PSYCHOLOGICAL
PERSPECTIVE
Adam Barger, Beverly Becker, Michelle Boyd, Kirstin Byrd, & Elizabeth Hobson
EPPL 604
General Outline for Presentation
Definition:

a. The science of
mind and
behavior

b. The study of
the mind and
behavior in
relation to a
particular
field of
knowledge or
activity.

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Behaviorism
Cognitive Psychology
Social Psychology
Industrial-Organizational Psychology
Objectives

At the conclusion of the presentation,
participants will be able to …

identify and describe three types of
psychology.

recognize four relevant theories in
psychology.

apply at least one theory to a relevant
educational problem.
Behaviorism
Stimulus
Little to no
value given
to thought
processes
Response
Significant
value given
to behavior
and actions
John B. Watson
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Desired to study only what was observable
(behaviors).
Emotions and behaviors learned in the same way as
skills or tasks.
Influenced by earlier experiments in classical
conditioning. (Pavlov)
B.F. Skinner
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Built on ideas of Watson; theories came to be known
as hyper-behaviorism
Advocated using observable behavior to study all
aspects of human thought and action
Profound effect on education and learning theory
Focused on reinforcement
Behaviorism in Education

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Passive learning
Rote learning
Positive reinforcement
A
change in behavior indicates learning
Research Examples

Miranda (2009)
 Using
behaviorist
educational strategies
to foster success in
community college
classes

DeMartino (1999)
 Instructional
design
models and learning
models for education
(including non k-12)
draw upon behaviorist
theories (as well as
constructivist and
cognitive)
Conclusions

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Varying views on whether behaviorism opposes
cognitive psychology and constructivism.
Some researchers and practitioners see resurgence
of behaviorist strategies in education.
Studies examining behaviors often account for the
basic stimulus/response pattern
Cognitive Psychology
Defining
Cognitive Psychology



Ulric Neisser’s 1967 definition:
“Cognitive psychology refers to all
processes by which the sensory
input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored,
recovered, and used.”
Often referred to as: human information processing
Cognitive psychology has had major influences on:
Educational psychology
 Social psychology
 Applied psychology

Reed, S. K. (2010). Cognition: Theories and Applications. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth.
The Roots of Cognitive Psychology


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Has roots in philosophy and physiology, which both seek to
understand the human mind.
Plato and Aristotle have affected modern thinking in
psychology.
They disagreed on how to investigate ideas.


Plato was a rationalist . “The route to knowledge is through logical
analysis.”
Aristotle was an empiricist. “We acquire knowledge via empirical
evidence – experience and observation.”
By the 1970’s, it was a major field of psychology with a set of
distinctive research method.
Sternberg, R. J. (2009). Cognitive Psychology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Goals of Research in Cognitive
Psychology
Observe behavior to make inferences about
underlying explanations of behavior (thought,
language, meaning, and imagery)
Seek formal explanations to the nature and function of
mental processes
Seek a more complex explanation than stimulus
response (behaviorist)
Bruning, Schraw, Norby, and Ronning, 2004
Research Methods in Cognitive
Psychology

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Laboratory/controlled experiments
Psychobiological research
Self-reports
Case studies
Naturalistic observations
Computer simulations and artificial intelligence
Sternberg, R. J. (2009). Cognitive Psychology. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth.
Cognitive Psychology:
Noam Chomsky
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1960’s
Our understanding of language is constrained not so
much by what we have heard, but rather, by an innate
language acquisition device (LAD) that all humans
possess. (Nature)
He emphasizes a more “rationalistic” technique
He and other linguists demonstrated that language
acquisition was more a complex process than what
behaviorism accounts for.
Sternberg, R. J. (2009). Cognitive Psychology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Cognitive Psychology:
Herbert A. Simon


Professor of computer science
and psychology at
Carnegie-Mellon University.
1972: (Pioneer with Allen Newell) Proposed a detailed
models of human thinking and problem solving from the
most basic levels to the most complex.


Constructed and tested computer models that simulated
human thought.
Major advocate of thinking-aloud protocols as a means
of studying cognitive processing.
Sternberg, R. J. (2009). Cognitive Psychology. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth.
Main concepts
Schema are mental frameworks for information
(Simon)
 Levels of processing: memory is a by-product of
processing type: Encoding and retrieval
 Constructive memory: created by learners as they
confront new situations
 Social influences: motivation, self awareness
Bruning, Schraw, Norby, and Ronning, 2004

