OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
OCR Examinations
AS / A Level Physical Education
AS 3875
A 7875
Module 2562 : Section B
part 1
Acquiring, Performing and Teaching Movement Skills
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Module 2562 B.1.1
INDEX
Index
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
3 - CHARACTERISTICS OF SKILL
4 - DEFINITIONS OF SKILL - CHARACTERISTICS OF SKILL
5 - DEFINITIONS OF SKILL
THE GUTHRIE KNAPP DEFINITION OF SKILL
6 - SKILL KEYWORDS
8 - CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL
GROSS - FINE (MUSCULAR CONTROL) CONTINUUM
9 - CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL
OPEN - CLOSED (ENVIRONMENTAL IFLUENCE) CONTINUUM
10 - CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL - DISCRETE - SERIAL CONTINUOUS (CONTINUITY) CONTINUUM
11 - CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL
EXTERNALLY-PACED - SELF-PACED (PACING) CONTINUUM
12 - CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL
SIMPLE - COMPLEX (DIFFICULTY) CONTINUUM
13 - CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL
LOW - HIGH ORGANISATIONAL CONTINUUM
14 - CHARACTERISTICS OF ABILITY
PSYCHOMOTOR / PERCEPTUAL
15 - ABILITY - GROSS MOTOR / GENERAL / SPECIFIC / GROUPS
16 - SKILL DEVELOPMENT
COGNITIVE / ASSOCIATIVE / AUTONOMOUS
17 - SKILL, ABILITY AND YOUR PPP
18 - INFORMATION PROCESSING - BASIC MODEL
19 - INFORMATION PROCESSING - SCHMIDT’s MODEL
20 - INFORMATION PROCESSING - WELFORD’s MODEL
21 - INFORMATION PROCESSING - WELFORD’s MODEL
22 - INFORMATION PROCESSING - WHITING’S MODEL
23 - INFORMATION PROCESSING - WHITING`S MODEL
24 - ATTENTION
25 - LIMITED ATTENTIONAL CAPACITY THEORIES
SINGLE CHANNEL THEORY
26 - LIMITED ATTENTIONAL CAPACITY THEORIES
MULTIPLE CHANNEL THEORY
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27 - PERCEPTION AND SELECTIVE ATTENTION
28 - MEMORY SYSTEMS
29 - BASIC MODEL OF THE MEMORY PROCESS
30 - BASIC MODEL OF THE MEMORY PROCESS
31 - IMPROVING RETENTION
32 - IMPROVING INFORMATION RETENTION
33 - REACTION TIME - MOVEMENT / RESPONSE TIME
34 - REACTION TIME - SIMPLE / CHOICE REACTION TIME
35 - PSYCHOLOGICAL REFRACTORY PERIOD
36 - FACTORS AFFECTING REACTION TIME
37 - THE ROLE OF ANTICIPATION
38 - IMPROVING RESPONSE TIMES
CUES / DECISION MAKING / ATTENTIONAL FOCUS
39 - FEEDBACK - IMPORTANCE
40 - FEEDBACK - INTRINSIC
41 - FEEDBACK
EXTRINSIC / KNOWLEDGE OF PERFORMANCE / RESULTS
42 - FUNCTIONS OF EXTRINSIC FEEDBACK
FEEDBACK DEPENDENCY
43 - FEEDBACK
CONCURRENT / TERMINAL / POSITIVE / NEGATIVE
44 - INFORMATION PROCESSING AND YOUR PPP
45 - MOTOR AND EXECUTIVE PROGRAMMES - SUBROUTINES
46 - MOTOR AND EXECUTIVE PROGRAMMES - DISCUS THROW
47 - MOTOR AND EXECUTIVE PROGRAMMES - TENNIS SERVE
48 - MOTOR CONTROL - OPEN LOOP CONTROL
49 - MOTOR CONTROL - CLOSED LOOP CONTROL
50 - SCHEMA (SCHMIDT’s THEORY)
51 - SCHEMA - RECALL SCHEMA
52 - SCHEMA - RECOGNITION SCHEMA
Module 2562 B.1.2
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
The Characteristics of Skilful Performance
CHARACTERISTICS OF SKILL
coordinated
controlled
good
technique
efficient
CHARACTERISTICS
OF SKILL
predetermined
aesthetic
consistent
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learned
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Module 2562 B.1.3
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
The Characteristics of Skilful Performance
DEFINITIONS OF SKILL
USES OF THE WORD SKILL
• technique
• example : feint or dodge
• sport
• example : classifications
• quality
• example : skilful performance
CHARACTERISTICS OF SKILL
• efficient
– no waste of energy
– the movement seems effortless
• coordinated
– flowing and fluid movement
• controlled
– the performer has control over the
movement
• good technique
– the movement follows an accepted
correct technical model
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CHARACTERISTICS OF SKILL
• consistent
– can be repeated correctly
• learned
– skill has been practised until
retained in long term memory
• predetermined
– the performer has a goal
• aesthetic
– the movement is pleasing and
looks good
SKILLED PERFORMERS
• can vary the outcome
• can vary the timing and scope of
action
• can focus attention appropriately
• can anticipate
Module 2562 B.1.4
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
