The Trojan War
The Unifying Tapestry of the
Greek Poleis
First Thread : Sparta
Leda, the wife of
king Tyndareus, was
raped by Zeus in the
form of a swan.
She gave birth to
four children, two
sets of twins.
One of each pair of
twins was divine, the
child of Zeus. The
other was mortal,
the child of
Tyndareus.
First Thread : Sparta
Zeus granted them
alternate immortality
– each would live, but
on alternate days.
One pair of twins was the dioscuri
(“Zeus’s boys”), Castor and
Polydeuces (a.k.a. Pollux).
They are still shown
together, though,
worshipped as
protective deities of
seafaring, and patron
gods of the historical
Sparta.
When Castor, the mortal brother, was
killed, Polydeuces, the immortal one,
prayed to die with him.
They are the
constellation Gemini
(“the twins”).
The twin girls were
Clytemnestra, the
mortal one, and
Helen, the
daughter of Zeus.
Helen is a figure
of cult in the
Greek world, but
in literature she is
not treated as
immortal.
First Thread : Sparta
Helen was so beautiful that all
of the eligible young men of
Greece wanted to marry her.
Tyndareus was afraid that those
who were disappointed would
try to take Helen by force
from the man who married
her.
So he made all the suitors swear
an oath to support Helen’s
husband and restore Helen to
him if they were ever separated.
Second Thread : Thetis
When Prometheus was released, he
prophesied to Zeus that the seanymph Thetis would bear a son greater
than his father.
Zeus decided to marry Thetis to a
mortal.
That mortal was Peleus, who captured
her on a distant island, as she changed
shape trying to escape him.
Their wedding was attended by all the
gods and goddesses – except one.
Second Thread : Thetis
Eris, the goddess
of discord, was
not invited. She
came anyway,
throwing down a
golden apple
inscribed, “For
the most
beautiful.”
Athena,
Aphrodite, and
Hera instantly all
claimed the prize.
Third Thread : Paris
Zeus declared that the only way
to determine who really
deserved the prize was to ask
someone totally naive – a
young shepherd boy in Asia,
named Paris.
Paris, however, wasn’t really just
a young shepherd. His parents
were Priam and Hecuba, king
and queen of Troy. When he
was born, Hecuba had dreamed
that she had birthed a firebrand,
and they exposed him to ward
off the evil omen.
Third Thread : Paris
The goddesses all offered bribes. Hera offered kingly power,
Athena offered victory in war, and Aphrodite offered
marriage with the world’s most beautiful woman.
Paris chose
Aphrodite.
The only
problem was,
the most
beautiful
woman,
Helen of
Sparta, was
already
married.
Third Thread : Paris
Paris (now suddenly accepted back into his birth family as a
prince of Troy) went on a grand tour, visiting other
aristocrats in Greece. When he visited Menelaus, he left with
his host’s wife – a serious violation of xenia, guest-friendship.
Menelaus called
on the other
Greek princes
to obey their
oath and
protect his
marital rights.
The Trojan War
was underway.
Second Thread : Thetis
Meanwhile, Peleus and Thetis had had an extraordinary son,
Achilles. With an absentee sea-goddess mother, he was raised
by the centaur Chiron.
Second Thread : Thetis
When Thetis heard that Menelaus
was calling together an army to
get Helen back, she feared for her
mortal son, already a brilliant
warrior.
She told him her prophecy: Either
he would lead a long, happy but
obscure life at home, or he would
go to Troy and die young.
Achilles wanted to go to Troy.
Thetis tried to hide Achilles from
the Greek “recruiters” by
disguising him as a girl.
But Odysseus found him,
and Thetis was forced to
let him go.
Besides, one of the girls
he’d been hiding among
was already pregnant.
The Trojans
Priam was the king of Troy,
Hecuba his queen. Priam had
50 sons, of whom 12 were by
Hecuba.
Hector, the oldest son, was
the city’s best warrior and
military commander. His
wife was Andromache, and
they had a young son,
Astyanax.
Aeneas (son of Aphrodite
and Anchises) was a cousin
who came to assist.
The Greeks
The Greeks, also called
Achaeans, were led by
Agamemnon, Menelaus’
brother.
Achilles was the youngest
man there, accompanied by
his best friend, Patroclus, and
a childhood tutor, Phoenix.
Odysseus, king of Ithaca, had
not wanted to come, but he
was obliged by his oath.
