SEMANTICS
LI 2013
NATHALIE F. MARTIN
Bibliography / References
Primary Reference and reading:

Contemporary Linguistic Analysis (O’Grady & Archibald,
2009, p. 190-207)
Reading:

Ambiguity in College Writing (Stageberb, Norman C., in
Linguistics at Work: A Reader of Application, by Dallin D.
Oaks, 1998)
Secondary Reference (for information only):

A Concise Introduction to Linguistics (Rowe & Levine, 2009;
153-173)
Table of Content
 Introduction: Ambiguity (review of text)
 Concept, Referent and Form
 Semantics
 Meaning
 Semantic Relations Among Words
 The –NYMS
 Meaning of Phrases and Sentences
 Meaning of Words
Through Time
Ambiguity
Review of the text:
Ambiguity in College Writing (Stageberb, Norman C., in
Linguistics at Work: A Reader of Application, by Dallin D.
Oaks, 1998)
Multiple Meanings
 ______________
 E.g. For many purposes they used obsidian or volcanic rock.
 ______________
 E.g. a fat lady’s man
 ______________
 E.g. Many hands make light work. (in given example)
 ______________
 E.g. I am an outdoor lover.

“Out-of-doors lover” … or … ?
Ambiguity in College Writing (Stageberb)
What
Ambiguity?
 Lexical ambiguity?
 Syntactic ambiguity?
 Class ambiguity?
 Script ambiguity?
What
Ambiguity?
 Lexical ambiguity?
 Syntactic ambiguity?
 Class ambiguity?
 Script ambiguity?
What
Ambiguity?
 Lexical ambiguity?
 Syntactic ambiguity?
 Class ambiguity?
 Script ambiguity?
What
Ambiguity?
 Lexical ambiguity?
 Syntactic ambiguity?
 Class ambiguity?
 Script ambiguity?
What
Ambiguity?
 Lexical ambiguity?
 Syntactic ambiguity?
 Class ambiguity?
 Script ambiguity?
What
Ambiguity?
 Lexical ambiguity?
 Syntactic ambiguity?
 Class ambiguity?
 Script ambiguity?
What
Ambiguity?
 Lexical ambiguity?
 Syntactic ambiguity?
 Class ambiguity?
 Script ambiguity?
What
Ambiguity?
 Lexical ambiguity?
 Syntactic ambiguity?
 Class ambiguity?
 Script ambiguity?
What
Ambiguity?
 Lexical ambiguity?
 Syntactic ambiguity?
 Class ambiguity?
 Script ambiguity?
Concept, Referent and Form
PRELIMINARY THEORY TO SEMANTICS
THE ABSTRACT SIDE OF LANGUAGE
Referent: the actual thing
Referent, Concept and Symbol
[bərd]
[bərd]
Qu’est-ce que le langage? (Leclerc)
Referent, Concept and Symbol
[bərd]
Ferdinand de Saussure
Qu’est-ce que le langage? (Leclerc)
Referent, Concept and Symbol
 The __________ refers to the linguistic elements
(word, sentence, etc.), the __________ refers to the
object in the world of experience, and THOUGHT or
REFERENCE refers to __________ .
Referent, Concept and Symbol
Concept
evokes
Symbol
Refers to
There is not a direct link
between the sound of the
word dog (Symbol) and
the object it refers to.
Referent
What is called the
signified is not actually
what we have been shown
but an abstract concept
formed in our mind.
Stands for
 no direct relationship
Ogden & Richards
Romeo and Juliette (Shakespeare)
• Juliet:
'Tis but thy name that is my enemy;
Thou art thyself, though not a Montague.
What's Montague? it is nor hand, nor foot,
Nor arm, nor face, nor any other part
Belonging to a man. O, be some other name!
WHAT'S IN A NAME? THAT WHICH WE CALL A ROSE
BY ANY OTHER NAME WOULD SMELL AS SWEET;
So Romeo would, were he not Romeo call'd,
Retain that dear perfection which he owes
Without that title. Romeo, doff thy name,
And for that name which is no part of thee
Take all myself
Review: The Psychic Side of Things
SYMBOL
CONCEPT
Sounds bərd]
-__________ __________ of
the sound
-« acoustique image »
(sound pattern)
-A string of phonemes (sounds)
-Psychic imprint
- We reffer to this mental imprint to
understand when someone speaks
Concept
(__________ __________ of
reality)
-Psychic
-Mental image of the referent
-Common to speakers of that
language (therefore conventional)
Ferdinand de Saussure
- Ex: covered in feathers, has a bec,
etc.
Concepts Across Languages
« WIN »
(Eng)
« GAGNER »
(Fr)
« DEVANCER »
(fr)
(to be ahead)
BEAT /
« BEATER »
(Acadian
French)
Semantics
Definition: Semantics
 Semantics is the study
of the __________ of
linguistic expressions,
such as morphemes,
words, phrases, clauses,
and sentences.
What is the Meaning of This?
 Cold
 Behind
 Old
 Accent
 Fine
 Nobody
 Cool
 This
 Fly
 Getting in
touch
CONTEXT is Key !
– Certain aspects of meaning change with the
__________ __________



