A sentence fragment is an incomplete
sentence.
A sentence must include at least one
subject and verb and must form a
complete thought. If it does not, then it is
a fragment!
The neighbor’s cat.
Was grumpy.
Because I like to swim.
1. Interest in building a canal across the
Isthmus of Panama.
2. The usefulness of such a canal for sea trade.
3. Now that the United States was a power in
both the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific
Ocean.
4. What is now Panama was a northern
province of Colombia.
5. When the Colombian legislature refused to
ratify a treaty.
6. Giving the United States the right to build
and manage a canal.
7. Panama granted the U.S. a lease in return for
$10 million and a yearly fee of $250,000.
8. The completion of the canal in 1914 was a
major triumph.
1.
SF
2.
SF
3.
SF
4.
S
5.
SF
6.
SF
7.
S
8.
S
 Simple Sentence= independent clause
 One subject and one verb
 Compound Sentence = two or more simple
sentences (independent clauses)
 You form compound sentences by combining two
independent clauses with a coordinating
conjunction preceded by a comma.
 European immigrants arrived at Ellis Island.
 European immigrants arrived at Ellis Island, but
Asian immigrants arrived at Angel island.
 A comma alone cannot connect two independent
clauses!
 And
 But
 Or
 For
 Nor
 So
 Yet
Coordinating conjunctions show the
relationship between two ideas.
 It always goes BEFORE the conjunction!
 We can stand in line all night, or we can go home now.
 But remember, only use a comma if it connects two
COMPLETE INDEPENDENT CLASUES!
 Incorrect: We can stand in line all night, or go home now.
 Correct: We can stand in line all night or go home now.
You can also join two simple
sentences with a semicolon (;)
The train went by very quickly; I could
barely read where it was from.
 When you use a transitional word or phrase to
join two sentences, a semi-colon always goes before
the transitional word or phrase, and a comma
always comes after it.
 Example: Some college students receive grants;
however, others must take out student loans.
 Example: He had a miserable time at the party; in
addition, he lost his wallet.
 Also
 Moreover
 Besides
 Nevertheless
 Consequently
 Now
 Eventually
 Otherwise
 Finally
 Still
 Furthermore
 Subsequently
 However
 Then
 Instead
 Therefore
 Later
 Thus
 Meanwhile
 After all
 In comparison
 As a result
 In contrast
 At the same time
 In fact
 For example
 In other words
 For instance
 Of course
 In addition
 On the contrary
Dependent clauses
Subordinating clauses or
Relative pronouns
An independent clause can stand alone as a
sentence.
However, a dependent clause cannot stand
alone as a sentence.
When you add the dependent clause to the
independent clause, the result is a complex
sentence.
 Because the art exhibit was controversial, many
people came to see the paintings.
 The part that is italicized is the independent clause,
the rest is the dependent clause (it can not stand on
it’s own, it is a fragment).
Example: The American diner began as a covered horsedrawn lunch wagon. IC
1. When lunch wagons added stools and counters in the
late 1800’s.
2. Some expanded lunch wagons had fancy woodwork and
glass.
3. Because of laws that restricted operating hours.
4. Lunch wagon operators started opening diners.
5. The name diner came from railroad dining cars.
6. Because some diners were converted railroad cars.
7. Diners added bathrooms, booths, and landscaping in the
1920’s.
8. Even though many diners moves from cities to suburbs
after WWII.
9. Diners later competed with fast-food restaurants by adding brick walls and
shingled roofs.
10. Who by the 1980’s made railroad-style diners popular again in the United States
and Europe.
IC
2.
DC
3.
IC
4.
DC
5.
DC
6.
IC
7.
DC
8.
IC
9.
IC
10. DC
1.
 Subordinate means to be lower in rank of position;
secondary in importance.
 One way to form a complex sentence is to use a
subordinating conjunction- a word like although
or because- to join two simple sentences
(independent clauses).
 Independent clause contains the more important
idea.