The Characteristics of Skilful Performance
DEFINITIONS OF SKILL
THE GUTHRIE KNAPP DEFINITION OF SKILL
• the learned ability to bring about predetermined results with
maximum certainty often with the minimum outlay of time or
energy or both
•
skill is learned
•
learning is a relatively permanent change in performance
•
performance is a temporary action
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Module 2562 B.1.5
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
The Characteristics of Skilful Performance
SKILL KEYWORDS
BALANCE
• a psychomotor ability - maintenance of the body’s centre of mass
within the base of support to allow pause, change of direction, stillness
CLASSIFICATION OF SKILL
• the means by which skills which have common characteristics are
grouped together
CLOSED SKILL
• a skill performed in a fixed environment, example : a discus throw
CONTINUOUS SKILLS
• skills with no obvious beginnings and endings
CONTINUUM OF SKILLS
• a range of skill characteristics
COORDINATION
• a psychomotor ability which allows efficient transmission of
information through the nervous system to create required movements
DISCRETE SKILLS
• skills with clear beginnings and endings, example : discus throw
EXTERNALLY-PACED SKILLS
• skills where the timing and form are determined by what is happening
in the environment, example : receiving a pass from another player in
a soccer game
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Module 2562 B.1.6
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
The Characteristics of Skilful Performance
SKILL KEYWORDS
FINE SKILL
• skills involving small movements of specific body parts, example :
potting a ball at snooker
GROSS SKILL
• involve large muscle groups and movements of the whole body,
example : discus throw
LEARNING
• a relatively permanent change of performance resulting from practice
or experience
OPEN SKILLS
• skills in which the form of the action is determined by the
environment and therefore is constantly changing, example : receiving
a pass from another player in a soccer game
SELF-PACED SKILLS
• the performer has control over the rate at which the action takes place
and also the timing of the start of the action, example : discus throw
SERIAL SKILLS
• where several distinct elements are joined together to form an
integrated movement, example : triple jump
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Module 2562 B.1.7
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
Classification of Movement Skills
CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL
GROSS - FINE (MUSCULAR CONTROL) CONTINUUM
GROSS
weight
lifting
javelin
throw
netball
pass
cricket
stroke
golf
shot
ten pin
bowling
FINE
darts/
snooker
GROSS - FINE (MUSCULAR CONTROL) CONTINUUM
• gross skills use large muscle movements
• associated with :
– strength
– endurance
– power
• fine skills use small delicate muscle movements
• associated with :
– speed
– accuracy
– efficiency
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Module 2562 B.1.8
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
Classification of Movement Skills
CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL
OPEN - CLOSED (ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCE) CONTINUUM
OPEN
soccer
soccer
goal save pass
tennis
stroke
tennis
serve
soccer
penalty
CLOSED
shot
putt
OPEN - CLOSED (ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCE) CONTINUUM
• open skills
– require perceptual monitoring (the performer perceives the information
which stimulates the skill response)
– occur in an unpredictable environment
– the form of action is constantly being varied according to what is happening
around the performer
– have no clear beginning or end and are usually externally paced
• closed skills
– are prelearned and habitual
– usually occur in the autonomous phase of learning
– have no external requirements
– have a clear beginning and end
– occur in a predictable environment
– the technical requirements of the skill conform to a specific model
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Module 2562 B.1.9
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
Classification of Movement Skills
CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL
DISCRETE - SERIAL - CONTINUOUS (CONTINUITY) CONTINUUM