Nobody bought milk (store owner vs. room mates)
X is old: “old” means different things depending on what X is
(person, food, currency, place, friend…)
Context is therefore very important!!

Semantics
 Two types of semantics:
1.
2.
__________ __________ : meaning of
words
__________ __________ : meaning of
utterances larger than words
Meaning
FIVE APPROACHES TO MEANING:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Connotation
Denotation
Extension and intention
Componential Analysis
Subcategorization of verbs
Actantial Approach
What is “word meaning”?
 What does it mean when you say you know
the meaning of a word?
 What does it mean when you say you know a
word, such as “bird” “blue”, or “happy” ?
 How do we __________ of a word meaning?
1. Connotation
« Set of associations that a word’s use can evoke »
e.g. winter


2. Denotation
According to __________ __________ …
To equate meaning to a word or phrase with actual
entities to which it refers
e.g.


* But what about __________ things that have no
referents !!!
Denotation
____ referents for one thing
the same thing
e.g. Paul Martin:


3. Extension versus intention
A word’s
corresponds to the
__________ that it __________ in the world
(__________ )
A word’s
corresponds to its
__________ __________ or the __________ that
__________ .
* The distinction stipulates the relation
between referents and meanings
4. Componential Analysis
ALSO CALLED:
COMPONENTIAL ANALYSIS
OR
SEMANTIC DECOMPOSITION
Componential Analysis
Contemporary
Linguistics
Analysis: p. 196
 Semantic properties: The __________ of
meaning of a word.
 Semantic feature: A notational device for
expressing the __________ or __________ of
semantic properties by “+” and “-”.

Example of componential analysis:
“baby” is [+ young], [+ human], [– abstract].
Componential Analysis
1. (a) widow, mother, sister, aunt, maid
(b) widower, father, brother, uncle, valet
[ human]
 The (a) and (b) words are
 The (a) words are
[ female]
 The (b) words are
[ male]
2. (a) bachelor, paperboy, pope, chief
(b) bull, rooster, drake, ram
 The (a) and (b) words are
[ male]
 The (a) words are [
human]
 The (b) words are
[ animal]
Componential Analysis
3. (a) table, stone, pencil, cup, house, ship
(b) milk, alcohol, rice, soup, mud
 The (a) words are[
count]
 The (b) words are[
count]
4. (a) pine, elm, sycamore
(b) dandelion, aster, daisy
 The (a) and (b) words are [
plant]
 The (a) words are [
tree]
 The (b) words are
[ flower]
Componential Analysis
SWINE
Definition:
 an adult female swine; also : the adult female of
various other animals (as a bear)

http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/
Semantic Analysis:
 [ animal], [ swine], [ male] or [ female]
Componential Analysis
CAR
Definition:
 A vehicle moving on wheels

http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/
Semantic Analysis:
 [ vehicle], [
motorized], [ 4 wheels] …
Componential Analysis
BUTTERFLY
Definition:
 any of numerous slender-bodied diurnal lepidopteran
insects including one superfamily (Papilionoidea) with
broad often brightly colored wings and usually another
superfamily comprising the skippers

http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/
Semantic Analysis:
 [+
], [+
], [-
]…
5. Subcategorization of verbs
2 COMPLEMENTS:
Fax
Radio
Wire
Phone
NO COMPLEMENT:
Murmur
Mumble
Mutter
Shriek
Emphasis on:
- __________ ____
Emphasis on:
- __________ ______
 So there’s a link between _________and __________!!!
6. Actantial Approach
 In defining verbs we should also describe their
__________ and the __________ :