Although Muhammad Ali was stripped of
his heavyweight title for refusing to go
into the army, many people admired his
antiwar position.
Which part is the subordinating clause?
At the beginning of the track-and-field
events, Jesse Owens felt tense because a
German had won a gold medal the day
before and received Hitler’s enthusiastic
congratulations.
Which part is the subordinating clause?
 After
 Although
 As
 As if
 Because
 Before
 Even if
 Even though
 If
 If only
 In order that
 Now that
 Once
 Provided that
 Rather than
 Since
 So that
 Than
 Though
 Unless
 Until
 When
 Whenever
 Where
 Whereas
 Wherever
 Whether
 While
 After
 Sample:
 Before
 When the whales surfaced,
 Since
 Until
 When
 Whenever
 While
Ahab threw his harpoon.
 As
 Sample:
 Because
 Scientists scaled back the
project because the
government cut funds.
 (Why is there no comma
before the word because?)
 In order that
 Sample:
 So that
 So that student’s math
scores will improve, many
schools have begun
special programs.
 Even if
 Sample
 If
 The rain forest may
 Unless
disappear unless steps are
taken immediately.
 Although
 Sample
 Even though
 Although Thomas Edison
 Though
had almost no formal
education, he was a
successful inventor.
 Where
 Sample:
 Wherever
 Pittsburgh was built where
the Allegheny and
Monongahela Rivers meet.
Problem sentences:
 Jane want to hear from you.
 Janes wants to hear from you.
The Rule:
 Usually an –s follows either the subject or the
verb, but not both.
 (an exception might be: Charles wants to hear
from you).
 A sentence’s subject (a noun or a pronoun) and its
verb must agree: singular subjects take singular
verbs, and plural subjects take plural verbs.
 Example: The museum opens at ten o’clock.
(singular noun takes a singular verb)
 Example: The museums open at ten o’clock.
(plural noun subject takes a plural verb)
Singular
Plural
First Person
I play
Molly and I/ we play
Second Person
You play
You play
Third Person
He/she/it plays
They play
The man plays
The men play
Molly plays
Molly and Sam play
 The subject of a sentence is not always a single word. It can
also be a compound subject, made up of two or more
words.
 Rules: When the parts of a compound subject are
connected by and, the compound subject takes a plural
verb.
 Rules: When the parts of a compound subject are
connected by or, the verb agrees with the part of the
subject that is closer to it.
 John and Marsha share an office.
 The dog and the cat play nicely in the
yard.
 The mayor or the council members meet with
community groups.
 The council members or the mayor meets with
community groups.
 Irregular verbs in the present tense.
 They can present problems with subject-verb
agreement.
 Memorizing their forms is the ONLY sure way to
avoid such problems. 
Singular
Plural
First Person
I am
We are
Second Person
You are
You are
Third person
He/she/it is
They are
Tray is
Tray and Ryan are
The boy is
The boys are
Singular
Plural
First Person
I have
We have
Second Person
You have
You have
Third Person
He/she/it has
They have
Shana has
Shana and Robert have
The student has
The students have
Singular
Plural
First Person
I do
We do
Second Person
You do
You do
Third Person
He/she/it does
They do
Ken does
Ken and Mia do
The book does
The books do
 Don’t be confused when a group of words comes
between the subject and the verb. They do NOT
affect subject-verb agreement.
 You can always cross out the words that come
between the subject and verb to ensure they agree.
 High levels of mercury occur in some fish.
 Water in the fuel lines causes an engine to stall.
 Food between the teeth leads to decay.
Collective Nouns are words (such as family
and audience) that name a group of people or
things but are singular.
Because they are singular, they always take
singular verbs.
 The team practices five days a week in the gym.
 Army
 Corporation
 Association
 Family
 Band
 Gang
 Class
 Government
 Club
 Group
 Committee
 Jury
 Company
 Mob
 Team
 Union
Indefinite Pronouns- anybody, everyone, and
so on- do not refer to a particular person,
place or idea.