DISCRETE
weight
lifting
javelin
throw
SERIAL
high
jump
basketball
dribble
CONTINUOUS
running
DISCRETE - SERIAL - CONTINUOUS (CONTINUITY) CONTINUUM
• discrete skills
– have a clear beginning and end
– can be performed by themselves without linkage to other skills
– the skill can be repeated but the performer starts again
• serial skills
– have a number of discrete skills
– which are linked together into a performance consisting of several
phases
• continuous skills
– cannot be split up into subroutines or easily distinguishable parts
– but last a relatively long time
– as long as the performer wishes
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Module 2562 B.1.10
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
Classification of Movement Skills
CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL
EXTERNALLY-PACED - SELF-PACED (PACING) CONTINUUM
EXTERNALLY-PACED
yachting
tennis
receiving serve
soccer
game
diving
tennis
serve
SELF-PACED
weight
lifting
EXTERNALLY-PACED - SELF-PACED (PACING) CONTINUUM
• externally-paced skills
– the speed and precision with which the skill is executed
– are controlled by the environment / surroundings of the performer
– opposing teams or individuals in a game
– or the weather or wind conditions
• self-paced skills
– the rate of action is controlled by the performer
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Module 2562 B.1.11
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
Classification of Movement Skills
CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL
SIMPLE - COMPLEX (DIFFICULTY) CONTINUUM
SIMPLE
sprinting
throwing
snooker
gymnastic
tumble
COMPLEX
gymnastic
floor exercise
SIMPLE - COMPLEX (DIFFICULTY) CONTINUUM
• simple skills
– are straightforward skills
– with few subroutines
– requiring little concentration and cognitive activity on the part of the
performer
• complex skills
– are complicated skills
– requiring a lot of attention / practice
– the complexity of which can be perceived differently by different
individuals
– require a large number of (interlinked) subroutines, some of which
may be habitual and learned
– which affects the ease with which the performer performs the skill
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Module 2562 B.1.12
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
Classification of Movement Skills
CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL
LOW - HIGH ORGANISATIONAL CONTINUUM
LOW ORGANISATION
swimming
stroke
HIGH ORGANISATION
cycling
gymnastic move
pole vault
LOW - HIGH ORGANISATIONAL CONTINUUM
• skills with low organisation
– are uncomplicated and have little organisational structure
– subroutines tend to be discrete
– and may be practised separately
• skills with high organisation
– have a complex organisational structure
– subroutines are closely linked
– and cannot be practised separately (the skill must be practised as a
whole)
– require far more attention and concentration to be performed
successfully
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Module 2562 B.1.13
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
Definitions and Characteristics of Abilities
CHARACTERISTICS OF ABILITY
ABILITY IS :
THE FOUNDATION
• of the learning process
• to be successful, a performer must have certain abilities
GENETICALLY DETERMINED
• we are born with our abilities
• abilities are innate
• some people can pick up skills easily, others have difficulty
ENDURING
• people usually continue to display their ability for a long time
PSYCHOMOTOR ABILITY
• enables a performer to process information about how and when he /
she moves
PERCEPTUAL ABILITY
• this is the ability to sense and interpret sensory inputs
• examples from :
– coordination, reaction time, agility, depth perception, arm / hand
steadiness, speed, balance, manual dexterity, aiming
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Module 2562 B.1.14
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
Definitions and Characteristics of Abilities
ABILITY
GROSS MOTOR ABILITY
• to be able to move in a coordinated muscle movements
• examples from :
– extent / dynamic flexibility
– explosive, static, trunk strength
– gross body equilibrium / coordination
– stamina
– limb speed
GENERAL ABILITY
• does not exist ?
