The Private Pilot
Review
• What does it take to be a
private Pilot?
FAR 61.102
Medical
Written Test
KiPs
Flight Experience, 40 Hrs.,
Practical Test
Review
• Control Surfaces (Pitch and
Bank)
Review
• Control Surfaces (Pitch and
Bank)
Review
• Control Surfaces (Pitch and
Bank)
Review
• 4 forces in flight are:Lift,
Weight, Thrust and Drag.
• Forces are in EQUILIBRIUM when the
aircraft is in unaccelerated
flight.
• During Straight and Level Flight,
Lift equals Weight and Thrust
equals Drag.
Review
• The Angle of Attack is between the
Chord Line and the Relative Wind.
• Flaps, during an approach to land,
are used to INCREASE the angle of
DESCENT without increasing
Airspeed.
• Flaps enable a pilot to make a
steeper approach without
increasing Airspeed.
Review
• The Angle of ATTACK at which an
airplane stalls will remain the
SAME regardless of gross weight.
GROUND EFFECT
QuickTime™ and a
TIFF (LZW) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
• GROUND EFFECT It is possible to fly an
airplane just clear of the ground (or
water) at a slightly slower airspeed
than that required to sustain level
flight at higher altitudes. This is
the result of a phenomenon, which is
better known than understood even by
some experienced pilots. When an
airplane in flight gets within several
feet from the ground surface, a change
occurs in the threedimensional flow
pattern around the airplane because
the vertical component of the airflow
around the wing is restricted by the
ground surface.
Review
• Ground Effect is the result of the
interference of the Earth’s surface
with airflow patterns about an
airplane.
• As a result of Ground Effect, induced
drag decreases and any excess speed at
the point of flare may cause
considerable floating.
• Ground effect may result in becoming
airborne prematurely, before reaching a
recommended takeoff speed.
Class 3 - Airplane
Instruments
Objective: To
introduce the basic
flight instruments.
Self Contained
Self Powered
Compass Error
Variation
• Magnetic Poles ≠ Geographic Poles
East is Least
West is Best
Compass Error
• Deviation
Deviation in a magnetic compass
is caused by the
A) presence of flaws in the
permanent magnets of the
compass.
B) difference in the
location between true north and
magnetic north.
C) magnetic fields within
the aircraft distorting the
lines of magnetic force.
Compass Error
Dip Error
• ANDS (Accelerate North,
Decelerate South)
• UNOS (Undershoot or lag
North, Overshoot South)
In the Northern Hemisphere, if
an aircraft is accelerated or
decelerated, the magnetic
compass will normally indicate
A) correctly when on a
north or south heading.
B) a turn toward the
south.
C) a turn momentarily.
During flight, when are the
indications of a magnetic
compass accurate?
A) Only in straight-andlevel unaccelerated flight.
B) During turns if the
bank does not exceed 18°.
C) As long as the airspeed
is constant.
In the Northern Hemisphere, the
magnetic compass will normally
indicate a turn toward the
south when
A) the aircraft is
decelerated while on a west
heading.
B) a left turn is entered
from an east heading.
C) a right turn is entered
from a west heading.
In the Northern Hemisphere, a
magnetic compass will normally
indicate initially a turn
toward the west if
A) a right turn is entered
from a north heading.
B) a left turn is entered
from a north heading.
C) an aircraft is
accelerated while on a north
heading.
Pitot–Static Systems:
Airspeed
Airspeed
The pitot system provides
impact pressure for which
instrument?
A) Vertical-speed
indicator.
B) Airspeed indicator.
C) Altimeter.
Indicated Airspeed(IAS)—The direct
instrument reading obtained from the airspeed
indicator, uncorrected for variations in
atmospheric density, installation error, or
instrument error. Manufacturers use this
airspeed as the basis for determining airplane
performance. Takeoff, landing, and stall speeds
listed in the AFM or POH are indicated
airspeeds and do not normally vary with
altitude or temperature.
Calibrated Airspeed (CAS)—Indicated
airspeed corrected for installation error and
instrument error. Although manufacturers
attempt to keep airspeed errors to a minimum,
it is not possible to eliminate all errors
throughout the airspeed operating range. At
certain airspeeds and with certain flap settings,
the installation and instrument errors may total
several knots. This error is generally greatest at
low airspeeds. In the cruising and higher
airspeed ranges, indicated airspeed and
calibrated airspeed are approximately the same
True Airspeed(TAS)—Calibrated airspeed
corrected for altitude and nonstandard
temperature. Because air density decreases
with an increase in altitude, an airplane has to
be flown faster at higher altitudes to cause the
same pressure difference between pitot impact
pressure and static pressure. Therefore, for a
given calibrated airspeed, true airspeed
increases as altitude increases; or for a given
true airspeed, calibrated airspeed decreases as
altitude increases.
As altitude increases, the
indicated airspeed at which a
given airplane stalls in a
particular configuration will
A) decrease as the true
airspeed increases.
B) remain the same
regardless of altitude.
C) decrease as the true
airspeed decreases.
