Public Policy - Hackettstown School District
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Public Policy Public policy is the result of interactions and dynamics among actors, interests, institutions and processes. The formation of policy agendas, the enactment of policies by Congress and the president, and the implementation and interpretation of policies by the bureaucracy and the courts are all stages in the policy process. Students should also investigate policy networks and issue networks in the domestic and foreign policy areas. the study of these will give students a clear understanding of the impact of federalism, interest groups, parties, and elections on policy processes and policymaking. Students should be familiar with major public policies. Vocabulary Public Policy: Governmental plan of action designed to address a problem Difficult to implement and evaluate Rarely solves problem completely Political Agenda: Issues that people believe require government action Shaped by popular attitudes, elite interests, media, critical events, & government actions Actors : groups, institutions, & media Legitimacy: what the people believe is proper for government to do Role of gov’t has grown over time under both parties Policymaking :formation of public policy Status quo is most likely outcome of any policymaking attempt Limited by power of actors involved Limited by economic reality Policymaking Steps 1. Agenda-Setting 2. Policy Formulation 3. Policy Adoption 4. Policy Implementation 5. Policy Evaluation 1. Agenda-Setting Problems are recognized and characterized Spurred lobbying media by a crisis group campaign Politician technological change Policy Problems – why are some problems acted on and others neglected? Defined not just by the problem itself, but the objective Tractability – how difficult will the problem be to fix? 2. Policy Formulation Proposals are discussed among government officials & the public Many solutions debated Almost always stalls here 3. Policy Adoption Official acceptance of policy Specific strategy is chosen Often takes form of legislation Very unlikely! Support dependent on: Resources of involved parties Strength of belief Positions held by supporters Actions of policy proponents (grassroots, media, etc.) 4. Policy Implementation Gov’t action taken by bureaucracy, courts, police, & individuals to put the policy into place Usually only partly successful Legislative policy goals are difficult for bureaucracy to carry out 5. Policy Evaluation Studies conducted to assess success or failure of policy Congressional oversight Areas of focus Effectiveness Negative or unintended effects Necessary changes Costs vs. Benefits Costs: any burden that people bear from a policy Benefits: any satisfaction people expect to receive from policy Remember: it is the perception of costs & benefits that affect politics People debate if it is legitimate for a group to benefit from a policy Classification Distributed Costs Concentrated Costs Distributed Benefits Majoritarian Politics Entrepreneurial Politics Concentrated Benefits Client Politics Interest Group Politics Cost-Benefit Classification Majoritarian Politics Many benefits, many pay Debate is public & ideological Social Security, military, cancer research Entrepreneurial Politics Many benefit, targeted group pays Promoted by lobbyists Environmental protection Client Politics Targeted group benefits, many pay “clients” organize for benefits Farm subsidies, welfare Interest Group Politics Small group gains at others’ expense Labor unions vs. business firms Questions Why are some issues addressed by public policy while others are not? Who sets the political agenda? Why do most policies stall at the formation stage? Why are Social Security payments to the elderly popular while payments to unwed mothers are unpopular? Does the fact that policies are rarely adopted suggest an inherent conservatism or inefficiency in government? Current Areas of Concern Healthcare Rising Costs – US pays more of its GDP towards healthcare than many other nations Expensive diagnostic testing inflation Medicare & Medicaid Uninsured Environmental Policy Pollution Emissions Caps Transformed over time from conservation to preservation to pollution Media brings attention to the problem Energy Policy How much energy is needed & used Environment Nuclear power Alternative approaches Poverty & Welfare Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) Supplemental Security Income (SSI) Food Stamps Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) Welfare controversial Anti-work Anti-marriage Current Areas of Concern Immigration Effect on present & future society – positive or negative? 