SPECIFIC ABILITY
• skills require different abilities specific to each skill
GROUPS OF ABILITIES
• a good sportsperson may have many different groups of abilities
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Module 2562 B.1.15
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
Motor Skill Development
SKILL DEVELOPMENT
MOTOR
ABILITIES
(simple traits of
youngsters)
FUNDAMENTAL
MOTOR SKILLS
(simple skills learned
by practice)
SPORT SPECIFIC
SKILLS
(complex skills
specific to sport)
STAGES OF SKILL DEVELOPMENT / LEARNING
COGNITIVE
• skill learning goals are set and learning is begun
• improvement is rapid, but movements are jerky and uncoordinated
• demands high attention and concentration
ASSOCIATIVE
• specific motor programmes and subroutines are developed relevant to sport
• consistency and coordination improve rapidly, timing and anticipation improve
• gross error detection and correction is practised, detailed feedback is utilised
• improvement is less rapid
AUTONOMOUS
• performance almost automatic, performed easily without stress
• high proficiency with habitual performance and attention demands reduced
• emphasis on tactics / strategy
• errors detected and corrected without help
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Module 2562 B.1.16
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
Motor Skill Development
SKILL, ABILITY AND YOUR PPP
WITHIN YOUR PPP YOU SHOULD :
• analyse your sport as to its skill content
• place skills in relevant continua
– muscular involvement
– environmental influence
– continuity
– pacing
– difficulty
– organisation
•
identify gross motor and psychomotor abilities
which may be important within the skills within your
chosen activity
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Module 2562 B.1.17
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
Basic Models of Information Processing
INFORMATION PROCESSING - BASIC MODEL
INPUT
DECISION
MAKING
FEEDBACK
OUTPUT
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Module 2562 B.1.18
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
Basic Models of Information Processing
INFORMATION PROCESSING
- SCHMIDT’s MODEL
STIMULUS
• this is the input from the
environment / surroundings
STIMULUS IDENTIFICATION
• refers to the reception and
interpretation of sensory information
RESPONSE SELECTION
• is responsible for decision making
RESPONSE PROGRAMMING
• concerned with the sending of
movement information via the nerves
to the muscles
OUTPUT
• is movement resulting from the
process
STIMULUS
(input)
STIMULUS
IDENTIFICATION
RESPONSE
SELECTION
REACTION
TIME
RESPONSE
PROGRAMMING
MOVEMENT
(output)
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Module 2562 B.1.19
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
Basic Models of Information Processing
INFORMATION PROCESSING - WELFORD’s MODEL
DISPLAY
STIMULI
SENSORY INFORMATION
PERCEPTUAL MECHANISM
EXTRINSIC FEEDBACK
INTRINSIC FEEDBACK
DECISION MECHANISM
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
EFFECTOR MECHANISM
RESPONSE
MOVEMENT
(output)
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Module 2562 B.1.20
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
Basic Models of Information Processing
INFORMATION PROCESSING - WELFORD’s MODEL
DISPLAY
• refers to the range of actions and things that are
happening in the surrounding environment of the
performer
PERCEPTUAL MECHANISM
• the part of the brain which perceives the surroundings
DECISION MECHANISM
• the part of the brain which makes decisions
EFFECTOR MECHANISM
• the part of the brain which carries out the decisions
and sends messages to the limbs and parts of the
body which act out the relevant skill
INTRINSIC FEEDBACK
• feedback as to what actually happens to the body via
the proprioceptors which inform the brain about
balance, muscle tensions, limb positions and angles
EXTRINSIC FEEDBACK
• feedback via the result (response) of the actions made
• the results of which feed back as part of the display
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Module 2562 B.1.21
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
Basic Models of Information Processing
INFORMATION PROCESSING - WHITING’S MODEL
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Module 2562 B.1.22
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
Basic Models of Information Processing
INFORMATION PROCESSING - WHITING`S MODEL
RECEPTOR SYSTEMS
• refers to the sense organs which receive information
PERCEPTUAL MECHANISM
• the part of the brain which perceives the surroundings
and gives them meaning
TRANSLATORY MECHANISM
• the part of the brain which makes decisions and sorts
out and processes the few relevant bits of information
• from the many inputs from the surroundings
EFFECTOR MECHANISM
• the part of the brain which carries out the decisions
and sends messages to the limbs and parts of the
body via the nervous system
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Module 2562 B.1.23
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
Memory
ATTENTION
ATTENTION
• relates to the amount of information we can cope with
• since the amount of information we can attend to is limited
• we have limited attentional capacity
• the performer must therefore attend to only relevant information
• and disregard irrelevant information
• this is called selective attention
•
•
•
•
•
when some parts of a performance become automatic
the information relevant to those parts does not require attention
this gives the performer spare attentional capacity
which allows the performer to attend to new elements of a skill
such as tactics or anticipating the moves of an opponent
•
the coach will need to help the performer to make best use of spare
attentional capacity
the coach will also need to direct the attention of the performer to enable
him / her to concentrate and reduce the chance of attentional switching to
irrelevant information or distractions
•
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Module 2562 B.1.24
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
Memory
LIMITED ATTENTIONAL CAPACITY THEORIES
SINGLE CHANNEL THEORY
• this theory says that a performer can only attend to one
thing at a time
• so information is processed sequentially
•
•
•
attentional switching would occur by transferring
attention from one situation to another
so although attention would be shared between
situations, only one would be attended to at a time (one
then two then one then two …..)