As altitude increases, the
indicated airspeed at which a
given airplane stalls in a
particular configuration will
B) remain the same
regardless of altitude.
Groundspeed(GS)—The actual
speed of the airplane over the
ground. It is true airspeed adjusted
for wind. Groundspeed decreases
with a headwind, and increases
with a tailwind.
As altitude increases, the
indicated airspeed at which a
given airplane stalls in a
particular configuration will
A) decrease as the true
airspeed increases.
B) remain the same
regardless of altitude.
C) decrease as the true
airspeed decreases.
What does the red line on an
airspeed indicator represent?
A) Turbulent or rough-air
speed.
B) Maneuvering speed.
C) Never-exceed speed.
(Refer to figure 4.) What is
the full flap operating range
for the airplane?
A) 60 to 100 MPH.
B) 65 to 165 MPH.
C) 60 to 208 MPH.
(Refer to figure 4.) What is
the caution range of the
airplane?
A) 0 to 60 MPH.
B) 165 to 208 MPH.
C) 100 to 165 MPH.
(Refer to figure 4.) The maximum
speed at which the airplane can
be operated in smooth air is
A) 208 MPH.
B) 100 MPH.
C) 165 MPH.
(Refer to figure 4.) Which color
identifies the never-exceed speed?
A) The red radial line.
B) Upper limit of the white arc.
C) Lower limit of the yellow
arc.
(Refer to figure 4.) Which color
identifies the power-off stalling
a specified configuration?
A) Upper limit of the white
B) Upper limit of the green
C) Lower limit of the green
speed in
arc.
arc.
arc.
(Refer to figure 4.) What is the
maximum flaps-extended speed?
A) 165 MPH.
B) 100 MPH.
C) 65 MPH.
(Refer to figure 4.) Which color
identifies the normal flap operating
range?
A) The white arc.
B) The lower limit of the white arc
to the upper limit of the green arc.
C) The green arc.
(Refer to figure 4.) Which color
identifies the power-off stalling speed
with wing flaps and landing gear in the
landing configuration?
A) Upper limit of the green arc.
B) Lower limit of the white arc.
C) Upper limit of the white arc.
(Refer to figure 4.) What is the
maximum structural cruising speed?
A) 100 MPH.
B) 165 MPH.
C) 208 MPH.
What is an important airspeed limitation
that is not color coded on airspeed
indicators?
A) Never-exceed speed.
B) Maneuvering speed.
C) Maximum structural cruising
speed.
Altimeter
(Refer to figure 3.) Altimeter
1 indicates
A) 1,500 feet.
B) 500 feet.
C) 10,500 feet.
If it is necessary to set the
altimeter from 29.15 to 29.85,
what change occurs?
A) 70-foot increase in
indicated altitude.
B) 700-foot increase in
indicated altitude.
C) 70-foot increase in
density altitude.
ANEROID—Asealed flexible
container that expands or
contracts in relation to the
surrounding air pressure. It is
used in an altimeter or a
barometer to measure the
pressure of the air.
Altimeter
• If no means were provided for adjusting
altimeters to nonstandard pressure,
flight could be hazardous. For example,
if flying from a high-pressure area to
a low-pressure area without adjusting
the altimeter, the actual altitude of
the airplane would be LOWER than the
indicated altitude. An old saying,
“HIGH TO LOW, LOOK OUTBELOW” is a way
of remembering which condition is
dangerous.
Altimeter setting is the value
to which the barometric
pressure scale of the altimeter
is set so the altimeter
indicates
A) true altitude at field
elevation.
B) absolute altitude at
field elevation.
C) calibrated altitude at
field elevation.
Indicated Altitude—That altitude
read directly from the altimeter
(uncorrected) when it is set to the
current altimeter setting.
True Altitude—The vertical
distance of the airplane above sea
level—the actual altitude. It is
often expressed as feet above
mean sea level (MSL). Airport,
terrain, and obstacle elevations on
aeronautical charts are true
altitudes.
Absolute Altitude—The vertical
distance of an airplane above the
terrain, or above ground level
(AGL).
Pressure Altitude—The altitude indicated
when the altimeter setting window (barometric
scale) is adjusted to 29.92. This is the altitude
above the standard datum plane, which is a
theoretical plane where air pressure (corrected
to 15°C) equals 29.92 in. Hg. Pressure
altitude is used to compute density altitude,
true altitude, true airspeed, and other
performance data.
Density Altitude—This altitude is
pressure altitude corrected for
variations from standard
temperature.
What is true altitude?
A) The vertical distance of
the aircraft above sea level.
B) The height above the
standard datum plane.
C) The vertical distance of
the aircraft above the surface.
What is absolute altitude?
A) The height above the
standard datum plane.
B) The altitude read
directly from the altimeter.
C) The vertical distance
of the aircraft above the
surface.
What is density altitude?
A) The altitude read
directly from the altimeter.
B) The height above the
standard datum plane.
C) The pressure altitude
corrected for nonstandard
temperature.
What is pressure altitude?
A) The indicated altitude
corrected for position and
installation error.
