The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence
by Kathleen Stassen Berger
Seventh Edition
Chapter 7
The First Two Years:
Psychosocial
Development
Slides prepared by Kate Byerwalter, Ph.D.,
Grand Rapids Community College
What does “psychosocial” mean?

Psychosocial development is the
combination of emotional and social
development.

During infancy, interactions with sensitive,
responsive caregivers foster psychosocial
development.
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Emotional Development in Infancy

The First Year
 At
birth: distress and contentment
 Social
smile appears around 6 weeks
 Anger (as early as 4 months)
 Fear
Stranger wariness
 Separation anxiety

Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Can
anyone
relate to
this one?
JOURNAL-COURIER / TIFFANY HERMON / THE IMAGE WORKS
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Emotional Development in
Infancy (cont.)

The Second Year
 Fear
and anger, laughing and crying become
more discriminating
 New
emotions appear: pride, shame,
embarrassment, guilt
These emotions require a sense of self
 Dot-of-rouge experiment

Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Self Awareness

The realization that one is a unique person
separate from others

Emerges around 15-18 months
 Measured
by reaction to dot of rouge on face
 Is the prerequisite for pride, guilt, shame,
embarrassment, jealousy, empathy
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Make it Real: Pride and Shame

Have you ever heard a caregiver “put
down” a young child? Explain.

In what specific ways can caregivers
foster a young child’s sense of pride?
Make a list.
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Pride and Shame

“It seems that building self-esteem results
not from praising young children, but from
enabling them to accomplish things that
make them feel proud.”
(Berger, 2005)
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Theories about Caregiving

There are several theories of how the
interaction between caregiver and infant
shapes the infant’s behavior, personality,
and relationships with others.
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Psychoanalytic Theory

Freud believed that conflicts during the
oral and anal stages shaped the infant’s
later personality.

Example: Too strict toilet training may
lead to an anal retentive personality.
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Erik Erikson’s First Two
Psychosocial Stages

Trust vs. Mistrust: quality of care in the
first year shapes the infant’s view of the
consistency and predictability of the world

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt = basic
need to gain self-rule or feel ashamed that
it doesn’t happen
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Behaviorism

Infant’s emotions and personality are
molded as parents reinforce or punish
child’s spontaneous behavior.

Social referencing strengthens learning by
observation.
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Cognitive Theory

Cognitive Theory states that infants
form a concept of what to expect from
people.

The result is a working model, a set of
assumptions about relationships.

Example: An infant learns to expect
that people can be trusted (or not).
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Epigenetic Theory

Epigenetic theory holds that child-rearing
practices shape inborn predispositions.

Example: A “naturally” fearful infant
becomes less fearful in the context of a
supportive parent who encourages
bravery.
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Temperament: An Example Of
Epigenetic Theory

Temperamental traits originate in one’s
genes, but are influenced by experience.

Examples: Infants differ in their reactions
to new situations (fearful or bold); some
infants cry easily, others seem “born
tough”.
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Temperament (cont.)
CORROON AND COMPANY / MONKMEYER
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Measuring Temperament

The NYLS relied on parent reports and
direct observations to categorize infants as:
 EASY
(40%)
 SLOW TO WARM UP (15%)
 DIFFICULT (10%)
 HARD TO CLASSIFY (35%)
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Temperament and Caregiving

It is important to appreciate each child’s
unique temperament.

Goodness of fit: the match between
the child’s temperament and the
environment
 This
is especially important for a child with
a difficult temperament
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Sociocultural Theory

Sociocultural theory places a strong
emphasis on the role of the entire social
context on infant development.

Ethnotheory states that child-rearing
practices (e.g., co-sleeping or not) are
embedded within each culture or ethnic
group.
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Make it Real: Ethnotheory

The text describes the reaction of Mayan
parents to their 18-month-old son’s refusal
to wear pants; this is contrasted to how
Western parents might react.

After reading the passage, think about your
own reaction. How much are your thoughts
influenced by your culture?
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Proximal and Distal Parenting

A study of West African and Greek parents
found differences in infant-caregiver play.

West African mothers were more likely to use
proximal parenting (keeping the infant
physically near), whereas Greek parents
used distal parenting (physically distant).
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Proximal and Distal Parenting (cont).

The researchers found that proximal
parenting at 3 months predicted more
compliant behavior at 1½ yrs; whereas
distal parenting predicted greater selfrecognition (a sign of independence).
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
The Development of Social Bonds

Synchrony:
coordinated
interaction
between
caregiver and
infant that
starts the
process of
attachment
MYRLEEN FERGUSON CATE / PHOTO EDIT
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Early Emotional Responses

Interactions between caregiver and infant
are crucial for emotional development
(i.e., synchrony).