therefore this can only be done if each situation requires
small attentional capacity
SENSORY INPUT
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DECISION MAKING
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OUTPUT
Module 2562 B.1.25
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
Memory
LIMITED ATTENTIONAL CAPACITY THEORIES
MULTIPLE CHANNEL THEORY
• this theory says that so long as incoming information arrives along different
channels
• then the performer can attend to more than one task at a time
• an advanced performer will need to attend to many different bits of
information at a time
• but as long as each item does not require much effort (which takes up
attentional capacity) then this is possible
• also most advanced players will process some information automatically which
allows attentional capacity
DECISION MAKING
OUTPUT
for other inputs
SENSORY INPUT
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DECISION MAKING
OUTPUT
DECISION MAKING
OUTPUT
DECISION MAKING
OUTPUT
DECISION MAKING
OUTPUT
Module 2562 B.1.26
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
Memory
PERCEPTION AND SELECTIVE ATTENTION
PERCEPTION
• perception is stimulus identification
• as information is received from the environment, the performer
needs to make sense of it
• to interpret it and identify the elements which are relevant and
important
• consists of three elements :
– detection
– comparison
– recognition
SELECTIVE ATTENTION
• the process of sorting out relevant bits of information from the
many which are received
• attention passes the information to the short-term memory
which gives time for conscious analysis
• a good performer can focus totally on an important aspect of his
/ her skill
• which can exclude other elements which may also be desirable
• sometimes a performer may desire to concentrate on several
different things at once
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Module 2562 B.1.27
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
Memory
MEMORY SYSTEMS
RECEPTOR SYSTEM
/ SENSORY INPUT
SHORT-TERM SENSORY
STORE
SELECTIVE
ATTENTION
FEEDBACK
SHORT-TERM MEMORY
MOTOR OUTPUT
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LONG-TERM MEMORY
DECISION MAKING
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Module 2562 B.1.28
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
Memory
BASIC MODEL OF THE MEMORY PROCESS
SENSORY INPUT
• refers to the information received from the surroundings
SHORT-TERM SENSORY STORAGE
• the area of the brain which receives information and holds it for a short time
(less than 1 second) prior to processing
• information deemed unimportant is lost and forgotten and replaced by new
information
SELECTIVE ATTENTION
• the process of sorting out relevant bits of information from the many which
are received
SHORT-TERM MEMORY
• the part of the brain which keeps information for a short period (20 - 30
seconds) after it has been deemed worthy of attention
• the STM can carry between 5 and 9 separate items of information
• can be improved by chunking
• the information can be used for problem solving
• or passed on to the long term memory for permanent storage
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Module 2562 B.1.29
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
Memory
BASIC MODEL OF THE MEMORY PROCESS
LONG-TERM MEMORY
• the part of the brain which retains information for long periods of time - up
to the lifetime of the performer
• very well learned information is stored
• LTM is limitless and not forgotten
• but may require a code for the information to be recalled
PROCEDURAL MEMORY
• this is memory of how to do something, which serves as a blueprint to enable
you to repeat a movement
SEMANTIC MEMORY
• knowledge memory of facts and concepts
EPISODIC MEMORY
• memory of important occasions in your past life
DECISION MAKING
• the process by which desired outcomes are chosen
FEEDBACK
• the process of sending information back to the performer via the results
of a movement or the position of the performer’s body
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Module 2562 B.1.30
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
Memory
IMPROVING RETENTION
brevity
how
clarity
practice
IMPROVING
RETENTION
chunking
organisation
association
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Module 2562 B.1.31
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
Memory
IMPROVING INFORMATION RETENTION
KNOWING HOW
• educate the performer about the details of a skill
• explain what to do and how to do it
BREVITY
• be brief
• do not overload the short-term memory which can only hold small amounts of data
CLARITY
• keep advice / instruction simple and clear (KISS - keep it simple stupid)
• carefully separate similar skills to enable the performer to distinguish between them
CHUNKING
• more information can be held in STM if information is lumped together / chunked
ORGANISATION
• organise the process of learning to ensure the information is meaningful
ASSOCIATION
