Chapter 9
Work Team & Groups
Strategies for
Successful Teams
Groups & Teams
Group - two or more people with common
interests or objectives
Team - a small number of people with
complementary skills who are committed to
a common mission, performance goals, and
approach for which they hold themselves
mutually accountable
Characteristics of a WellFunctioning, Effective Group
Relaxed, comfortable, informal
atmosphere
People express feelings
Task well understood
& ideas
& accepted
Consensus decision
making
Group aware of its
operation & function
Members listen well
& participate
Clear assignments made
& accepted
Conflict & disagreement center
around ideas or methods
Group Behavior
Norms of behavior - the standards that a work group
uses to evaluate the behavior of its members
Group cohesion - the “interpersonal glue” that
makes members of a group stick together
Social loafing - the failure of a group member to
contribute personal time, effort, thoughts, or other
resources to the group
Loss of individuality - a social process in which
individual group members lose self-awareness &
its accompanying sense of accountability,
inhibition, and responsibility for individual behavior
Group Formation
Formal groups - official
or assigned groups
gathered to perform
various tasks
need ethnic, gender,
cultural, and
interpersonal diversity
need professional and
geographical diversity
Informal groups unofficial or emergent
groups that evolve in
the work setting to
gratify a variety of
member needs not
met by formal groups
Stages of Group Formation
Mutual acceptance
Focus is on the interpersonal
relations among the members
Decision making
Focus is on decision making activities
related to tasks
Motivation & commitment
Focus on self- and group-motivation,
execution, achievement
Control & sanctions
Focus on effective, efficient unit
Joining Groups
Security
Status
Self-Esteem
Affiliation
Power
Goal Achievement
Stages of Group Development
Prestage 1
Stage II
Storming
Stage IV
Performing
Stage I
Forming
Stage III
Norming
Stage V
Adjourning
Group Behavior Model
External Conditions Imposed on the
Group
Group Member Resources
Group Structure
Group Process
Group Task
Performance and Satisfaction
External Conditions Imposed
on the Group
Organizational Strategy
Authority Structures
Formal Regulations
Organizational Resources
Personnel Selections
Process
Organizational Culture
Physical Work Setting
Group Leaders
Department Manager
Supervisors
Foreman
Project Leaders
Task Force Head
Chairperson
Chief Executive Officer (CEO)
Group Roles
Definition:
Set of expected behavior pattern,
attributed to someone occupying a given
position in a social unit
Role
Role
Role
Role
Identity
Perception
Expectations
Conflict
Types of Teams
Problem solving - quality
circle
Self-managed work teams
- may result in reduction
of managerial positions
Cross-functional - same
level but different work
areas
Types of Teams
?
Problem-Solving
Self-managed
Cross-functional
Comparing Work
Groups and Work Teams
Work Teams
Work Groups
Share Information
Neutral (sometimes
Negative)
Individual
Random & Varied
Goal
Synergy
Accountability
Skills
Collective Performance
Positive
Individual & Mutual
Complementary
Groups Pass Through Task-Oriented and RelationshipOriented Stages. Some Groups Get Stuck at Certain
Stages and Become Dysfunctional
STAGE 1
Orientation
(Forming)
STAGE 2
Redefinition
(Storming)
Orientation
to Task
Emotional Response
to the Demands
of the Task
STAGE 3
Coordination
(Norming)
Open Exchange
of Relevant
Information
Development of
Group Cohesion
STAGE 4
Formalization
(Performing)
Emergence of
a Solution
Functional Roles
Emerge
STAGE 5
Termination
(Adjourning)
Testing and
Dependence
Dissolution
of Group
Intragroup
Conflict
Groups Change Their Ways of Working at Midstream,
Focusing More Clearly on Their Goal and Becoming
More Effective
PROJECT
STARTS
Perform
Original
Behaviors
0%
TRANSITION
Drop
Old
Behaviors
50%
TIME EXPENDED
PROJECT
DEADLINE
Perform
New, More
Effective
Behaviors
100%
Managers Should Consider Six Factors in
Choosing Group or Individual Decision Making
Factor
Group
Type of problem or task When diverse knowledge
and skills are required
Individual
When efficiency is desired
Acceptance of decision
When acceptance by group When acceptance is not
important
members is valued
Quality of the solution
When the input of several
group members can improve the solution
When a “best member”
can be identified
Characteristics of
individuals
When group members
have experienced working
together
When individuals cannot
collaborate
Managers Should Consider Six Factors in
Choosing Group or Individual Decision Making
(Cont.)