A1 tosses A2 to A3:
 A1
= [+ human]
 A2 = [+ concrete], [+ movable], [+ small]
 A3 = [± human] or [+ living/moving], [+ with hands] …
* Again, this is a combination of _______ and _________!
Semantic Relations
Among Words
THE –NYMS:
1. HYPONYM, HYPERNYM AND
2.
3.
4.
5.
COHYPONYM
SYNONYM AND PARASYNONYMS
ANTONYMS
POLYSEMY
HOMONYM
1.
2.
3.
Homonyms
Homophone
Homographs
1. Hyponyms
(Semantic Relations among Words)
 Hyponyms and hypernyms

Hyponymy: Words whose meanings are __________ instances of a
more general word, e.g. isosceles and equilateral are hyponyms of
the word triangle.
 Hyponyms and cohyponyms
 Let’s organize these words:
 Dance (verb)
 Salsa
 Exercice
 Tango
2. Synonyms
(Semantic Relations among Words)
 Synonymy: words that have the _______
meanings, e.g. start & begin.
Synonyms or Parasynonyms?
o Vacation = holidays
o Youth = adolescent
o Remember = recall
o Purchase = buy
o Big = large
Synonyms & Parasynonyms
 Pride and Prejudice, a screenplay by Deborah
Moggach


The danger of parasynonyms and over-extension
Chapter 3 : 20 minutes into the movie
Odious
 Long
 Dote one her
 In raptures
 Accomplished 

3. Antonyms
a. GRADABLE VS UNGRADABLE
b. CONVERSE
c. REVERSIVES
Antonyms vs Synonyms
 Antonymy: words that are __________ in
meanings, e.g. hot & cold.
Synonymy or Antonymy
 Flourish – thrive
 Intelligent – stupid
 Casual – informal
 Flog – whip
 Drunk – sober
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
synonym
antonym
synonym
synonym
antonym
a. Gradable/ungradable antonyms
 Grading involves __________ . When we compare two or
more objects.
 Do the objects have the property to the same ______or not:
… cold
cool
warm
+
hot …
Gradable: “colder”
 The weather is much colder this week than last week.
Ungradable: “male”
 ‫٭‬John is as much male as Peter.
 ‫٭‬John is more male than Peter.
a. Gradable/ungradable antonyms (continued)
Exception:
 Normal language behavior: ungradable antonyms can
sometimes be graded in speech. The reasons for it are
pragmatic.
Example
 John is more of a bachelor than Daniel (i.e. more
determined never to get married, partying, had never
had a stable girlfriend, etc.)
 I am more alive now than ever (i.e. feeling more
energetic, satisfied with my life, etc).
b. Conversives
 There is a __________ ___ between both
 Without one you don’t have the other:


Examples:
o Husband – wife
o Doctor – patient
o Master – mistress
o Before - after
o Above – below, etc.
Often used to speak of __________ social roles,
__________ and __________ relations.
c. Reversives
 Another term: __________ __________ .
Examples of directional opposites include:
Examples:
o Up - down
o Come - go
o Arrive – depart
 Common feature: implication of _________in one of the
two opposite directions __________ __________ .
Antonyms (review)
 Gradable vs Ungradable?
 Converse?
 Reversives?
4. Polysemy
Semantic Relations among Words
 Polysemy: A word which has ___or more
__________ meanings

e.g. bright: ‘bright light’ ; ‘bright colors’
5. Homonymy
Semantic Relations among Words
 Homonymy: A word which has ________or more
__________ __________ meanings