• link new information with old already learnt information
PRACTICE
• practice makes perfect
• repetition of any information or skill will enable it to be remembered
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Module 2562 B.1.32
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
Reaction Time
REACTION TIME
REACTION TIME (RT)
• time between the onset of a stimulus and the start of the response
• this is an inherent ability or trait
• the stimulus could be :
– kinaesthesia
– hearing
– touch
– vision
– pain
– smell
• from this list, the fastest reaction times occur to stimuli at the top of
the list, the slowest to those at the bottom of the list
MOVEMENT TIME
• time it takes to complete the onset of a movement
RESPONSE TIME
• time it takes to process information and then to make a
response
RESPONSE TIME = REACTION TIME + MOVEMENT TIME
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Module 2562 B.1.33
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
Reaction Time
REACTION TIME
SIMPLE REACTION TIME
• is relevant to a single stimulus and a single possible response
CHOICE REACTION TIME
• several stimuli are given but only one must be selected for response
• the more choices a person has, the more information needs
processing, and the longer it takes to process the information
• the slower the reaction time
• this is Hick’s Law - see graph below
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Module 2562 B.1.34
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
Reaction Time
PSYCHOLOGICAL REFRACTORY PERIOD
PSYCHOLOGICAL REFRACTORY PERIOD (PRP)
• presentation of a second stimulus
• will slow down the processing of information
• causing a time lag (this is the PRP) between the relevant stimulus
and an appropriate response
• example : selling a dummy in
Rugby
EXAMPLE
• S1 (1st stimulus) would be the
dummy
• S2 (2nd stimulus) would be the
definite move
• if the dummy (S1) had been the
only stimulus then the reaction
would have been at time R1
• in the meantime, S2 has happened, but the performer cannot begin his / her
response to this until the full reaction R1 has been processed by the brain
• so there is therefore a period of time (the PRP) after S2 but before the time
break to R2 can begin
• a person who can do a multiple dummy / shimmy (Mat Dawson / Jason
Robinson) can leave opposition with no time to react and hence miss a tackle
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Module 2562 B.1.35
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
Reaction Time
FACTORS AFFECTING REACTION TIME
FACTORS AFFECTING REACTION TIME
• age
– the older we get, the slower our reaction times
• gender
– males have quicker reaction times than females
– but reaction times reduce less with age for
females
• increase in stimulus intensity will improve
reaction time
– a louder bang will initiate the go more quickly
than a less loud bang
• tall people will have slower reactions than short people because of the greater
distance the information has to travel from the performer’s brain to the active muscles
– short sprinters tend to win 60m races
• arousal levels affect reaction times which are best when the performer is alert but
not over aroused
• the performer must attend to the most important cues (which act as a stimulus)
• factors like body language / position might give a cue which enables the performer to
anticipate a stimulus
• anticipation of an opponents play by identifying favourite strokes or positions,
particularly if the play involves an attempted dummy or fake
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Module 2562 B.1.36
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
Reaction Time
THE ROLE OF ANTICIPATION
ANTICIPATION
• the ability to predict future events from early signals or past events
•
•
•
reaction time can be speeded up if the performer learns to anticipate
certain actions
good performers start running motor programmes before the
stimulus is fully recognised
they anticipate the strength, speed and direction of a stimulus
•
this would enable a performer to partially eliminate the PRP
(psychological refractory period)
•
however, opponents will also be trying to anticipate
•
opponents reaction times can be increased by increasing the number
of choices of stimulus they have
increasing the number of fakes or dummies (Dawson / Robinson)
•
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Module 2562 B.1.37
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
Reaction Time
IMPROVING RESPONSE TIMES
DETECTING THE CUE
• sort out the stimulus (starter’s gun) from the background (spectator
noise)
DETECTING RELEVANT CUES
• pick out relevant stimulus from other possible ones - choice reaction
time reduced by eliminating alternative choices
DECISION MAKING
• work on set pieces in open skill situations so that an ‘automatic’
complex response can be made to a simple open stimulus
CHANGE IN ATTENTIONAL FOCUS
• practice switch of concentration quickly from one situation
(opponents in defence) to another (field of play in attack)