Factor
Group
Organizational
culture
When the
culture
supports
group problem
solving
Amount of time
available
Table 6-1b
When relatively
more time
is available
Individual
When culture is
competitive
When relatively little
time
is available
Cohesiveness & Productivity
Highly cohesive groups
are generally more
productive
Cohesiveness reduces
tension and provides a
supportive environment
Group norms play an
important role in
cohesiveness
Setting Standards
Group members help to develop, follow, and enforce the
rules, policies, and procedures of the group. Such rules
may range from simple ones, like beginning on time, to
more complex policies, such as procedures to arrive at
consensus.
Mission
Values
Logistical Arrangements
Decision Making
Conflict
Group Cohesiveness
Time Spent Together
Severity of Initiation
Group Size
External Threats
Previous Successes
Groupthink
Irving Janis’ Model

Antecedent Conditions +
Cohesiveness  Groupthink
Symptoms

Groupthink Symptoms  Low
Probability of Success
Groupthink Characteristics
Powerful Social Pressures
Concurrence Seeking
Dehumanizing Solutions
Suppression of Deviant Thoughts
Stress
Managers Should Avoid Groupthink in Making
Decisions With Groups
Symptom
Invulnerability
Rationalizatio
n
Morality
Stereotyping
Pressure
Description
Members feel they are safe and protected from
dangers, ostracism, or ineffective action.
Members ignore warnings by rationalizing their own or
others’ behavior.
Members believe their actions are inherently moral
and ethical.
Members view opponents as truly evil or stupid and
thus unworthy of or incompetent at negotiations
around differences in beliefs or positions.
Members pressure all individuals in the group to
conform to the group’s decision; they allow no
questioning or arguing of alternatives.
Managers Should Avoid Groupthink in Making
Decisions With Groups (Cont.)
Sympto
m
Description
Self-censorship Members do not question the group’s
decision.
Unanimity
“Mindguarding
”
Table 6-2b
Members perceive that everyone in the
group has the same
view.
Members may keep adverse information
from other members
that might ruin their perceptions of
consensus and the effective
decision.
Major Changes in Leadership Occur as Teams
Become Self-Directed
STAGE 5
Self-Directed Teams
STAGE 4
Tightly Formed Teams
STAGE 3
Leader-Centered Teams
STAGE 2
Sate of Confusion
STAGE 1
Start-Up
Mangers Can Use Three Points of Leverage to
Enhance Group Task Performance
Points of Leverage
Process Criteria
of Effectiveness
Group Structure
Organizational
Context
Coaching and
Consultation
Ample effort
Motivational structure of group task
Organizational
reward system
Remedying coordination problems
and building group
commitment
Sufficient knowledge and skill
Group composition
Organizational
education system
Remedying inappropriate “weighting” of member
inputs and fostering cross-training
Mangers Can Use Three Points of Leverage to
Enhance Group Task Performance (Cont.)
Points of Leverage
Process Criteria
of Effectiveness
Task-appropriate
performance
strategies
Table 6-3b
Group Structure
Group norms that
regulate member
behavior and foster
scanning and planning
Organizational
Context
Coaching and
Consultation
Organizational
information
system
Remedying implementation problems and fostering
creativity in strategy deployment
Diverse Teams Offer Both Advantages and
Disadvantages in the Workplace
Advantages
Disadvantages
•Increased number of perspectives
•Increased ambiguity
•Multiple interpretations likely
•Increased complexity
•Increased confusion
•Greater openness to new ideas
•Increased flexibility
•Increased creativity
•Improved problem solving
•Improved understanding of foreign
employees or customers
Table 6-4
•Increased mistrust
•Potential miscommunication
•Difficulty in reaching agreements
•Difficulty in reconciling diverse
perspectives
•Difficulty in reaching consensus
•Decreased group cohesion
Differences that Influence Perceptions, Which,
in Turn, Influence Intergoup Relations
ORIENTATION
•Goals
•Time
•Social
ATTITUDINAL SETS
•Competitive
•Cooperative
STATUS
DIFFERENCES
PERCEPTIONS
INTERGROUP
RELATIONS
Relations of Tasks & Conflict
INDEPENDENCE
TASK
A
TASK
B
DEPENDENCE
TASK
A
TASK
B
INTERDEPENDENCE
TASK
A
TASK
B
Mangers Should Beware of These Types of Negotiators,
Who Deliberately Choose a Style That Uses These
Particular Tactics
Type
Method
The aggressive-opener
negotiator
Discomfort the other side by making cutting remarks
about their previous performance, their numbers, their
unreasonableness, or anything that can be used to
insinuate that the opposition is hardly worth
speaking to.