Nestor, the oldest warrior,
was known for wise counsel.
Ajax (the Greater) was the
best warrior after Achilles.
Chalchas was the Greeks’
prophet.
Sources: Homer’s Iliad
There are many stories
surrounding the Trojan war
and its heroes. After all, this
was the central saga of all of
Greece, and everyone had a
local hero involved.
The Iliad was required reading
for school children.
Our Trojan war sources
range from the earliest
literature (Homer) through
late Latin epics (Quintus of
Smyrna). But Homer’s Iliad
always took precedence.
It tells the story of 53 days of
the war; from the onset of
plague in the Greek camp, to
the funeral of Hector.
It was not just a classic, it was
a treasured text – as well
known and respected as the
Bible.
Many major events, such as
the Trojan horse, are only
told in later sources.
The Iliad
Achilles
Sing, Muse, the wrath of Achilles, Peleus’
son, a ruinous wrath, which put countless
woes upon the Achaians and hurled many
mighty souls of heroes to Hades, and
made them a feast for dogs and a banquet
for birds, and the will of Zeus was
accomplished, from the time when
Agamemnon and Achilles first quarrelled.
The quarrel began when a plague
struck the Greek camp. Calchas, the
seer, determined that it was caused
because Agamemnon had captured the
daughter of a priest of Apollo as his
slave girl, and he would have to give
her back. Agamemnon was enraged
because this would lessen his honor.
Calchas
The Warrior Ethos
The Homeric warrior’s ethos
was based on responsibility to,
and honor from, his
companions, which was
formalized in material prizes.
Time is the word for honor,
which is assessed by the good
opinion of your companions.
Loss of time is shameful.
A geras is a prize of honor,
won by you or voted to you
by your companions. When
war booty is divided, the size of
your geras reflects your time.
If Agememnon gives back his
slave, he will lose time. So he
threatens to take someone
else’s slave. But then that
warrior would lose time.
The Warrior Ethos
Achilles objects that Agamemnon’s plan is not fair, and
Agamemnon responds that he will then take Achilles’ slave girl,
Briseis. Achilles, warned by Athena not to attack Agamemnon,
submits, but withdraws from battle and refuses to fight. He even
prays to Thetis for the Greeks to lose.
In Greek eyes, Achilles
had the right to act as
he did, though it is
destructive and harmful
to his friends. Like
Apollo’s, his rages are
larger than life and
accomplish divine will,
however tragic. Achilles
will suffer the most for
his rage in the end.
Hector and Andromache
While the Greeks argue
in their all-male warrior
world, inside Troy there
is the poignance of
family life which will
soon be destroyed.
Hector and
Andromache are the
ideal couple: he is a
kind, attentive, and
heroic husband, while
she is a faithful,
supportive, and brave
wife.
Hector and Andromache
Hector: All of our losses are of concern to me too, but I should
feel terrible shame before the Trojan women if like a coward, I
were to shrink from battle. Nor would my spirit allow me to,
since I have learned to be brave, winning great glory for myself
and my father. For I know this well in my heart and soul: The
day will come when Troy will be destroyed.
Despite this conviction, Hector prays for
his infant son to grow up as a warrior too,
and laughs indulgently when the plume of
his helmet frightens the baby.
For Andromache, whose whole family has
been killed in war, Hector is everything.
But she knows he must go and fight.
He placed his son
in the hands of
his dear wife. She
took him to her
fragrant bosom,
laughing amidst
her tears.
The Embassy to Achilles
Without Achilles, the Greeks
begin to lose. Agamemnon
realizes the error of his ways, and
sends Odysseus, Ajax, and
Phoenix to ask Achilles to return
to battle. He offers a huge geras,
including marriage with his
daughter, to make up for his
previous insult to Achilles.
Ajax appeals to him friend
to friend – if he returns to
battle, he will save Greek
lives and support his
companions.
Odysseus presents the terms,
emphasizing the honor from
Agamemnon’s gift and how
much glory Achilles can win in
battle.
But Achilles refuses them
all, in a speech that is
sometimes articulate and
sometimes passionate.
Phoenix draws on myth and
their past relationship to
urge him to support his
community.
Achilles’ Response
I hate the man who says
one thing in his heart and
says something else, as
much as I hate Hades’
realm.
I do not believe that
Agamemnon will persuade
me, nor the other Greeks,
since it was no pleasure to
me always to fight against
the enemy relentlessly.