Themes for education

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Learning is constructive
Mental frameworks organize memory: schema,
concepts, scripts
Extended practice is needed to develop cognitive skills
Metacognition: self reflective and directed learners
Motivation and beliefs are important
Social interaction is fundamental
Bruning, Schraw, Norby, and Ronning, 2004
Useful Theories in Education
Cognitive Load Theory:
Learning is constrained
by limited processing
capacity
George Miller (1956):
Magic Number Seven,
Plus or Minus Two
about what makes it
from short to long term
memory
More Theories
Bandura’s Social Cognitive
Self Regulated Learning
Learning Theory (1997):
Theory:
Learning is the result of
ability to control all aspects
interacting variables:
of one’s learning from
personal, behavioral, and
advance planning to
environmental. Example:
performance evaluation
Self-efficacy, outcome
(Pintrich, 2000; Schunk &
expectancy
Zimmerman, 1994; Winne,
1995).
Attribution Theory: how
individuals explain events
in their lives and why they
respond differently
Social Cognition
Based on Lev Vygotsky’s Mind in Society (1978):
Zone of Proximal Development. Children are
apprenctices in thinking. Information processing
alone does not account for cognitive development.
Social Psychology
Definitions

According to Allport (1985), social psychology is a
discipline that uses scientific methods to understand
and explain how the thoughts, feelings and
behaviors of individuals are influenced by the
actual, imagined, or implied presence of other
human beings.
An Intersection



Social Psychology lies at the intersection of
Psychology and Sociology
Psychology- social psychologists are trained in the
rigorous experimental methods of psychology
Sociology- social psychologists share a sociological
focus on the behavior of the groups, interactions
and exchanges, as well as the individual/group in
the larger context of social structures and processes.
Intersection cont’d

Psychological Social Psychology
A
more positivist approach
 Concrete
• Sociological Social Psychology
•
•
A more constructivist approach, looks at societal
constructions like family, parenthood etc., within a specific
time frame or historical dimension
Sees institutions like family or parenthood as constantly
changing, therefore it has a more fluid approach to
methodology
OEMA Social Psychology
Created by Patricia Popp, 1998 (amended by Finnegan, 2008)
Scope of Psychological Research
Topics Covered by Social Psychology
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Group behavior
Social perception
Leadership
Nonverbal behavior
Conformity
Aggression
Prejudice
How social influences, perception, and interaction
are vital to understanding social behavior
History

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Kurt Lewin
Gordon Allport
History

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Stanley Milgram
Leon Festinger
History

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Norman Triplett 1898
Perception, cognition, attitudes, small groups
During WWII- persuasion, propaganda, US military
After WWII- gender and racial discrimination
During the 1960s- cognitive dissonance, bystander
effect, aggression
During the 1970s- debate on ethics, culture
Since the 1980s
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Ethical standards now regulate research
There is greater pluralism
Multiculturalism has emerged as a perspective
Attribution, social cognition, and self-concepts have
been the focus of research in recent years
Examples of Social Psychological
Theories
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Attribution theory
Cognitive dissonance
Drive theory
Evolutionary Psychology
Social Learning
Schemata theory
Self-Perception theory
Social Exchange theory
System justification theory
Triangular theory of Love
Intrapersonal and Interpersonal
Phenomena


Intrapersonal topics include: attitudes, persuasion,
social cognition, self-concept, and cognitive
dissonance
Interpersonal topics include: social influence, group
dynamics, social relations, and interpersonal
attraction
Methodology

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Experimental- controlled
Correlational
Observational
On the sociological side of social psychology
researchers also use qualitative methods
Famous Social Psychological
Experiments
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Asch’s experiments on conformity in small groups
Festinger’s cognitive dissonance experiment
Milgram’s study on obeying authority using feigned
electric shock
Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment on child aggression
Zimbardo’s Stanford prison experiment
Topics Addressed by Social Psychology
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Social Cognition
Attitudes
Aggression/Violence
Prosocial Behavior
Bystander Effect
Prejudice/Discrimination
Self and Social Identity
Group Behavior
Perspectives in Social Psychology
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Sociocultural- importance of social norms and
culture
Evolutionary- social behaviors developed through
genetics and inheritance
Social Learning- importance of unique experiences
in family, school, community, etc.
Social-Cognitive- information processing model of
social behavior, how we notice, interpret, and judge
the behavior of others
View of Social Psychology
Dr. C. George Boeree (1999). Retrieved from http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/socpsy.html
Applications of Social Psychology
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Health
Law
Law Enforcement
Business
Military
Schools
Activity

http://college.cengage.com/psychology/brehm/soc
ial_psychology/5e/students/netlabs.html Psychology Today-The Cultural Context
A Branch of Psychology
INDUSTRIAL - ORGANIZATIONAL
(I-O) PSYCHOLOGY
What is Industrial – Organizational
(I-O) Psychology?
Industrial-organizational (I-O) psychology
is the scientific study of the workplace.
Rigor and methods of psychology are
applied to issues of critical relevance to
business such as …
Critical Issues in the Workplace
Selection
 Training
 Coaching
 Assessment
 Performance
 Talent management
 Work-life balance
Organizational development