The long-pause
negotiator
Listen to the other side but do not answer their propositions immediately but rather appear to give them
considerable thought with the result that long silences
ensue for the purpose of getting the other to reveal
as much of their case as possible without revealing
your own.
The mocking
negotiator
Mock and sneer at your opposition’s proposals to get
the other side so “uptight” that they say something that
they will regret later.
(Cont.)
Type
Method
The interrogator
Meet all proposals with searching, prodding questions
that are couched in such a way that the opposition
feels that they have not thoroughly done their homework. Challenge any answers in a confronting manner
and ask the opposition to explain further what they
mean.
The cloak-of-reasonableness negotiator
Appear to be agreeable and helpful while making
impossible demands for the purpose of winning the
friendship and confidence of the opposition.
The divide-and-conquer
negotiator
Produce dissension among the opposition so that they
have to pay more attention to their own internal disagreements rather than the disagreements with your
side. Ally with one member of the team and try to play
him or her off against the other members of the team.
(Cont.)
Type
The Billy Bunter
negotiator
Method
Pretend to be particularly dense and, by so doing,
exasperate the opposition in hops that at least one
member of the opposing team will reveal information
as he tries to find increasingly simple ways to describe
proposals, with each proposal being elaborated and
amplified so that Billy Bunter can understand it.
Four Categories of Roles
Group Task Roles: roles which facilitate the
selection and definition of a common problem
and solution.
Group Building and Maintenance: roles which
increase the functioning of the group as a
group.
Individual Roles: roles which are oriented
toward the satisfaction of individual’s needs.
Creative Roles: roles which involve using
creativity to identify possible solutions.
Group Task Roles
The Initiator- Contributor
Suggests or proposes new ideas
may include the suggestion:
for a new group
a new way to view a problem
a new way to address a problem within the
group
a new procedure for the group
a new way to organize the group
The Information Seeker
Seeks clarification of suggestions made
in terms of their factual adequacy, for
authoritative information and facets
pertinent to the problem being
discussed.
The Opinion Seeker
Asks not primarily for the facts of the
case but for a clarification of the values
pertinent to what the group is
undertaking or of values involved in a
suggestion made or in alternative
suggestions.
The Information Giver
Offers facts or generalizations which are
“authoritative” or relates his own
experience pertinently to the group
problem.
The Opinion Giver
States his/her belief or opinion
pertinently to a suggestion made or to
alternative suggestions. The emphasis
is on his/her proposal of what should
become the group’s view of pertinent
values, not primarily upon relevant facts
or information.
The Coordinator
Shows or clarifies the relationships
among various ideas and suggestions
Tries to pull ideas and suggestions
together
Tries to coordinate the activities of
various members
The Evaluator- Critic
Subjects the accomplishments of the
group to some standard or set of
standards of group functioning in the
context of the group task.
My evaluate the “practicality”,
“logic”, “Facts”, or “procedures”
The Energizer
Prods the group to action or decision.
Attempts to stimulate or arouse the
group to greater or higher quality work.
The Recorder
Writes down suggestions.
Makes a record of group decisions
(may be down via memory).
The recorder role is the “group
memory.”
Group Building and
Maintenance Roles
The Encourager
Praises, agrees with and accepts the
contributions of others.
Indicates warmth, solidarity in attitude
toward others.
Offers commendation and praise in
various ways and indicates acceptance
of others,
The Harmonizer
Mediates the differences between
members
Attempts to reconcile disagreements.
Relieves tension in conflict situations.
