Knowledge
representation
1
The importance of knowledge
representation
Contrary to the beliefs of early workers
in AI, experience has shown that
Intelligent Systems cannot achieve
anything useful unless they contain a
large amount of real-world - probably
domain-specific - knowledge.
 Humans almost always tackle difficult
real-world problems by using their
resources of knowledge - "experience",
"training" etc.

The importance of knowledge
representation
This raises the problem of how
knowledge can be represented inside a
computer, in such a way that an AI
program can manipulate it.
 Some knowledge representation
formalisms that have featured in
intelligent systems:

Knowledge rep. formalisms
Production rules
 Formal logic, and languages based on it
(e.g. PROLOG)
 Structured objects:
 Semantic nets (or networks)
 Frames, and object-orientated
programming, which was derived from
frames
 Other similar objects, such as Scripts

Knowledge rep. formalisms

We have already examined Production
rules (or "Rule-based reasoning") in
some detail. We will now look at some
other formalisms.
Logic
Formal logic, and languages
based on formal logic

Logic, which was originally just the study
of what distinguishes sound argument
from unsound argument, has developed
(over many centuries) into a powerful
and rigorous system whereby true
statements can be discovered, given
other statements that are already known
to be true.
Formal logic, and languages
based on formal logic

From the point of view of AI, and other
branches of computer science, logic is
valuable because it provides
a
language, for knowledge representation,
with a well-defined, non-ambiguous,
semantics (i.e. system of meanings).
 a well-defined proof theory; there are
reliable techniques in formal logic for
establishing that an argument (i.e. a set of
deductions from statements known to be
true) is sound.
Formal logic, and languages
based on formal logic
This makes logic a "gold standard"
 Other knowledge representations can
be evaluated according to whether they
produce the same results as formal
logic, on a particular reasoning task.
 If they produce a different result, there's
something wrong with them.

Formal logic, and languages
based on formal logic

There are various forms of logic, of
which the simplest is probably
propositional calculus (also known as
sentence logic), and the most commonly
used in AI is first order predicate
calculus (also known as first order
predicate logic).
Propositional calculus
Propositional calculus is built out of
simple statements called propositions
which are either true or false.
 Example: “London is a city” is a
proposition. So is “Ice is hot”.

Propositional calculus

These are joined together to form more
complex statements by logical
connectives, expressing simple ideas
such as and, or, not, if…then….
Propositional calculus

There are standard symbols for these:
stands for “and”,
 stands for “or”,
 stands for “not”,
 stands for “if … then …”,
 stands for “if and only if”.
Logic: propositional calculus
example of a statement written in
propositional calculus:
Suppose that R stands for “It is raining”, G
stands for “I have got a coat”, W stands
for “I will get wet”. The statement

R  G  W
is a way of writing "If it is raining and I
have not got a coat, then I will get wet."
Logic: predicate calculus


Predicate calculus can make statements
about objects, and the properties of
objects, and the relationships between
objects (propositional calculus can’t).
It contains predicates – statements like
this:
a(S)
or this:
b(S, T)
that mean S has the property a, or S and
T are connected by the relationship b.
Logic: predicate calculus
Example of a statement written in
predicate calculus:
Suppose that c stands for "the cat",
m stands for "the mat", s stands for "sits
on", b stands for "black", f stands for "fat",
h stands for "happy". The statement

(f(c) b(c) s(c,m))  h(c)
is a way of writing "If the fat black cat sits
on the mat then it is happy".
Logic: predicate calculus

As well as having the same logical
connectives as propositional calculus,
predicate calculus has two quantifiers,
" meaning “for all”,
and
$ meaning “there exists”.
Logic: predicate calculus

Example of statement written in predicate
calculus using these quantifiers:

Suppose that d stands for “is a day”, p stands for
“is a person”, mo stands for “is mugged on”, mi
stands for “is mugged in”, S stands for Soho, x
stands for some unspecified day and y stands for
some unspecified person.
"x( d(x)  $y( p(y)  mo(y, x)  mi(y, S)))
expresses the idea "Someone is mugged in
Soho every day."
Logic: predicate calculus
Notice that while the statement in English "Someone is mugged in Soho every day” is ambiguous, the statement written in
predicate calculus "x( d(x)  $y( p(y)  mo(y, x)  mi(y, S)))
isn’t.
 In general, translating statements from a
natural language (e.g. English) into some
form of logic forces you to sort out any
ambiguity.