Most Indefinite pronouns are singular and
take singular verbs.
 No one likes getting up early.
 Everyone likes to sleep late.
 Somebody likes beets.
 Another
 Neither
 Anybody
 Nobody
 Anyone
 No one
 Anything
 Nothing
 Each
 One
 Either
 Somebody
 Everybody
 Someone
 Everyone
 Something
 Everything
 Much
 A few indefinite pronouns (both, many, several, few,
others) are plural and take plural verbs.
 Many were left homeless by the flood.
A verb always agrees with its subject, even if
the verb comes before the subject.
In questions, for example, word order is
reversed, with the verb coming before the
subject or with the subject coming between
two parts of the verb.
 Where is the bank?
 Are you going to the party?
If you have trouble identifying the subject of a
question, answer the question with a
statement (in the statement, the subject will
come before the verb).
 Where is the bank? The bank is on Walnut Street.
 Are you going to the party? I am going to the party.
 I love painting.
 I hate cutting in the paint.
 I love getting new furniture.
 I have when I have to put it all together.
 Decorating a nursery is fun.
 Decorating a nursery is hard work.
 WRONG = Everyone must hand in their essay draft today.
 WRONG = Everyone must hand in his essay draft today.
 CORRECT = Everyone must hand in his or her essay draft
today!
 Collective nouns are words (like band and team)
that name a group of people or things but are
singular.
 Because they are singular, collective noun
antecedents are used with singular pronouns.
 The band played on, but it never played our song.
 A pronoun should always refer to a specific
antecedent. When a pronoun has no antecedent,
readers will be confused.
 WRONG = They said baseball players would strike.
 CORRECT = The news report said baseball players
would strike.
 When a pronoun comes directly after its antecedent, it is
unnecessary.
 WRONG = the librarian, he told me I should check the database.
 CORRECT = The librarian told me I should check the database.
 Adjectives and adverbs are words that modify (identify or describe)
other words. They help make sentences more specific and more
interesting.
 An adjective answers the question what kind? Which one? Or How
many?
 Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns.
 The Turkish city of Istanbul spans two continents.
 It is fascinating because of its location and history.
 Demonstrative Adjectives- this, that these and
those- do not describe other words. They simply
identify particular nouns.
 This and That identify singular nouns and pronouns.
 These and Those identify plural nouns.
 An adverb answers the question How? Why? When?
Where? Or To What Extend?
 Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.
 Traffic moves steadily.
 Still, we were quite impatient.
 Very slowly, we moved into the center lane. (here, very
modifies slowly, BUT, very slowly both modify how we
moved)
 Many adverbs are formed when –ly is added to an
adjective form.
 Adjective Example: Let me give you one quick reminder.
 Adverb Example: He quickly changed the subject.
 Adjective(adverb)
 Slow(ly)
 Nice(ly)
 Quick(ly)
 Real(ly)
 Good is an irregular adjective.
 Its adverb form is well.
 Always use ell when describing a person’s health.
 (He really didn’t feel well yesterday. Or I am doing well,
thank you!)
 Adjective Example: Fred Astaire was a good dancer.
 Adverb Example: He danced especially well with Ginger Rogers.
 The comparative form of an adjective or
adverb compares two people or things.
Adjectives and adverbs for the comparative
with –er or more. (duller, more predictable)
 The superlative form of an adjective or adverb
compares more than two things. Adverbs and
adjectives form the superlative with -est or most.
(dullest, most predictable)
 The adjective unique means “the only one”, so it has
no comparative or superlative form. Same policy goes
with perfect, impossible, infinite, and dead.
 Adjective
 The film is dull and predictable.
 Comparative
 The film I saw last week was even duller and more predictable than
this one.
 Superlative
 The film I saw last night was the dullest and most predictable one I
had ever seen.
 Adverb
 For a beginner, Jane did needlepoint skillfully.
 Comparative
 After she had watched the demonstration, Jane did needlepoint
more skillfully than Rose.