The Compromiser
Operates from within a conflict in which
his/her ideas or position is involved.
May offer compromise by yielding
status, admitting error, or by coming
“halfway” in meeting another.
The Gate-Keeper & Expediter
Attempts to keep communication open
by facilitating participation of others.
Proposes regulation of the flow of
communication.
The Follower
Goes along with the movement of the
group.
Passively accepts the ideas of others.
Serves as an audience for others in the
group as well as for group discussion
and decision.
Individual Roles
Attempts by individuals to satisfy personal
needs.
Numerous types - from Sociology and
Psychology.
The Monopolist
Def: One who chatters on incessantly due
to anxiety when silent.
Effect: Group gets concerned, then
frustrated and angry. May be afraid to
confront because then they must fill the
void.
Help-Rejecting Complainer
Def.: requests help than rejects; takes
problem in insolvability of problems;
blames authority, conflicted about
dependency feeling helpless and
distrusting.
Effects: seen as greedy and user of
group energy; members become bored,
confused, irritated and frustrated.
Self-Righteous Moralist
Def.: strong need to be right.
Demonstrates superiority via poise and
unconcerned about being liked. Deep
underlying shame.
Effect: mobilizes so much resentment
that may be forced out of the group.
Creative Group Roles
Idea Generator
Look for new ways to do things.
Tend to focus only on ideas and
concepts.
Are result driven.
Designers
See the big picture.
Provide guidance and tools.
Define performance standards.
Identify resources needed to complete
projects.
Promoters
Visualize end result.
Optimistic.
Promote ideas and give momentum.
Managers Can Use This Checklist to Diagnose
the Roles Played by Each Team Member
TASK ORIENTED
MAINTENANCE
INDIVIDUAL
Agenda Setter
Encourager
Avoider
Analyzer
Follower
Blocker
Coordinator
Gatekeeper
Clown
Evaluator
Group Observer
Dominator
Information Giver
Harmonizer
Recognition Seeker
Information Seeker
Standard Setter
Other
Intuitor
Other
Other
Group Norms
Acceptable standards of behavior, that
are shared by the group’s members.
Formal Norms
explicitly stated
Informal Norms
habit becomes norm
Common Classes of Norms
Performance related processes
Appearance factors
Informal social arrangements
Allocation of resources
Behaviors can become Norms
Critical events in
group’s history
Primacy
Carry-over from past
situations
Explicit statements
made by a groups
member
Reasons a behavior might become a
“norm”
To facilitate the group’s survival.
If it increases the predictability of group members’
behaviors.
To reduce embarrassing interpersonal problems for
group members.
To allow members to express central values of the
group.
To clarify what is distinctive about the group’s
identity.
Status
Socially defined position or rank given
to groups or group members by others
“In the status hierarchy of life, nothing
doesn’t matter.”
Examples: titles, relationships, pay &
benefits, work schedules, office
amenities
Group Size
Groups with an odd number
tend to perform better
Groups of 5-7 seem to be a
“happy medium”
Smaller groups
faster
Larger groups
better decisions
“social loafing”
Eliminating Social Loafing
Make each performer
identifiable.
Public Posting
Interesting Work
Rewards for
Contributions
Punishment Threats
Satisfaction is Higher
Small groups
Uniform status and norms
among group members
Use higher level skills
Meaningful work
Significant effect of outcomes
Positive feedback
When groups experience
substantial autonomy
Positive Behaviors
Making “I” statements such as “I feel,” “I
think,” “I need.”
Actively listening to promote two-way
communication.
Respecting others’ needs, feelings, and rights
by allowing others to disagree.
Sharing information and expertise openly.
Negative Behaviors
Unwillingness to set aside personal agendas.
Aggressively using “always” or “never” to
intimidate others.
Displaying a negative attitude.
Judging others.
Wanting to be a star rather than part of the
process.