Formal logic

The tools available to logicians include:
 A set
of symbols indicating propositions,
predicates, variables, constants, etc
 A set of logical connectives which can be
used to combine simple terms into
compound terms, with precisely-defined
effects on the truth values involved.
Formal logic

The tools available to logicians include:
 A set
of logical equivalences, which can be
used to convert one compound term into
another, containing different connectives,
without altering its truth value.
 For instance, De Morgan’s 2nd theorem
states that ¬(PQ) is logically equivalent to
(¬P¬Q)
Formal logic

The tools available to logicians include:
 The concepts of tautology and
contradiction (statements that are always
true, and always false, respectively).
 Some well-established rules of inference
(i.e. ways of proving an argument is
sound). For instance, if you know that
CD and you know that D isn’t true, then
you know that ¬C must be true - a rule of
inference known as modus tolens.
Formal logic

The tools available to logicians include:
 A test of the validity of an argument using a
truth table; this is available in propositional
calculus, but not other logics.
Formal logic


So far, this is a description of a
technique for working out arguments on
paper.
However, some (though probably not all)
the techniques of logical manipulation
can be computerised.
Formal logic
Computer programs have been written
which are able to perform (some of) the
operations of formal logic, and can
therefore "reason" in this way.
 This is a classic way to represent and
solve a problem in artificial intelligence.

Proving a theorem in logic

Proving a theorem by resolution: the
stages, together with an example
proof
Proving a theorem in logic
The axioms, and the theorem:
 "Every rich person owns a house. Susan
is rich. Susan is a person. Therefore
Susan owns a house."

Proving a theorem in logic
1. Convert these statements into predicate
calculus (I've used x, y, & z for variables.
Susan is a
 constant).

"x [(person(x)  rich(x))  $y(house(y)  owns(x,y))].
rich(Susan).
person(Susan).
The conclusion:
$z(house(z)  owns(Susan,z)).
Proving a theorem in logic
2. Negate the conclusion.
 This becomes: ¬$z(house(z) 
owns(Susan,z)).

Proving a theorem in logic
3. An 8-stage process of syntactic
manipulation, designed to convert these
statements into clause form.
(a) Eliminate implications, using the
logical equivalence that a  b  ¬a  b
1st statement becomes:
"x [¬(person(x)  rich(x))  $y(house(y) 
owns(x,y))].

Proving a theorem in logic
(b) Move negations inwards (i.e., ensure that
no lines, or groups of terms, begin with ¬). Use
suitable logical equivalences such as:
¬(¬a)  a ¬(ab)  ¬a¬b ¬(ab)  ¬a¬b
¬"x P(x)  $x ¬P(x) ¬$x P(x)  "x ¬P(x)
The 1st statement becomes: "x [(¬person(x)
 ¬rich(x))  $y(house(y)  owns(x,y))].
The conclusion becomes: "z ¬(house(z) 
owns(Susan,z)) then "z ¬house(z) 
¬owns(Susan,z)).

Proving a theorem in logic

(c) Standardise variables so that
different quantifiers refer to different
variables.
Proving a theorem in logic

(d) Eliminate all existential quantifiers
("skolemisation"). This is done by
substituting a different predicate name
which is unique to the object in question,
(but which relates to the universallyquantified class in which it is found),
rather than labelling it as an instance of
a class of objects.
1st statement becomes: "x [(¬person(x)
 ¬rich(x))  (house(G(x)) 
Proving a theorem in logic
(e) Eliminate all universal quantifiers, by
assuming that all variables are universally
quantified.
1st statement becomes:
(¬person(x)  ¬rich(x))  (house(G(x)) 
owns(x,G(x))
The conclusion becomes:
¬house(z)  ¬owns(Susan,z)

Proving a theorem in logic

(f) Rewrite in conjunctive normal form.
This means groups of terms joined by
"and", the groups themselves being
terms joined by "or". Use the logical
equivalence that a(bc)  (ab)(ac)
1st statement becomes:
(¬person(x)  ¬rich(x)  house(G(x)))
 (¬person(x)  ¬rich(x)  owns(x,G(x)))
Proving a theorem in logic
(g) Regarding statements produced as
a result of (f): since the groups are
joined by "and", they can become
separate statements in their own right.
1st statement becomes:
¬person(x)  ¬rich(x)  house(G(x))
¬person(x)  ¬rich(x)  owns(x,G(x))