 Superlative
 Of the twelve beginners, Jane did needlepoint the most skillfully.
 Adjectives with two or more syllables form the comparative
with more and the superlative with most.
 Wonderful = more wonderful = most wonderful
 (not wonderfuler)
 cool, cooler, coolest (not most cool or more cool)
 EXCEPTION: Two-syllable adjectives ending in –y add –er
or –est after changing the y to an i.
 Funny = funnier = funniest
 All adverbs ending in –ly form the comparative with more
and the superlative with most. (more quickly)
 Efficiently = more efficiently = most efficiently
 Some of the other adverbs form the comparative with –er
and the superlative with –est.
 Soon = sooner = soonest
 NEVER use both –er and more to form a comparative or
both –est and most to form the superlative.
 More awful is ok. More awfuler is not.
 Most frightening is ok. Most frighteningest is not.
 NEVER use the superlative when you are comparing only
two things.
 CORRECT: This is the more serious of the two problems.
 You would not say: This is the most serious of the two problems.
 NEVER use the comparative when you are comparing more
than two things.
 CORRECT: This is the worst day of my life.
 You would not want to say: This is the worse day of my life.
 Adjective
 I have a good friend.
 I had a bad friend.
 Comparative Form
 My friend is better than yours.
 My friend is worse than yours.
 Superlative Form
 She is my best friend in the whole world.
 The is the worst friend ever, in the history of the world.
 Adverb
 I am feeling well, thank you.
 I am feeling badly.
 Comparative Form
 I am feeling better today that yesterday.
 I am feeling worse today than yesterday.
 Superlative Form
 This is the best I have felt all month.
 This is the worst I have felt all month.
 When you use a coordinating conjunction to link
two independent clauses into a single compound
sentence, always put a comma before the
coordinating conjunction.
 Correct: We can stand in line all night, or we can go home
now.
 Use a comma to offset an introductory phrase from
the rest of a sentence.
 In the event of a fire, proceed to the nearest exit.
 To keep fit, people should try to exercise regularly.
 Also use a comma to set off transitional words or
phrases whether they appear at the beginning,
middle, or end of a sentence.
 In fact, Thoreau spent only one night in jail.
 He was, of course, bailed out by a friend.
 He did spend more than two years at Walden Pond,
however.
 Use commas to set off an appositive, a word or word
group that identifies, renames, or describes a noun
or pronoun.
 I have visited only one country, Canada, outside the
United States.
 Carlos Santana, leader of the group Santana, played at
Woodstock in 1969.
 Clauses add information to a sentence.
 Use commas to set off nonrestrictive clauses, clauses that are NOT
ESSENTIAL to a sentence’s meaning.
 Telephone calling-card fraud, which cost consumers and phone companies four
billion dollars a year, is increasing.
 Do NOT use commas to set of restrictive clauses which contain info
that is essential to a sentence’s meaning.
 Many rock stars who recorded hits in the 1950’s made little money from their
songs. (who recorded hits in the 1950’s supplies specific information that is
essential to the idea of the sentence.
 Dates: separate the day of the week from the month
and the day of the month from the year.
 The first Cinco de Mayo we celebrated in the United
States was Tuesday, May 5, 1998.
 Tuesday, May 5, 1998 was the first Cinco de Mayo we
celebrated in the United States,
 Addresses: Separate the street address from the city
and the city form the state or country.
 The office of the famous fictional detective Sherlock
Holmes was located at 221b Baker Street, London,
England.
 The office at 221b Baker Street, London, English,
belonged to the famous fictional detective Sherlock
Holmes.
 NOT before the first item in a series
 NOT after the last item in a series
 NOT between a subject and a verb
 NOT before the coordinating conjunction
 NOT to set off a restrictive clause
 NOT before a dependent clause that follows an
independent clause.
 An apostrophe is a punctuation mark that is used in
two situations: to form a contraction and to form the
possessive of a noun or an indefinite pronoun.
 A contraction is a word that uses an apostrophe to
combine two words.