CONTROLLING ANXIETY
• anxiety would increase response times - reduce by calming strategies
CREATING OPTIMUM MOTIVATION
• psyching up
WARM-UP
• ensure that sense organs and nervous system are in optimum state
to transmit information and muscles to act on it
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Module 2562 B.1.38
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
Feedback
FEEDBACK
FEEDBACK
• information which is used during and after an action or movement
THE IMPORTANCE OF FEEDBACK
• visual feedback for the beginner helps the performer to gain insight into a
performance and its quality
•
demonstration of faults and corrections as feedback should be correct, since
the performer will attempt to imitate the demonstration
•
verbal feedback should be restricted during the early stages of learning since
too much information can confuse the performer
during the later stages of learning, the performer should have extra
attentional capacity which should enable greater detail to be communicated
asking questions about the feelings involved in a performance is a form of
feedback
•
•
•
the importance of feedback is high to the coach (or teacher) teaching a
performer skills since knowledge of performance is a way of improving skill
levels
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Module 2562 B.1.39
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
Feedback
FEEDBACK
TYPES OF FEEDBACK
INTRINSIC FEEDBACK
• this is sensory information
– from the performer’s own sensory system
• which normally occurs when individuals produce movement
•
•
intrinsic feedback received from outside the body is known as
exteroceptive feedback
– sight - the view of other competitors in a game
– hearing - the sounds of crowd
– smell - of other competitors!
intrinsic feedback from within the body is known as proprioceptive
feedback
– proprioception - the position and angles of limbs and tension in
muscles
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Module 2562 B.1.40
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
Feedback
FEEDBACK
TYPES OF FEEDBACK
EXTRINSIC FEEDBACK
• KNOWLEDGE OF PERFORMANCE
• information about a performance (its quality / rhythm / aesthetics)
– from a coach
– from video
– from the press / TV
•
•
•
KNOWLEGDE OF RESULTS
information about the outcome of a performance
– success or failure
– distance / height / time
this information can be from a number of sources
– coach
– video
– press / TV
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Module 2562 B.1.41
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
Feedback
FUNCTIONS OF EXTRINSIC FEEDBACK
MOTIVATIONAL
• success is motivational
• failure can act as a spur to motivation
REINFORCING
• behaviour that is rewarded tends to be repeated
• so praise for a correct performance will act as positive reinforcement
• which will influence the performer to desire to repeat the correct performance
INFORMATIONAL
• feedback provides information about errors hence the performer will be able to
correct errors
FEEDBACK DEPENDENCY
• some performers can become dependent on feedback
– example : from a coach or significant other about the quality of performance or
technical competence
• if this feedback is withdrawn or cannot be given then performance can deteriorate
– as in a field event athlete in a major games who cannot function without
feedback from a coach about his / her technique
– and who therefore will fail
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Module 2562 B.1.42
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
Feedback
FEEDBACK
TYPES OF FEEDBACK
CONCURRENT FEEDBACK
• occurs during a performance
• has the aim of improving skills or techniques while a performer is in action
TERMINAL FEEDBACK
• occurs after a performance has finished
• is important because it strengthens the schema in learning
POSITIVE FEEDBACK
• is feedback which gives information aimed at a constructive development of
performance
• positive reinforcement, praise and encouragement about good performances
• the knowledge from poor performances which gives insight about errors and
their possible correction
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
• is information which could depress performance
• negative reinforcement, negative criticism about poor performances
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Module 2562 B.1.43
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
Information Processing
INFORMATION PROCESSING AND YOUR PPP
WITHIN YOUR PPP YOU SHOULD :
• apply one information processing model to your
chosen activity
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Module 2562 B.1.44
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
Motor and Executive Programmes
MOTOR AND EXECUTIVE PROGRAMMES
MOTOR PROGRAMME
• defined as a set of movements stored as a whole in the long-term
memory
• contains all the information required to make a movement :
– which muscles to use
– the order in which muscles are used
– the phasing and degree of contraction of muscles
EXECUTIVE PROGRAMME