Proving a theorem in logic

(h) Change the variable names, so that each
clause uses different variables.
We finish up with 5 clauses like this:
clause 1:
¬person(x)  ¬rich(x) 
house(G(x))
clause 2:
¬person(y)  ¬rich(y) 
owns(y,G(y))
clause 3:
rich(Susan).
clause 4:
person(Susan).
Proving a theorem in logic

4. A cycle in which two clauses are
picked, because they can be resolved to
give a third. If the clause that results is
empty, the proof has succeeded. If not,
the new clause is added to the others,
and this stage is repeated.
Resolving clauses: pick 2 clauses which
contain the same term, negated in one
case, notnegated in the other.
Proving a theorem in logic

Combine them to form a new clause,
containing all the terms that were in both
the old ones, except that the term which
is present as a and ¬a is eliminated;
however, if in one case it contains an
argument (or arguments) which is a
variable and in the other case a
constant, substitute the constant for the
variable, everywhere that that constant
appears in the clause.
Proving a theorem in logic

Empty clause: the result of resolving 2
clauses which each only contained one
term, so that nothing remains.
Proving a theorem in logic
In the case of our example, the process is as
follows:
resolve 1 & 3 to give:
¬person(Susan)  house(G(Susan))
Add this to the clauses as no.6.
resolve 6 & 4 to give:
house(G(Susan))
Add this to the clauses as no.7.

Proving a theorem in logic
resolve 2 & 3 to give:
¬person(Susan)  owns(Susan,
G(Susan)) Add this as no.8.
resolve 8 & 4 to give:
owns(Susan, G(Susan))
Add this as no.9.
resolve 7 & 5 to give:
¬owns(Susan, G(Susan))
Add this as no.10.
resolve 10 & 9. This gives an empty
clause. So the proof has succeeded.
Formal logic
Computer languages have been written
which incorporate (part of) the reasoning
mechanisms to be found in formal logic.
 The most important is Prolog.

Formal logic: Prolog

The result is a declarative programming
language a
language that can (sometimes) be left to
work out the solutions to problems itself.
 It’s only necessary to provide a description
of the problem.
 This is radically different to a conventional
programming language where, unless you
incorporate an algorithm, the program is
quite incapable of solving the problem.
Formal logic

Example of logic, used for knowledge
representation: Kowalski's project to
represent the British Nationality Act in
PROLOG.
Logic: formal methods
Logic is used by computer scientists
when they are engaged in Formal
Methods: describing the performance of
a program precisely, so that they can
prove that it does (or doesn’t) perform
the task that it is supposed to.
 In other words, establishing the validity
of a program.

Knowledge Representation
using structured objects
Knowledge Representation
using structured objects

Structured objects are:
 knowledge
representation formalisms
whose components are essentially
similar to the nodes and arcs found in
graphs.
 in contrast to production rules and formal
logic.
 an attempt to incorporate certain
desirable features of human memory
organisation into knowledge
representations.
Knowledge Representation
using structured objects
Semantic nets
Semantic nets
Devised by Quillian in 1968, as a model
of human memory.
 The technique offered the possibility that
computers might be made to use words
in something like the way humans did,
following the failure of early machinetranslators.
 Organisation of semantic nets. Example:

c o v e re d _ b y
a n im a l
s k in
tr a v e ls _ b y
fly in g
is a
is a
tr a v e ls _ b y
b ir d
fe a th e rs
fis h
c o v e re d _ b y
is a
o s tr ic h
s w im m in g
is a
p e n g u in
is a
is a
c a n a ry
r o b in
tr a v e ls _ b y
c o lo u r
c o lo u r
w a lk in g
y e llo w
tr a v e ls _ b y
re d
in s ta n c e _ o f
O pus
in s ta n c e _ o f
T w e e ty
c o lo u r
w h ite
Semantic nets

knowledge is represented as a collection
of concepts, represented by nodes
(shown as boxes in the diagram),
connected together by relationships,
represented by arcs (shown as arrows in
the diagram).
Semantic nets
certain arcs - particularly isa arcs - allow
inheritance of properties.
 This permits the system to "know" that a
Ford Escort has four wheels because it
is a type of car, and cars have four
wheels.