 I did not realize how late it was.
 I didn’t realize how late it was.
 It is not right for cheaters to go unpunished.
 It’s not right for cheaters to go unpunished.
 I’m
 Aren’t
 We’re
 Can’t
 You’re
 Don’t
 It’s
 Won’t
 I’ve
 Shouldn’t
 I’ll
 Let’s
 There’s
 That’s
 Isn’t
 Who’s
 Possessive forms of nouns and pronouns show
ownership.
 Noun’s (noun or pronoun and add an apostrophe s).
 The dog’s tail itched.
 Cesar’s book was ruined by the rain.
 The strike’s outcome was uncertain.
 Whether it would succeed was anyone’s guess.
 (its and his never include apostrophes)
 Most plural nouns in in –s. To form the possessive of plural
nouns ending in –s (including names), add just an
apostrophe.
 The two drugs’ side effects were quite different.
 The Johnsons’ front door is red.
 Some irregular noun plurals do not end in –s. If a plural noun does
not end in –s, add an apostrophe s to for the possessive.
 The men’s room is right next to the women’s room.
 A direct quotation shows the exact words of a
speaker or writer. Direct quotations are always
placed in quotation marks.
 A direct quotation is usually identified by an
identifying tag, a phrase that names the person
being quoted.
 Lauren said, “My brother and Tina have gotten engaged.”
 A famous advertiser wrote, “Don’t sell the steak; sell the
sizzle.”
 When a quotation is a complete sentence, it begins with a
capital letter and ends with a period, a question mark, or an
exclamation point.
 When a quotations falls at the end of the sentence, the
period is placed inside the quotation marks.
 If the quotation is a question or an exclamation, that
punctuation is also inside the quotation mark.
 When the identifying tag comes before the quotation, it is
followed by a comma.
 Alexander Dumas wrote, “Nothing succeeds like success.”
 When the identifying tag comes at the end of the sentence
it is followed by a period. The comma inside the closing
quotation marks separates the quotation from the
identifying tag.
 “Life is like a box of chocolates,” stated Forest Gump.
 Identifying tag in the middle of the sentence= follow with a
comma. The first part of the quotation is also followed by a
comma.
 “This is my life,” Bette insisted, “and I’ll live it as I please.”
 When the identifying tag comes between two quoted
sentences, it is preceded by a comma and followed by a
period.
 “Producer Berry Gordy is an important figure in the history of
music,” Tony exclaimed. “He was the creative force behind Motown
records.:
Some titles are typed in italics (or, when
handwriting, underline to show it is a title).
 The colon:
 Use a colon to introduce direct quotation.
 Use a colon to introduce and explanation, a clarification
or an example.
 Use a colon to introduce a list.
 The Dash Sets off important information
 She parked her car – a red Firebird- in a towaway zone.
Parenthesis ( )
 Use to enclose material that is relatively
unimportant.
 The weather in Portland (a city in Oregon) was overcast.
 In a complex sentence, use a comma after the
dependent clause.
 Sample 1: Although she wore the scarlet letter, Hester
carried herself proudly.
 Do not use a comma after the independent clause .
 Sample 2: Hester carried herself proudly although she
wore the scarlet letter.
 Another way to form a complete sentence is to use relative
pronouns to join two independent clauses.
 Relative Pronouns include: that, what, which, who, whoever,
whom, whomever, whose.
 Two simple sentences: Pit bulls were originally, bred in
England. They can be very aggressive.
 Complex sentence: Pit bulls, which were originally bred in
England, can be very aggressive.
 Note: the relative pronoun always refers to a word in the
independent clause.
 A sentence = at least one independent clause
 A run-on is an error that occurs when two sentences are
joined incorrectly.
 There are two kinds of run-ons: fused sentences and
comma splices.
 A fused sentence occurs when two sentences
(independent clauses) are joined without any punctuation.
 College costs are rising many students are worried.
 A comma splice occurs when two sentences (independent
clauses) are joined with just a comma.