• enables a skill to be performed
• can be made up of a large number of subroutines
• must be adaptable so that it can be altered when the environment /
surroundings change
SUBROUTINES
• component parts of an executive programme
• structured in layers
– some subroutines can be in turn broken down into further subroutines
which form smaller parts of a skill
• each subroutine is a short fixed sequence
• which when fully learned can be performed automatically
• without conscious control
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Module 2562 B.1.45
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
Motor and Executive Programmes
MOTOR AND EXECUTIVE PROGRAMMES
STRUCTURE OF EXECUTIVE PROGRAMME FOR A DISCUS THROW
EXECUTIVE
PROGRAMME
DISCUS THROW
initial
stance
preliminary
swings
transition
into turn
turn
power
position
feet / leg
action
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throwing
action
trunk
action
recovery
SUBROUTINES
arm
action
Module 2562 B.1.46
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
Motor and Executive Programmes
MOTOR AND EXECUTIVE PROGRAMMES
STRUCTURE OF EXECUTIVE PROGRAMME FOR A TENNIS SERVE
EXECUTIVE
PROGRAMME
TENNIS SERVE
grip
stance
throw
swing
weight
transfer
feet / leg
action
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strike
trunk
action
SUBROUTINES
arm
action
Module 2562 B.1.47
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
Motor Control
MOTOR CONTROL
OPEN LOOP CONTROL
• this applies to executive programmes whose subroutines are simple and
well-learned
• and are automatic (no conscious thought is necessary)
• they are then completed rapidly without time for feedback
• and apply to closed and self-paced skills
• examples :
– tennis serve
– discus throw
MOTOR CONTROL
MECHANISM
MOVEMENT
MOTOR COMMANDS
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Module 2562 B.1.48
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
Motor Control
MOTOR CONTROL
CLOSED LOOP CONTROL
• this applies to ongoing movements
• in which only part of the information necessary to complete a movement is
sent to effector organs (neuromuscular system)
• the remaining information is sent following feedback via kinaesthesis
• information about balance and body position can be used to change these
factors during a movement
• examples :
– riding a bike
– performing a gymnastic move
– performing a complex dive
KINAESTHETIC
FEEDBACK
MOTOR CONTROL
MECHANISM
MOVEMENT
MOTOR COMMANDS
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Module 2562 B.1.49
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
Motor Control
SCHEMA (SCHMIDT’s THEORY)
SCHEMA THEORY
• explains how sports performers can undertake so many actions with
very little conscious control
• the long-term memory isn’t big enough to store all the motor
programmes required under the open and closed loop theories
•
•
•
schema theory says that generalised motor programmes exist
which can be modified by taking in information as a skill is performed
the LTM therefore has to store far fewer motor programmes
since any new movement can be performed by running a schema
which closely matches the needs of the new movement
•
•
the bigger the schema the more efficient the movement
large amounts of varied practice are needed to improve a schema
•
feedback is very important to correct and update a schema
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Module 2562 B.1.50
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
Motor Control
SCHEMA
SCHEMA
• a schema is the information about :
– where the performer is (knowledge of the environment)
– what the performer has to do to perform successfully (response
specifications)
– what a movement feels like (sensory consequences)
– what happens when the performer responds (response outcomes)
• which is stored and used to update a motor programme when used next
RECALL SCHEMA
• this is all the information needed to start a relevant movement
• the knowledge of the environment (initial conditions)
– playing conditions (pitch, playing surface, weather)
– positions of team mates and opposition
– condition of equipment (kit, bike, car)
• the response specifications (the correct technical model)
– speed and force required
– size and shape of movement required
– techniques and styles used
• used for quick ballistic movements when there isn’t enough time to process
feedback
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Module 2562 B.1.51
OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875
Motor Control
SCHEMA
RECOGNITION SCHEMA
• information needed to correct errors and remember correct
performance
• information about evaluating the response
•
the sensory consequences (knowledge of performance)
– the feeling and look of the performance
•
the response outcomes (movement outcomes)
– the results of performance
– knowledge of results (how far / fast / many)
•
•
used when there is enough time to process feedback
or for evaluating performance
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Module 2562 B.1.52