Still face technique = studying
synchrony by assessing infant’s reaction
when caregiver halts synchronous
behavior…(infants don’t like it!).
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Attachment

Attachment is a close emotional bond
between infant and caregiver(s) that
develops gradually over the first year of life.
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Signs of Attachment

It is easy to know if a parent is attached to
an infant (they pull out the wallet full of
pictures, talk lovingly about the infant, etc.).

But how do we know how the infant feels
about the parent?
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Signs of Attachment

Infants show their desire to be with a
caregiver through:

contact-maintaining behaviors (e.g.,
smile, hold on to person), and

proximity-seeking behaviors (e.g., crawl
toward person).
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Measuring Attachment

Mary Ainsworth measured attachment
through the “Strange Situation”
 Performed
when infant is around 1 year old
 Results
have correlated with child outcomes
later in life
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Measuring Attachment

Strange Situation is a laboratory
procedure assessing:
 Exploration
of the toys
 Reaction to caregiver’s departure
 Reaction to caregiver’s return
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Categories of Attachment

Secure Attachment =
 Yes,
explore toys
 May cry upon caregiver leaving
 Happy to see caregiver return

Long-term outcomes are positive (e.g.,
good social skills, well-liked, happy kids)
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Categories of Attachment

Insecure-Resistant Attachment:
 Little
to no exploration of toys
 Cry when caregiver leaves
 Remains upset (cry/anger) upon
caregiver’s return

Long-term outcomes include
dependence (especially for girls) or
aggression (especially for boys)
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Categories of Attachment

Insecure Avoidant Attachment
 Yes,
explores the toys
 Doesn’t cry when caregiver turns
 Avoids or ignores caregiver upon return
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Attachment Categories

Disorganized Attachment
 Infant
demonstrates bizarre, inconsistent
behavior toward the parent
 Infants in this category may have been
abused or neglected
 Outcomes for them are often negative
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Secure Attachment is
Likely When:

The parent is:
to child’s needs
 responsive to signals
 engages in infant-caregiver play
 not overly stressed
 sensitive

And when the infant is “easy”
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Attachment Over Time

An infant can change attachment status
over time, especially if the social setting
changes.
 Examples:

divorce, abuse, remarriage
Overall, secure attachment in infancy is
associated with positive outcomes later
in life.
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Make it Real: Attachment

Think of someone you know who has
difficulty in relationships (could be you).
How might early attachment experiences
influenced his or her ability to form
connections with others?
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Social Referencing

Looking to others for cues for how to feel,
especially in a new situation
 Example:
If a caregiver shows fear of a
situation, the infant likely will too!

This shows that emotions can be learned
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Referencing Mothers

A study by Kochanska (2001) found that in
general, infants and toddlers obey their
mother’s requests, especially if the mother
was convincing in her tone and choice of
words.

(Yes, toddlers do have the ability to obey!)
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Referencing Fathers

Fathers today spend considerable time
with their children, and research is just
beginning to document the importance of
this relationship.
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Make it real: Referencing Fathers

In what ways do you think fathers interact
with infants differently than mothers?
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Referencing Fathers (cont.)

Fathers tend to:
 Be
more encouraging of infant exploration
 Engage in more physical, noisy, emotional play
 Engage in teasing

Infants tend to:
 Comply
with father’s commands more often
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Infant Day Care

As more infants spend time in nonparental
care, the question of the effects of that
care on child development continues to be
debated.

The most comprehensive study to date is
conducted by the NICHD Early Child Care
Research Network
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Types of Infant Day Care

Family day care: children cared for in
home of a paid caregiver

Center day care: several paid providers
care for children

Our textbook author suggests that center
care may be the best option, but even
licensed centers vary in quality!
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Some Results of the
NICHD Study

Even 40 hours a week of infant child care
had considerable less influence than the
mother-infant relationship on child
outcomes.

Secure attachment was just as likely
among infants in center care as those
raised at home.
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
More Results

Quality of child care is important.

How time is spent when the infant is home
is important as well.
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7
Infant Day Care…Who can
afford it?

Infant day care is often more expensive
than care for a toddler or preschooler.

Higher-income homes are more likely to
use center care, due to the cost.

Some countries (not the U.S.) have
government funded care for all children.
Berger: The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, 7th Edition, Chapter 7