The coward is held in equal
honor with the brave man
who endures and fights hard,
and equal is his fate. The one
who does much and the one
who does nothing find a
similar end in death.
It was no advantage to me
when I suffered deeply,
continually risking my life in
battle. . . fighting against
enemies made beligerent in
the defense of their wives.
Achilles’ Response
Why must the Greeks attack the Trojans? Was it not on
account of Helen? Are the sons of Atreus the only ones who
love their wives? To be sure, any decent and responsible man
loves his own, just as I loved Briseis from the depths of my
heart, even though she was won by my spear.
In three days I’ll be home in Phthia. I
left behind rich possessions when I was
mad enough to come here . . . If the
gods preserve me, my father will
choose a bride for me. Now I think
no riches can compare with being alive
. . . a man’s life-breath cannot be
hunted back once it passes his lips.
As for
Agamemnon, I
would not share
one word of
counsel with
him; he robbed
me and broke
faith with me.
Patroclus
But Achilles does not go
home. He stays by the
ships, inactive, while things
get worse for the Greeks.
Finally his friend Patroclus,
loyal and kind-hearted,
can’t stand it any longer.
As the Trojans attack the
Greek camp, he proposes
that he should wear
Achilles’ armor and lead out
their men, and try to turn
the tide of battle by his
appearance alone.
Achilles agrees, but warns him
not to go too far.
Patroclus
Patroclus, himself a brave warrior, turns the tide of battle, even
after the Trojans realize he is not Achilles. But he forgets
Achilles’ instructions and attacks the city walls. There Hector
kills him. A huge fight breaks out as the Trojans try to despoil
the body, and the Greeks try to protect it.
When Achilles hears the
news of his friend’s death,
he runs out onto the
battle field without armor.
But that is enough to
make the Trojans back off.
Patroclus’ body is
returned home – but
without armor.
Achilles’ Revenge
Achilles is back, with single
minded purpose: revenge. He
brushes off Agamemnon’s
presents, and refuses food and
drink – all he wants is to fight.
But first he must have new armor.
Thetis approaches Hephaestus,
who makes Achilles miraculous
armor. Depicted on it are all
aspects of human life – love, war,
harvest, friendship, civic justice,
dancing and celebrating –
All the things warriors abandon –
All the things the living
give up when they die.
Achilles returns to battle.
Achilles’ Revenge
Previously, Achilles was a
chivalrous warrior, taking
prisoners and allowing
families to ransom them.
Now he is pitiless. To one
teen-aged enemy he says,
Achilles chokes the river
Skamander with so many
corpses that the river itself
does battle with him. But
Achilles escapes, still longing
to kill Hector.
Why ask for mercy? Some
morning or evening
someone will take my life
too, with a spear-cast or an
arrow . . . Nose down there
with the fishes. They’ll kiss
your blood away.
Achilles’ Revenge
Finally his opportunity comes. He faces Hector in single
combat. For a moment Hector loses heart and runs, but
finally turns to fight Achilles. Apollo favors Hector . . .
but Hector’s
time has come.
With Athena’s
help, Achilles
kills him, and
with his dying
breath, Hector
prophesies
Achilles’ death.
Achilles’ Revenge
Still enraged, Achilles ties Hector’s body to his chariot and
drives it 7 times around Troy’s walls. The gods, offended by
the sacrilege, protect the body. Achilles returns to camp.
In the days
that follow, he
continues to
abuse the body
and refuses to
return to
normal life.
He is out of
touch with
reality.
Achilles’ Revenge
Meanwhile the ghost of Patroclus appears to him and tells him
to bury his (Patroclus’) body – which was still unburied!
Achilles does so, combining cruelty (killing 12 Trojan
prisoners on the tomb) and kindness (magnanimously
hosting excellent funeral games, giving away generous prizes)
And finally the
gods send Athena
to tell Achilles to
let go of his anger
and return Hector’s
body to his family.
The End of the Iliad
Hermes leads Priam to Achilles’ tent, carrying a huge ransom.
The End of the Iliad
Achilles: Iron must be the heart
within you! Come, sit down,
we’ll let our grief rest, though it
lies heavily on us.
Now in Achilles the
evocation of his father
stirred new longing, and
an ache of grief. He lifted
the old man’s hand and
gently put him by. Then
both were overcome as
they remembered: the old
man wept for Hector, and
Achilles wept for his own
father, and for Patroclus
again, and sobbing filled
the room.