B) The indicated altitude
corrected for nonstandard
temperature and pressure.
C) The altitude indicated
when the barometric pressure
scale is set to 29.92.
When conditions are standard,
pressure altitude and density
altitude are the same.
If the temperature is above
standard, the density altitude is
higher than pressure altitude.
If the temperature is below
standard, the density altitude is
lower than pressure altitude. This
is an important altitude because it
is directly related to the airplane’s
performance.
Under what condition is
indicated altitude the same as
true altitude?
A) When at sea level under
standard conditions.
B) If the altimeter has no
mechanical error.
C) When at 18,000 feet MSL
with the altimeter set at
29.92.
How do variations in temperature
affect the altimeter?
A) Higher temperatures expand
the pressure levels and the
indicated altitude is higher than
true altitude.
B) Pressure levels are raised
on warm days and the indicated
altitude is lower than true
altitude.
C) Lower temperatures lower
the pressure levels and the
indicated altitude is lower than
true altitude.
How do variations in temperature
affect the altimeter?
Your answer:
B) Pressure levels are raised on
warm days and the indicated altitude
is lower than true altitude.
VSI
VSI
• • Trend information shows an
immediate indication of an
increase or decrease in the
airplane’s rate of climb or
descent.
• • Rate information shows a
stabilized rate of change in
altitude
Pitot Static Errors
• Ram Air Inlet & Drainhole
Blocked
• Air Speed Indicator acts like an Altimeter
Pitot Static Errors
• Ram Air Blocked, Drain Open
No Differential, Airspeed 0
Pitot Static Errors
• Static Blocked, Pitot Open
• AS backwards, Altimeter constant, VSI = 0
If the pitot tube and outside static
vents become clogged, which
instruments would be affected?
A) The altimeter, airspeed
indicator, and vertical speed
indicator.
B) The altimeter, airspeed
indicator, and turn-and-slip
indicator.
C) The altimeter, attitude
indicator, and turn-and-slip
indicator.
Pneumatic Systems:
Attitude and DG
Attitude Indicator
• Gyro Spins at 18,000 - 21,000 RPMS
Attitude Indicator
• Rigidity in Space
• Airplane Turns, Gyro Stays Rigid
RIGIDITY IN SPACE—The
principle that a wheel with a
heavily weighted rim spun rapidly
will remain in a fixed position in
the plane in which it is spinning.
Attitude Indicator
• Errors and Limitations
Attitude Indicator
• Old - 100-110° Bank, 60-70°
Pitch
• New - 360° Bank, 80° Pitch
Tumble
> 5° after 5 minutes
Attitude Indicator
•
•
•
•
•
•
Friction - wear
Suction - Too much, not enough, unreliable
Skid Turn - Shows Opposite Direction
180° Turn - Climb and Opposite direction
Acceleration - Climb
Deceleration - Descent
(Refer to figure 7.) The proper adjustment to
make on the attitude indicator during level
flight is to align the
A)
horizon bar to the level-flight
indication.
B)
horizon bar to the miniature airplane.
C)
miniature airplane to the horizon bar.
(Refer to figure 7.) How should a pilot determine
the direction of bank from an attitude indicator
such as the one illustrated?
A)
By the direction of deflection of the
banking scale (A).
B)
By the relationship of the miniature
airplane (C) to the deflected horizon bar (B).
C)
By the direction of deflection of the
horizon bar (B).
Gyro Spins 10,000 - 18,000 RPM’s
Rigidity in Space
Limitations & Errors:
° Abnormal Flight Attitudes > 55° Pitch or Bank
• Friction
• Suction
• Unbalanced Gyro
• Reading Magnetic Compass Incorrectly
• Heading Drift > 3°/15 minutes - Precession
PRECESSION—The tilting or
turning of a gyro in response to
deflective forces causing slow
drifting and erroneous indications
in gyroscopic instruments.
measured in degrees clockwise
from the twelve o’clock position
of the first object.
(Refer to figure 6.) To receive accurate
indications during flight from a heading
indicator, the instrument must be
A)
set prior to flight on a known
heading.
B)
calibrated on a compass rose at
regular intervals.
C)
periodically realigned with the
magnetic compass as the gyro precesses.
Turn Coordinator
Turn Coordinator
Miniature Airplane
Rate of Turn
Rate of Roll
Inclinometer
Quality of Turn
Gyro Spins at 8,000 - 10,000 RPM’s
on a Vertical Plane Around a Lateral Axis
Semi - Rigid Mounted
Springs are the Erecting Mechanism
Stops Prevent TILT > 45°
Limitations and Errors:
• Suction
• Calibration
(Springs need to be
calibrated)
(Refer to figure 5.) A turn coordinator
provides an indication of the
A)
angle of bank up to but not
exceeding 30°.
B)
attitude of the aircraft with
reference to the longitudinal axis.
C) movement of the aircraft about the
yaw and roll axis.
Basic Attitude
Instrument Flying:
Assignment:
FAR Part
1 and 91, HAK chapter
12 and 13.