1M immigrate to US annually Illegal immigrants use public services without contributing (public education, emergency rooms, etc.) raising their costs Fence? Crime Lower than other countries, but still a problem Juvenile crime – lowering (tried as adults, curfews, detention centers) School shootings Prison population Incarceration rate Drug policy terrorism Policymaking in the Federal System Public Policymaking in the US Fundamentally shaped by federalism Division of authority & responsibility affects development of public policy Bureaucrats and government officials at different levels have diff. interests & ideas of how particular policies should be developed & implemented Two dimensions helpful to understanding: Constitutional Dimension Financial Dimension Constitutional Dimension Structures & practices of American federalism are in the constitution Focuses primarily on structure & authority of national government Enumerated powers Clauses raise possibility that national government might engage in activities beyond enumerated powers Necessary & proper General welfare Interstate commerce Equal protection of the laws State governments are NOT given specific powers or responsibilities Reserved powers Supports limited role of national government Each state also has its own constitution describing structure & roles within its government Financial Dimension Financial spending pattern in policy areas Complicated by intergovernmental transfer of money between levels of government Chart Questions: Total Expenditure Social Security & Pensions Healthcare Education Welfare $840B $906B $859B $498B What level of government has the most influence over education? Level of Gov’t National 79% 44% 2% 57% What level of government has the most influence in Social Security? State 17% 43% 28% 26% Local 4% 13% 70% 17% How does state and federal funding affect welfare? Policymaking in a Federal System All 3 levels of government play some role in policy process Creates high degree of interdependence Sometimes cooperative Also competitive & conflictual Fosters debate & tension among government officials Develop strategies to ‘work the system’ Grantsmanship Extension: Education or Healthcare Explain how federalism shapes this policy area. Evaluate the role of federalism in this policy area. Policy Networks Policy Networks Definition: clusters of actors, each with a stake in given policy & capacity to help determine success or failure Modern democratic governance occurs only rarely via traditional hierarchies or pure ‘markets’ Instead, policy is made via some hybrid arrangement involving a variety of actors Some private, non-governmental institutions Includes issue networks and iron triangles Issue Networks Definition: policy-making alliance among loosely connected participants that comes together on a particular issue, then disbands Approximates how policy is made on high-profile issues Assumes that the issue has been brought to the attention of the public & that policy-formulation is already taking place in the public forum Roles: Mass media is the ‘gatekeeper’ of public agenda Interest groups always in search of favorable policy & influence public perceptions of the issue using the media Policy experts (think tanks) conduct studies on policy alternatives Congressional committees actually draft details of legislation, reacting to the media, interest groups, & experts Bureaucratic agencies have to implement the policy, maintaining confidence of the public and Congress (oversight) Interest Groups Mass Media Bureaucratic Agency Congressional Committees Policy Experts Iron Triangles Emphasizes mutually beneficial roles played by interest groups, congressional committees, and bureaucratic agencies in formulating & implementing policy Each influences & is influenced by the others Roles Interest groups lobby Congress Congress provides interest groups with friendly legislation Congress pressures bureaucrats to implement policy in a way interest groups favor (oversight) Congress’s budget decisions impact bureaucratic agencies & persuade them to do their job a certain way Bureaucrats choose to execute policy in a way favorable to Congress Interest groups lobby bureaucrats Bureaucrats implement policies in a way to please interest groups, keeping them & Congress happy Noticeably absent: president’s role [term limit makes presidents somewhat transient + job focuses primarily on the big picture, not minute details of individual policy] Congressional Committees Interest Groups Bureaucratic Agencies The Policymaking Process : Examined Agenda-Setting Limited resources & time = choosy about what problems to act on Problems converted into issues Two agendas Systemic (discussion): issue has attention of the public Powerful groups agree it is a concern Groups involved have jurisdiction over the issue Institutional (action): government is prepared to intervene What agency… What actions… Clues found in presidential addresses & things in the media Agenda-Setting Process Multiple Streams Approach 3 mostly independent streams occasionally come together (problems, proposals, & policies) Opens a policy window allowing the issue to come onto the agenda Alternative View Agenda-building is competitive Interest groups try to maintain equilibrium & react if threatened Other factors Political leadership Presidential agenda Electoral benefits Historical achievement Concepts of good policy Policy entrepreneurs Supreme court Protest activity Media attention Formulation of Policy Proposals Development of proposed courses of action for dealing with public problems Typically incremental in nature Actors President & Advisors Government Agencies Presidential Organizations Legislators