Semantic nets
inheritance provides cognitive economy,
but there is a storage-space /
processing-time trade-off.
 This means that, if you adopt this
technique, you will use less storage
space than if you don't, but your system
will take longer to find the answers to
questions.

Semantic nets

a semantic net should make a distinction
between types and tokens. This is why
the diagram above uses “instance_of”
arcs as well as “isa” arcs.
 Individual
instances of objects have a token
node.
 Categories of objects have a type node.
 There is always at least one type node
above a token node. The information
needed to define an item is (normally)
found attached to the type nodes above it.
Semantic nets

So far, this is just a diagram - not a
knowledgebase. But it can be converted
into a knowledgebase.
A semantic net program
written in Prolog
::::::::::::-
op(500, xfx, isa).
op(500,xfx, instance_of).
op(500,xfx, covered_by).
op(500,xfx, travels_by).
op(500,xfx, colour).
op(500,xfx, travels).
op(500,fx, is).
op(600,xfx, a).
op(600,xfx, an).
op(700, xf, ?).
op(500,fx, what).
op(600, xfx, is).
A semantic net program
written in Prolog
:- op(650, xfx, what).
:- op(650, xfx, how).
ostrich isa bird.
penguin isa bird.
canary isa bird.
robin isa bird.
bird isa animal.
fish isa animal.
opus instance_of penguin.
tweety instance_of canary.
canary colour yellow.
A semantic net program
written in Prolog
robin colour red.
tweety colour white.
penguin travels_by walking.
ostrich travels_by walking.
bird travels_by flying.
fish travels_by swimming.
bird covered_by feathers.
animal covered_by skin.
A semantic net program
written in Prolog
inherit(A isa C):A isa C.
inherit(A isa C):A instance_of D,
inherit(D isa C).
inherit(A isa C):A isa D,
inherit(D isa C).
A semantic net program
written in Prolog
is X a Y ? :inherit(X isa Y).
is X an Y ? :inherit(X isa Y).
inherit(A colour C):A colour C.
inherit(A colour C):(A instance_of D ; A isa D),
inherit(D colour C).
A semantic net program
written in Prolog
what colour is A ? :inherit(A colour C),
nl, write(A), write(' is '),
write(C).
inherit(A covered_by C):A covered_by C.
inherit(A covered_by C):(A instance_of D ; A isa D),
inherit(D covered_by C).
A semantic net program
written in Prolog
A is covered_by what ? :inherit(A covered_by C),
nl, write(A),
write(' is covered by '),
write(C).
inherit(A travels_by C):A travels_by C.
inherit(A travels_by C):(A instance_of D ; A isa D),
inherit(D travels_by C).
A semantic net program
written in Prolog
A travels how ? :inherit(A travels_by C),
nl, write(A),
write(' travels by '),
write(C).
Semantic nets

This is a program, written in Prolog,
which contains all the knowledge
represented in the diagram above,
together with a mechanism for finding
information by inheritance, and a
rudimentary natural language interface.
Semantic nets

It can answer questions like
is tweety an animal ? (it answers “yes”)
what colour is tweety ? (it answers “white”)
opus is covered_by what ? (it answers
“feathers”)
and so on.
Semantic nets

It could have been written in C++ or
Java (although it would have been much
harder), or any other present-day highlevel language.
Semantic nets

Note that I do NOT expect you to
understand the details of this program,
or to memorise it, or to be able to quote
it. It is simply there to indicate that it is
possible to store common-sense
knowledge like this, and it may even on
occasions be quite easy.
Semantic nets

Problems with semantic nets
 logical
inadequacy - vagueness about what
types and tokens really mean.
 heuristic inadequacy – finding a specific
piece of information could be chronically
inefficient.
 trying to establish negation is likely to lead
to a combinatorial explosion.
 "spreading activation" search is very
inefficient, because it is not knowledgeguided.
Semantic nets

Attempted improvements
 building search heuristics into the
network.
 more sophisticated logical structure,
involving partitioning.
 these improvements meant that the
formalism’s original simplicity was lost.
Semantic nets

Developments of the semantic nets
idea:
 psychological
research into whether human
memory really was organised in this way.
 used in the knowledge bases in certain
expert systems: e.g. PROSPECTOR.
 special-purpose languages have been
written to express knowledge in semantic
nets.