How did Yuan Shikai betray
the Chinese Republic?
L/O – To examine how Yuan Shikai undermined the
Republican system
Yuan Shikai (1859-1916)
• Yuan Shikai was a leading Qing general who
is famous for single-handedly bringing about
the end of the Qing Dynasty.
• In 1912 he became President of the new
Republic of China. However he also betrayed
the Republic, destroyed the Parliament and
Constitution and even attempted to have
himself crowned emperor!
• With his death in 1916, he left behind a
weak government and a divided China, ruled
by competing groups of warlords. It would
take until 1927 before China would be
united again.
Early Career
• Yuan was a protégé of the Qing reformer, Li
Hongzhang. He was an able military leader
and commanded troops from 1884.
• From 1885-1894 he was appointed as
China’s top official in Korea, working to
influence King Kojong. After the SinoJapanese War, he was entrusted by Cixi to
lead the first ‘New Army’ – a modern
fighting force.
• This ‘Beiyang Army’ was well-trained,
disciplined and well-equipped. The Qing
Dynasty was reliant on Yuan and his armies,
placing him in a very powerful position in
Court politics.
Early Career
• During the 1898 ‘Hundred Day Reforms’,
Yuan sided with Cixi and worked to suppress
the reforms, betraying Emperor Guangxu.
• However during the Boxer Rebellion, Yuan
refused to use his Beiyang Army to attack
the foreigners. After the rebellion he was
appointed Governor of Zhili and gained
other government posts.
• By 1911, Yuan Shikai was one of the most
powerful officials in China. But would he
support the revolution? And could he be
trusted?
Role in the Revolution
• After the 10/10 Revolution in Wuchang in
1911, the Qing Court begged Yuan Shikai
to lead the attack on the revolutionaries.
• They offered to appoint him as GovernorGeneral of Hubei and Hunan provinces.
Sensing his key position, he refused!
Instead, he demanded:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Inauguration of a National Assembly;
Organisation of a ‘responsible cabinet’;
Pardon for the Revolutionaries;
Lifting the ban on parties;
Full power over the armed forces;
Guarantee of military funds.
Role in the Revolution
• Prince Chun (the regent) had no choice
but to agree and appointed him Imperial
Commissioner in full charge of the Army
and Navy. He still refused!
• On 1st November, the Court made Yuan
Premier, finally coming out of retirement.
At this point, Yuan began negotiating
with the Revolutionaries as well.
• However talks broke off when Sun Yatsen was elected by the revolutionaries as
‘Provisional President’ on 29th December
1911.
Role in the Revolution
• In Jan 1912, he declared to Sun that he
would force the abdication of the Court if
the presidency was offered to him.
• Sun Yat-sen had no choice but to agree.
Yuan controlled the most powerful
armies in China. On 12th February 1912,
the abdication of the Imperial Court was
announced.
• On 13th February, Sun resigned as
provisional president. On 14th Feb, the
provisional parliament elected Yuan as
provisional president.
Role in the Revolution
• On his inauguration on 10th March 1912, Yuan
Shikai promised to uphold the provisional
constitution and the new Republic.
• Sun Yat-sen was disappointed. His ‘three
principles of the people’ had been neglected.
People were anxious to compromise with
Yuan to achieve peace. Sun was seen as an
impractical idealist.
• Nationalism had been achieved yet many
failed to see the need for ‘democratic
reconstruction’ or building the ‘people’s
livelihood’.
Yuan’s Betrayal of the Republic
• On becoming provisional president, Yuan began to
consolidate his power, dissolving the new republic and even
attempting to establish a new dynasty. This proceeded in
three stages:
• Stage 1 – Yuan began consolidating his position by
appointing supporters and outmanoeuvring the
revolutionaries.
• Stage 2 – Moved to dissolve the structures of the republican
government including the parliament and constitution.
• Stage 3 – Having created a virtual dictatorship, Yuan
attempted to crown himself as emperor.
Stage 1: Establishing his Power
• In his new provisional ‘cabinet’, Yuan gave the
important jobs like foreign Affairs & war to his
henchmen.
• Next, Yuan forcibly disbanded Tongmenhui
troops in Nanjing without the Premier’s
countersignature, required by the Constitution.
• On 16th June 1912, Premier T’ang Shao-i
resigned in protest along with the four
Tongmenhui cabinet ministers.
• He appointed his friend, Chao Ping-Chun, as
premier on 24th Sep 1912. He now had control
over the executive branch of government.