Interest Groups Universities Citizen Organizations 2 activities involved Decisions on what (if anything) should be done Adoption of legislation or rules Institutional Limits on Policy Formulation Constitutional Limits Separation of powers Federalism Bicameralism Checks & balances Existing Policy Relationships Drive for predictability Networks of contacts & interactions Change is possible – normally incrementally Extension Choose one article: How is this article related to what you’ve learned about policy agendas? What problems are evident in the formation of policy in the article? What do you propose the government do to fix the problem? Foreign Policy & Defense Spending Foreign Policy Carefully weigh costs & benefits in domestic and international spheres Takes many forms Use of force Military alliances Treaties Nuclear test ban treaty Strategic arms limitation agreement International trade Foreign aid Reflect interest group politics Tariff decisions Client politics Aid to corporations doing business abroad Policy toward Israel Military-Industrial Complex = alleged alliance between military & corporate leaders Shapes defense budget The President & Foreign Policy American public instinctively feels president is in charge of foreign affairs – but Congress really is! Constitutional Roles – shared war powers President can send troops, but Congress declares war President negotiates treaties, but Congress ratifies them President can make executive agreements without Congress President wins more when asking for congressional support on foreign matters than domestic Checks on power: War Powers Act Intelligence Oversight CIA supposed to report to House & Senate Intelligence Committees about covet action Office of the Diector of National Intelligence (created post-9/11) coordinates FBI, CIA, Defense Intelligence Agency, & intel. Units of other gov’t agencies Who creates foreign policy? Often made & almost always carried out by Secretary of State from Jefferson to the 20 Commitments overseas increased after WWII President put foreign policy at top of agenda Larger role directing it Policy shaped by scores of agencies with overseas activity Today Defense Dept. CIA Dept. of Agriculture, Commerce, Labor – all have missions abroad FBI DEA Agency for International Development US Information Agency – runs libraries & educational programs abroad National Security Council – committee that coordinates foreign policy Sect. of State Today Still always promise to coordinate & direct foreign policy – but cannot Job is too big for one person Agencies owe no political or bureaucratic loyalty to secretary of state th century – but no more! Machinery Affects Substance of Policy Issues are endlessly agitated & rarely settled Rivalries within exec. branch intensify rivalry between executive & Congress Congress has steadily increased influence over foreign policy Interests of organizations affect positions they take State Dept. likes diplomacy, so it resists bold or controversial new policies CIA has stake in gathering information, making it skeptical of other agencies’ claims of success abroad Air force optimistic about military operations, while army has more doubts Public Opinion Broad outlines of foreign policy are shaped by public & elite opinion Public poorly informed in most cases, but want US to play active role internationally Political elites are better informed, but opinions change more rapidly Generally, leaders have more liberal & internationalist outlook than the public “Rally around the flag” in times of trouble People are less leery of overseas military expeditions until they start 4 Worldviews Worldview = opinion on how the US should respond to world problems Isolationism = US should withdraw from foreign affairs Response to WWI Led to rise of dictators & WWII Ended with attack on Pearl Harbor Containment = US should resist expansion of aggressive nations Cold War mentality Rationale for intervention in Korea & Vietnam Disengagement = US was harmed by Vietnam, so they should avoid supposedly similar events Resulted from experience of younger foreign policy elite that rose in 1970s Vietnam led to military defeat & domestic political disaster “No more Vietnams” Critics called it “New Isolationism” Affected foreign policy for decades Carter (reluctant for military intervention) Reagan (containment) Bush (involved in Kuwait, stirring controversy) Clinton (lack of interest in foreign policy) Human Rights = try to improve lives of people in other countries Began in early 1990s – Kosovo (Serbian leader Slobodan Milosevic sent troops to suppress ethnic Albanians in Kosovo) Generally supported by liberals, while conservatives prefer disengagement in these instances Extension What Would You Do? Activity [textbook p.550] 6 American hostages held in Middle East for 2 years now Undergoing torture Policy is not to negotiate with terrorists Criticism heard by hostage families & their sympathizers Terrorist groups demand US end its support of Israel Your Options Maintain “no negotiations” policy, but use quiet diplomacy with friendly nations in the region Secretly exchange arms for the release of Americans Use military units to find & free the hostages