Major Ways I/O Psychology is Used
1.
2.
3.
4.
Personnel psychology
Training
Motivation and leadership
Engineering psychology
I-O Psychology
Cognitive
Psych
Behavioral
Psych
Social
Psych
Cognitive
Psych
I-O Psychology
Historical Figures in I-O Psychology
Walter Dill Scott
Hugo Munsterburg
Historical Figures in I-O Psychology
W. Scott
H. Munsterburg
Belief
Emotion, sympathy, and
sentiment are all factors
that increase consumer
suggestibility
In order to increase job
efficiency, worker
productivity, and
satisfaction, organizations
need to hire people for
positions that fit their
emotional and mental
abilities.
Famous Literary Works
The Theory and Practice of
Advertising
Psychology and Industrial
Efficiency
On the Witness Stand
Key Contributions to I-O
Psychology
Advertising (selection)
Personnel selection
(advertising, legal
situations)
What Theories are Referenced in
I-O Psychology ?


Needs Theory (Atkinson & McClelland) – motivation
is driven by the strength of intrinsic needs:
achievement, affiliation, autonomy, and dominance
Expectancy Theory (Vroom) – motivation is a
combination of perceived attractiveness of future
outcomes and the likelihood that one’s actions will
lead to the outcome
Note: List is illustrative, not exhaustive.
What Theories are Referenced in
I-O Psychology ?

Equity Theory (Adams) – how individuals compare
their ratio of inputs and outcomes relative to the
same ratio comparison of others and hence make
predictions about how people will react to
overrewarded or underrewarded situations
Note: List is illustrative, not exhaustive.
Current Topics in I-O Psychology
1. Organizations of the future: Changes and
challenges (including work force changes, changes
in organizational characteristics,
culture, climate, and organizational productivity)
2. Training system issues
3. Organizational culture
4. Work teams and their effectiveness
5. Work motivation theory and practice
Current Topics in I-O Psychology
6. Developing the competitive organization:
interventions and strategies
7. Designing systems for resolving disputes in
organizations
8. The challenge of new work place technology
9. Power and leadership in organizations
10. Developing managerial talent through simulation
Current Topics in I-O Psychology
11. Women and minorities in management
12. Entrepreneurship and intrapreneurship
13. Human resource planning
14. Work in the family and employing organization
15. Work site stress management interventions
16. Employee fitness and wellness programs
17. Health issues at work
18. Organizational and group contexts of behavior
19. The person-situation debate
20. The impact of macro-level theory
Office Space
“Office Space” - WWYD
What Would You Do?
If you were an industrial – organizational psychologist
...
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
What might be some questions you would ask?
Do you think any of the theories we discussed relative
to I-O psychology could be applied to this situation? If
so, identify the theory and explain your rationale. If
not, what type of theory / concept might you look for
to answer the questions you posed?
Psychology is a Snowflake
Social
Psychology
Cognitive
Psychology
I/O
Psychology
Behavioral
Psychology
Psychology appears to be simple on the surface, but in reality is a complex construct that
encompasses various types of psychology, using various methodology to answer a myriad of
questions.
Note: Types of psychology listed are illustrative, not exhaustive.
References
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Allport, G. W. (1985). The historical background of social psychology. In G, Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds.), The Handbook of
Social Psychology. New York: McGraw Hill
Ash, S. E. (1955). Opinions and social pressure. Scientific American, 31-35
Bandura, A., Ross, D. & Ross, S. A. (1961). Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models. Journal of
Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63, 575-582.
Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press
Hanley, C., Banks, W.C. & Zimbardo, P.G. (1973). Interpersonal dynamics in a simulated prison. International Journal of
Criminology and Penology, 1, 69-97.
Katzell, R.A. & Austin, J.T. (1992). From then to now: The development of industrial-organizational psychology in the United States.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 77(6), 803-835. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.77.6.803
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Lewin, K. (1951). Field theory in social science: Selected theoretical papers. D. Cartwright (Ed.). New York: Harper & Row.

Milgram, S. (1975). Obedience to authority. Harper and Bros.
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O’Neil, B.S. & Mone, M.A. (1998). Investigating equity sensitivity as a moderator of relations between self-efficacy and workplace
attitudes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83(5), 805-816. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.83.5.805

Reed, S. K. (2010). Cognition: Theories and Applications. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Sternberg, R. J. (2009). Cognitive Psychology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Triplett, N. (1898). The dynamics of persuasion. New York: Lawrence Eribaum Associates. Geiger, M.A. & Cooper, E.A.

http://faculty.frostburg.edu/mbradley/psyography/
(1995). Predicting academic performance: The impact of expectancy and needs theory. Journal of Experimental
Education, (63)3, 251-262.