Stage 1: Establishing his Power
• In December 1912, elections for the new
parliament were won by the newly formed
‘Kuomintang’ (Nationalist Party). The KMT was
led by Sun Yat-sen and formed by the merger
of the Tongmenhui and four other parties.
• It won 269/596 seats in the lower house and
123/274 in the upper house. This meant its
popular leader, Sung Chiao-jen, would become
the new premier.
• However on 20th March 1913, Sung was
assassinated at Shanghai railway station on his
way to take up the post! Yuan was blamed but
the assassin mysterious died in prison.
Stage 1: Establishing his Power
• By early 1913, it was clear that Yuan Shikai was
trying to usurp power. A divide was growing
between Yuan and the revolutionaries.
• In April 1913, Yuan negotiated a foreign loan of
$25 million without the approval of
Parliament. In return, Parliament impeached
the government. Yuan responded by
dismissing KMT military governors throughout
southern China.
• On 12th July 1913, Kiangsi and six other
provinces then declared independence and a
‘second revolution’. It was quickly crushed by
Yuan, whose warlords took control of these
provinces.
Stage 2: Destroying the Republic
• With his power secure as provisional
president, Yuan now worked to destroy the
Republican system.
• On 5th October 1913, he urged parliament
to rush through presidential elections,
issuing a Presidential Election Law. The
Constitution had not even been
promulgated yet!
• The vote the next day was disrupted by
Yuan’s troops in disguise who yelled, ‘If you
do not elect the president we want, do not
expect to leave.’
Stage 2: Destroying the Republic
• Despite this, it took three votes in parliament
to elect Yuan, who was formally inaugurated as
President on 10th October 1913.
• In response, parliament tried to promulgate
the Tientan Constitution on 31st October. This
attempted to strip away power from the
presidency by creating a cabinet-style
government. Yuan was incensed!
• Yuan now sought to destroy parliament. On 4th
November he dissolved the KMT, revoking the
credentials of 358 MPs. By January 1914, the
National Assembly couldn’t operate due to a
lack of parliamentarians so he dissolved it!
Stage 2: Destroying the Republic
• Yuan had now formed a virtual dictatorship.
He now sought to extend his tenure as
President. He called a national conference
to revise the 1912 provisional constitution.
• The result was a new ‘constitution
compact’ promulgated on 1st May 1914. It
extended the presidential term to ten
years, renewable by re-election without
limit!
• The president also had the right to
nominate a successor. He now had the
power of an emperor but without title!
Stage 3: Becoming Emperor
• Yuan’s ambitions didn’t stop there. By
1915, he was prepared to create a new
dynasty.
• First he tried to gain foreign support by
agreeing to the Japanese ’21-Demands’ in
January 1915. This extended Japanese
control of the economy. People protested
yet he pressed ahead regardless.
• On 21st August, a ‘Peace-Planning Society’
was created to organise support for Yuan as
emperor.
The 21-Demands – January 1915
Group 1 – Japan to have control of Shandong Province and its economy
Group 2 – Japan to be given economic influence over Manchuria and East Mongolia,
including all railways and the city of Port Arthur (Lushan).
Group 3 – Japan to be given control over the Hanyeping Mining Complex
Group 4 – China is not permitted to cede land to any foreign power apart from Japan
Group 5 – Japan to be given influence over all important political, military and financial
decisions, Japanese workers to be employed in the Chinese Police Force
Stage 3: Becoming Emperor
• On 20th November, the National People’s
Representative Assembly voted for
monarchy. Representatives of the provinces
also began ‘petitioning’ Yuan to be
emperor.
• On 12th December, Yuan finally agreed to
their demands. The following day, he
decreed that 1916 would be the start of his
new reign as the ‘Hongxian’ emperor.
• His reign would be called the ‘Glorious
Constitution’ or Hung-hsien.
Stage 3: Becoming Emperor
• However Yuan had overestimated his
support. Even his close supporters and
generals were disgusted by his attempt to
bring back monarchy.
• The provinces began to rebel. A ‘National
Protection Army’ was formed in Yunnan to
fight Yuan, led by Liang Ch’i-ch’ao. Yunnan
declared independence on 25th December.
• Other southern provinces and warlords
followed and Yuan was forced to delay his
enthronement scheduled for 1st January
1916.
Final Defeat
• Under intense pressure, Yuan was forced to
give up his attempt to become emperor on
22nd March 1916.
• This wasn’t enough for many provinces. By
May 1916, Yunnan, Kweichow, Kwangsi,
Kwanghung, Chekiang, Shensi, Szechwan and
Hunan had all declared independence. Even
Japan declared supported for both north and
south China.
