imitating rolled /r/ of Y]
[attempting rolled /r/ without success]
Three friends in class: NS, NNS 6yr olds
(Philp & Duchesne, 2008)
K:
M:
K:
M:
K:
(To her younger brother)
Hey, M – let’s play families.
Yeah!
We’ll pretend we’re brother and sister.
Yeah.
I’ll be the sister and you be the brother.
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Because of the nature of the ‘being’ child SLA is distinct
from adult SLA
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There are different stages of child SLA
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Age, interlocutors and context all contribute to and also
affect the nature of child SLA
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We need to take account of this when conducting child SLA
research
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There is a need for a great deal more child SLA research
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As teachers we need to recognise these differences and
consider them in relation to our pedagogical practices