The End of the Iliad
Tears heal nothing,
drying so stiff and cold.
This is the way the gods
ordained the destiny of
men, to bear such
burdens in our lives, while
they feel no affliction.
For my father there was only one son, of all seasons and of
none. Can I stand by him in his age? Far from home I sit at
Troy to grieve you and your children. You, too, sir, in time
past were fortunate, then the gods out of the sky sent you this
bitterness. Endure it then. There is no remedy.
The End of the Iliad
The Iliad concludes with the funeral of Hector, a brief
celebration amongst warriors and civilians whom fate has
doomed to tragedy.
Other Trojan War Stories
The Amazons came to
help the Trojans; one
Amazon queen,
Penthesileia, fought
Achilles in single
combat. She lost; but as
her eyes met Achilles’,
they realized that they
were kindred spirits, and
could have loved one
another. Once again,
the warrior’s duty
precludes happiness.
Other Trojan War Stories
Achilles, the greatest hero, was killed by an arrow shot by
Paris, the wimp, with Apollo’s help.
Homer does
not mention
the tradition
of Achilles’
invulnerability
except for his
heel. But
other ancient
sources show
it, e.g. this
vase painting.
Other Trojan War Stories
Euripides’ tragedy Hecuba explores the story that Achilles’
ghost demanded that Priam’s daughter Polyxena be sacrificed
to him – a Trojan virgin sacrifice to match the Greek one
(Iphigenia’s) at the beginning of the war.
Other Trojan War Stories
After Achilles’ death, Ajax and Odysseus both wanted his
armor. When it was awarded to Odysseus, Ajax went insane &
killed a flock
of sheep,
thinking
they were
his enemies.
Humiliated,
he then
committed
suicide.
The End of the War
Trojan horse illustration approximately
contemporary with Homer
After ten years of siege,
and the deaths of many
heroes on both sides, the
Greeks had still not
captured the city.
So Odysseus, known for
his cleverness (metis),
came up with a plan.
They would build a huge
horse, put warriors inside,
then leave it for the
Trojans to take into their
city as an offering to the
gods.
The End of the War
Cassandra warned against
bringing it in, but no one
listened to her.
Laocoon advised against it
too. But the gods had
decided Troy would fall, so
Poseidon, who had always
favored the Greeks, sent a
sea serpent to destroy
Laocoon and his sons.
The Trojans took the
omen and brought the
horse into the city.
The End of the War
In the Aeneid, Vergil tells the end of the story: The Trojans
celebrated and finally slept, drunk and happy. Then the Greek
warriors came out of the horse, and let their companions, who
had sailed back from a nearby island, into the city.
Massive destruction
followed. Priam and
all but one of his
sons were killed,
Hecuba, Cassandra
and all the women
taken as slaves, and
the city completely
destroyed.
The End of the War
Hector’s infant son Astyanax was thrown to his death from the
walls of the city, and Andromache became the slave of
Achilles’ son, Neoptolemus, who had recently joined the
Greek warriors.
(Strangely
enough, she later
married Priam’s
one surviving
son, Helenus,
and had a
relatively happy
life.)
The End of the War
Then Ajax (the Lesser) drags
off Cassandra & rapes her
after she took refuge at the
altar of the virgin goddess
Athena.
The Greeks are violent and
sacrilegious in their
victory, first killing the
aged king as he takes
refuge at an altar . .
The End of the War
The scene as illustrated in Roman wall painting (from Greek originals)
The End of the War
Aeneas, after fighting
bravely, escapes from the
Aeneas goes on to found Rome.
burning city, carrying his
father on his shoulders
(representing the weight of
the past) and holding his
young son by the hand
(the promise of the
future). Anchises holds the
palladium, the ancient
statue of Athena, in his
arms, the sacred emblem of
Troy. But Aeneas’ wife
cannot keep up and is killed
in the fighting.
The End of the War
Helen is returned to Menelaus. In this vase painting, she holds
her veil in a typical bridal gesture.
Helen
Greek thought about
Helen is ambivalent.
In the Iliad and Odyssey,
she is favorably portrayed
– kind to those around
her, intelligent and
thoughtful, and not to
blame for the destructive
effect of her own beauty.
She is a focus of heroine
cult as well.
Other sources treat her as
an evil seductress.
The End of the War
With the enemy destroyed, the Greeks return home – but how
quickly victory turns sour even for the victors is seen in the
Greek heroes’ often tragic homecomings.
finis