• On 1st August 1916, Yuan suddenly died, aged
56 of uremia. He had been deserted by his
closest followers and shamed in the eyes of
the people.
Reasons for the failure of Yuan Shikai
1. Provincialism of the Gentry - Local gentry feared that a
restored monarchy would successful centralise power again,
harming their own interests and independence.
2. Military Followers – Yuan’s generals made use of him to gain
power for themselves in their local areas. Restoring the
monarchy threatened their newly won power.
3. Strength of Republicanism – The idea of a republic had
become embedded amongst intellectuals. Restoring the
monarchy was seen as a backward step.
4. 21-Demands – By accepting the 21-Demands, Yuan’s
popularity and credibility was serious damaged.
Legacy of Yuan’s Rule
1. After Yuan’s death, the old parliament was re-established in
August 1916, and the original 1912 constitution was followed
again.
2. Some intellectuals became disillusioned with republicanism
and monarchy, turning to new ideas like communism.
3. However Yuan had significantly weakened the power of the
central government. China was divided. His old generals who
he relied upon to rule, began to dominate the provinces,
ignoring Beijing. This led to the warlord period until 1927.
4. Social and economic reforms had been neglected by Yuan,
which weakened China and encouraged more aggressive
demands from Japan.
Paper 3 - Exam Question 1 (2011)
• In what ways, and with what consequences, did Yuan
Shikai betray the 1912 Chinese Republic? (20 marks)
This question covers the early period of the Chinese Republic following its establishment in 1912 after the 1911
“Double Ten” Nationalist Revolution and also the legacy left by Yuan Shikai (Yuan Shih-k’ai) after his death in 1916.
Politically, the Nationalist Revolution and the new Chinese Republic were hijacked by Yuan Shikai (Yuan Shih-k’ai).
Candidates may examine the career of Yuan Shikai (Yuan Shih-k’ai): his betrayal of Guangxu (Kuang-hsu) in the
Hundred Days Reform; his allegiances during the Boxer Rebellion; why he supported the 1911 Nationalist Revolution;
the reasons why Sun Yixian (Sun Yat-sen) gave the presidency of the Chinese Republic to him in 1912. Yuan’s actions
showed that he had no loyalty to either the Qing (Ch’ing) or the new Republic. Problems that beset his government
include: the creation of the Guomindang (Kuomintang) which won a landslide election in 1913; when Yuan borrowed
money from foreign sources the National Assembly attempted to impeach him; he crushed the opposition violently;
and party politics failed. In November 1913 Yuan outlawed the Guomindang (Kuomintang) and Sun had to flee the
country. In 1914 he dissolved the National Assembly and provincial assemblies and created a Council of State and he
became a dictator. Yuan tried to make himself Emperor in 1915, but was thwarted by his own army officers and unrest
in various provinces. By the time he died in 1916 the power of the central government had been seriously weakened.
His example undoubtedly encouraged other military commanders to use their armies to establish control over
whatever regions they could and between 1917 and 1927 warlordism spread throughout China. Other factors that
may also be mentioned include: the way Yuan’s government gave in to Japan’s 21 Demands in 1915; after his death
the humiliation for China of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 and the political and social unrest that followed.
If only “ways” or “consequences” are addressed, mark out of a maximum of [12 marks].
Paper 3 - Exam Question 2 (2007)
• In what ways, and to what extent, was Yuan Shikai
responsible for the rise of warlordism in China in the
twentieth century? (20 marks)
Candidates will need to define “warlordism” and to recognise that its roots may be traced to the
decline of the authority of the Qing (Ch’ing) central government and the rise of provincial leaders in
the second half of the nineteenth century. Yuan Shikai was himself a protégé of Li Hongzhang
(Li Hung-chang), who had remained governor-general of Chihli province for 25 years. Yuan’s actions
during 1911–1916 showed that he had no loyalty to either the Qing or the new Republic. Yuan failed
to become emperor, but his example undoubtedly encouraged other military commanders to use
their armies to establish control over whatever regions they could and then to expand if possible to
control all China.
[0 to 7 marks] for an account of Yuan’s career.
[8 to 10 marks] for awareness of the connection between Yuan and warlordism.
[11 to 13 marks] for a simple analysis of warlordism that draws parallels between Yuan and later
warlords and recognises that the antecedents of warlordism lay in the nineteenth century.
[14 to 16 marks] for a more detailed and balanced analysis of warlordism, its causes and precedents
and Yuan’s role in its twentieth century development.
[17+ marks] for a well-balanced, detailed and sophisticated analysis.