Mature Group Characteristics
Purpose and Mission
May be assigned or may emerge from
the group
Group often questions, reexamines, &
modifies mission & purpose
Mission converted into specific agenda,
clear goals, & a set of critical success
factors
Mature Group Characteristics
Behavioral Norms - well-understood
standards of behavior within a group
Formal & written
Ground
rules
for
meetings
Informal but understood
Intra-group socializing
Dress codes
Mature Group Characteristics
Group cohesion - interpersonal attraction
binding group members together
Enables groups to exercise effective control
over the members
Groups with high cohesiveness
demonstrate lower tension & anxiety
demonstrate less variation in productivity
demonstrate better member satisfaction,
commitment & communication
Cohesiveness &
Work-Related Tension
Group Cohesiveness from low to high
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
3.2
3.3
3.4
“Does your
work ever make
you jumpy or
nervous?”
3.5
3.6
Mean tension
3.7
3.8
3.9
4
7
16
52
65
57
19
Number of groups
12
From S. E. Seashore, Group
Cohesiveness in the Industrial Work
Force, 1954. Research conducted by
Stanley E. Seashore at the Institute for
Social Research, University of
Michigan. Reprinted by permission.
Mature Group Characteristics
Status structure - the set of authority & task
relations among a group’s members
Hierarchical or egalitarian
Often leadership is shared
Diversity
styles
Data/Info
Contributor
Mission
Collaborator
Facilitator
Communicator
Devil’s advocate
Challenger
Why Teams?
Good when performing complicated, complex,
inter-related and/or more voluminous work
than one person can handle
Good when knowledge, talent, skills, &
abilities are dispersed across organizational
members
Empowerment & collaboration; not power &
competition
Quality Circles & Teams
Quality circles (QC) - a small group of employees
who work voluntarily on company time, typically
one hour per week, to address work-related
problems
QC’s deal with substantive issues
Do not require final decision authority
QC’s need periodic reenergizing
Quality team - a team that is part of an
organization’s structure & is empowered to act on
its decisions regarding product & quality service
Social Benefits of Teams
Psychological intimacy emotional &
psychological closeness
to other team
or group members
Integrated intimacy closeness achieved
through tasks &
activities
Team Task Functions
Task functions - those activities directly
related to the effective completion of the
team’s work
Initiate activities
Give information
Seek information
Test ideas
Summarize ideas
Coordinate activities
Elaborate concepts
Evaluate effectiveness
Diagnose problems
Team Maintenance Functions
Maintenance functions - those activities essential
to the effective, satisfying interpersonal
relationships within a team or group
Support others
Follow others’ lead
Harmonize conflict
Set standards
Express member feelings
Test consensus
Test group decisions
Reduce tension
Gatekeeper communication
Empowerment
An attribute of a
person or of an
organization’s culture
Encourages
participation
Preparation & careful
planning focuses
empowered employees
Foundations for Empowerment
Participative, supportive
organizational culture
Organizational
foundations
Team-oriented work design
Individual Prerequisites
for Empowerment
The capability to become
psychologically involved in participative
activities
The motivation to act autonomously
The capacity to see the relevance of
participation for one’s own well being
Empowerment Skills
Competence skills - mastery and experience
in one’s chosen discipline & profession
Process skills - including negotiating skills
Development of cooperative and helping
behaviors
Communication skills - skills in self expression
& skills in reflective listening
Self-Managed Teams
Self managed teams - teams that make
decisions that were once reserved for
managers
How does an organization avoid the risks
of self managed teams?
morale reduction
increased conflict
groupthink
Upper Echelons:
Teams at the Top
Upper Echelons A top-level executive team
in an organization
Top management's
background characteristics
predict organizational
characteristics
Organization reflects
top management's
values, competence,
ethics & unique characteristics
Management team's
leadership, composiiton, &
dynamics influences the
organization's performance
Multicultural Teams
Multicultural groups represent
three or more ethnic backgrounds.
Diversity may increase uncertainty,
complexity, & inherent confusion in
group processes. Culturally
diverse groups may generate more
& better ideas & limit groupthink.
Executive Tenure &
Organizational Performance
Organizational performance
relative to the industry average
High
Low
1
7
14
CEO tenure (years)Source: D. Hambrick, The Seasons of an Executive’s Tenure, keynote address, the
Sixth Annual Texas Conference on Organizations, Lago Vista, Texas, April, 1991.
Triangle for Managing
in the New Team Environment
Manager
Team
Individuals
L. Hirschhorn, Managing in the New Team Environment, (pages 13/14). Copyright© 1991 Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc. Reprinted by permission of Addison Wesley Longman.