e.g. club: ‘a social organization’ ; ‘a blunt weapon’.
Identifying Homonyms in Jokes
1. Time flies _____an arrow
Fruit flies _____ a banana
2. Policeman: Why have you parked your car here?
Motorist: Because the sign says “
for
Parking”.
3. Customer: Have you got half-inch
?
Ironmonger: Yes, sir.
Customer: Then could you scratch my back. It’s
very itchy
Homonymy or Polysemy ?
Homonymy or
Polysemy ?
Polysemy & Homonymy ?
Homonyms, Homophony & Homography
 Homophony: Different words ______________
but ____________________ , e.g. two and too.
 Homography: Different words __________ but
__________________ e.g. minute and minute.
Homonyms are words that are
and homographs.
homophones
Identifying homophones
1. [steər] 
1. Stair, stare
2. [weist] 
2. waste, waist
3. [si:lIη] 
3. sealing, ceiling
4. [kju:] 
4. cue, queue
5. [sent] 
5. sent, cent, scent
Identifying Homographs
1.Read
2.Wind
3.Live
4.Tear
5.Invalid
6.Bow
7.Dove
Semantic Relations:
Phrases and Sentences
STRUCTURAL SEMANTICS:
• CONTRADICTIONS
• OXYMORONS
• ANOMALOUS UTTERANCES
• METAPHORS
• IDIOMS
• ETC.
Paraphrase
 Paraphrase: __________ that can have the
_____ meaning.
a. The police chased the burglar &
The burglar was chased by the police.
b. Paul bought a car from Sue &
Sue sold a car to Paul
Entailment
 Entailment: a relation in which the
sentence necessarily
the
 Examples of asymmetrical entailment.
a. The park wardens killed the tiger.
& The tiger is dead.
b. Robin is a man
& Robin is human
of one
of another.
Contradiction
 Contradiction: When two sentences __________
__________ .
a. Charles is a bachelor.
b. Charles is married.
Metaphor and Metonymy
 All the world's a stage,
And all the men and women merely players
They have their exits and their entrances
 The White House said ...
 The pen is mightier than the sword
Metaphor: The understanding of one
concept __________ of another
Happy or Sad?
1. I’m feeling up
Happy
2. Her spirits sank
Sad
3. That boosted my spirits
Happy
4. The height of ecstacy
Happy
5. The depths of misery
Sad
6. He fell into a depression
Sad

Emotions: Happy is Up; Sad is down
Synecdoche, Allegory, Hyperbole
 Synecdoche
 Part for whole:


Whole for part:


the police, the Pentagon
Species for genus:


head for cattle
kleenex
Genus for species:

PC
Idioms
Two central features of idioms:
1. The meaning of the idiomatic
expression cannot be deduced by the
examining the ________________ .
2. The expression is
both
grammatically and lexically.
For example:
Put a sock in it = ‘stop talking’
Can you identify the meanings
of the following idioms?
1.
Ring a bell.
It sounds familiar to you / You have heard it before
2. By word of mouth.
In a spoken form.
3. On the house.
Free for the customers.
4. Hot spot
a. A place of political danger.
b. A lively nightclub.
c. An area on the screen which can be clicked on
to start an operation such as loading a file.
d. An area where you can get connected to the
Internet through a wireless network.
Cross-Cultural Misunderstanding of Idioms
 Can’t translate from language to another:
 « Foot in your mouth » vs. « Doigt dans l’œil »
 Sometimes leads to misunderstanding:
Compound Words
 Compound words are treated as having one
__________ and is not necessarily the adding
together of the two individual meanings of the two
words.

Ex:
« High chair »
 « tooth brush »


Meaning of Words
Through Time
Neologism (or Coinage)
Neologism (or
 Using derivation:
Coinage)
Evolution of Meaning
 Language Changes a lot, not just in adding new
words here and there, but also as the meaning of
these words change with time.
o
o
« Cool » used to mean « not warm/cold ». Then the meaning changed.
Now, « cool », is not really that « cool » anymore !
Evolution of Extension
BARRER (Acadian French):
- Blocked river
- Block road
- Block door (locked)
 This is how you get __________ 
Evolution of Extension 