 College costs are rising, many students are worried,
1.
Use a period to create two separate sentences.
2.
Use a coordinating conjunction to connect ideas.
3.
Use a semicolon to connect ideas.
4.
Use a semicolon followed by a transitional word or phrase to
connect ideas.
5.
Use a dependent word to connect ideas.
 Tense is the form a verb takes to show when an action or
situation takes place.
 The past tense indicates that an action occurred in the
past.
 Regular verbs form the past tense by adding either –ed
or-d to the base form of the verb (the present tense form of
the verb that is used with I).
 I walked over six miles yesterday.
 I shopped all weekend with my non-pregnant girlfriends from high
school.
 I hoped I would get to go to bed early last night, but I didn’t get
home until much later than I expected.
 Regular verbs that end in –y form the past tense by
changing the y to I and adding –ed.
 Cry becomes cried
 Try becomes tried
 Apply becomes applied
 Fly becomes flied
 Irregular verbs have irregular forms in the past tense.
They are not normal like regular verbs.
 In their past tense forms they look very differed from their
present tense forms.
 The irregular verb be can cause problems because it has
two different past tense forms- was for singular subjects
and were for second person singular subjects as well as for
plural subjects.
 All other English verbs have just one past tense form.
 Carlo was interested in fishing yesterday. (singular)
 They were going to go without him. (plural)
.
Singular
Plural
First person
I was tired.
We were tired.
Second Person
You were tired.
You were tired.
Third Person
He was tired.
She was tired.
They were tired.
It was tired.
The man was tired.
Frank and Billy were
tired.
 The helping verbs can/could and will/would present problems
because their past tense forms are sometimes confused with their
present tense forms.
 Can, a present tense verb, means “is able to” or “are able
to”.
 First year students can apply for financial aid.
 Could, the past tense of can means “was able to” or “were
able to”.
 Escape artist Harry Houdini claimed that he could escape from any
prison.
 Will, a present tense verb, talks about the future from a
point in the present.
 A solar eclipse will occur in ten months.
 Would, the past tense of will, talks about the future from a
point in the past.
 I told him yesterday that I would think about it.
 Would is also used to express a possibility or wish.
 If we stuck to our budget, we would be better off.
 Laurie would like a new stuffed animal.
 Note that will is used with can and then would is used with
could.
 I will feed the cats if I can find their food.
 I would feed the cats if I could find their food.
 Every verb has a past participle form.
 The past participle form of a regular verb is identical to its past
tense form.
 Both are formed by adding either –ed or –d to the base form of the
verb.
 Irregular verbs nearly always have irregular past
participles.
 The past participle can be used to form different
verb tenses.
 For example, the past participle can be combined
with the present tense forms of have to form the
present perfect tense.
 Use the present perfect tense to indicate an action that
began in the past and continues into the present!
 I have worked as a teacher for seven years. (work began in past
and continues to present)
 Or, just the present perfect tense to indicate that an action
has just occurred.
 I have just eaten. (the eating has just occurred)
 (have or had + past participle)
Singular
Plural
I have gained.
We have gained.
You have gained.
You have gained.
He has gained.
They have gained.
She has gained.
It has gained.
 The past participle can also be used to form the past
perfect tense, which consists of the past tense of have plus
the past participle.
 Use the past perfect tense to show that an action occurred
before another past action.
past perfect tense
 Chief Sitting Bull had fought many battles before he defeated
General Custer.
Past tense
 They had seen the movie before they rented it.
 had seen = Past Perfect Tense
 rented = past tense
 In addition to functioning as verbs, past participles
can also function as adjectives modifying nouns that
follow them.
 I cleaned up the broken glass.
 The exhausted mother finally crossed the finish line.
 What is our ACTUAL subject and what is our ACTUAL
verb?
 Past Participles are also used as adjectives after
linking verbs, such as seemed or looked.
 Jason seemed surprised.
 He looked shocked.
 What is our actual subject? (Jason, He) What is our actual
verb? (seemed,looked)