Ethical
Theories
Jessica Purath
Lindsey Rasmussen
Douglas Sass
Amber Schmidt-Bedker
Wendy Sloan
Ethical Dilemma
Sulina just returned from a long day of
shopping in another city, an hour’s drive
from her home. She purchased several
things and as she is unpacking her
purchases, she realizes the clerk included a
fifty dollar item of clothing in one of the
bags that Sulina didn’t pay for. What should
Sulina do about the unpaid-for purchase?
Utilitarian Theory
A normative ethical theory where right and
wrong is determined solely by the
consequences of choosing one behavior or
action over another. It moves beyond the
scope of self-interest and takes into
consideration the interests of other people.
(Cavalier, 2006)
Utilitarian Theory
Values
 Justice:
the fairest choice in the eyes of
the law
 Fairness: wanting the best possible choice
for the group as a whole
 Equality: wanting everyone to have a fair
choice or chance
 Concern for others: wanting the best
possible outcome for society as a whole
Utilitarian Theory
Vocabulary





Fecundity: will more of the same follow?
Purity: pleasure will not be followed by pain
Hedonism: pursuit of or devotion to pleasure and self-gratification
Utility: concern for maximizing the value of the universe
Act utilitarianism



When faced with a choice, the principle of utility is applied to each
alternative
The right act is defined as that which brings the best results (or least
amount of bad results)
Rule utilitarianism


The principle of utility is used to determine the validity of rules of
conduct or moral principles
Right and wrong are defined as following or breaking those rules or
principles
(Cavalier, 2006)
Utilitarian Theory
Contributors

Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)

Developed the principle of utility





Pleasure and pain play a fundamental role in human
life
Approval or disproval of an action is based on the
amount of pleasure or pain its consequences bring
Good equates with pleasure and evil with pain
Pleasure and pain can be quantified and are thus
measurable
Introduced criteria to measure pleasure and pain
(Cavalier, 2006)
Utilitarian Theory
Contributors

John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) adjusted the
hedonistic qualities of Bentham’s philosophy
by emphasizing the following



The quantity of happiness is what is central to
utilitarianism not the quantity of pleasure
Quantities cannot be quantified but distinctions
can be made between ‘higher’ and ‘lower’
pleasure
Utilitarianism refers to the Greatest Happiness
Principle because it seeks to promote happiness
for the most amount of people
(Cavalier, 2006)
Utilitarian Theory
Strengths


Utilitarians can compare past situations with
what is currently happening to decide what
choice is the most useful for the most people,
regardless of personal feelings or the law
Rule utilitarians want the best conceivable
result for the most amount of people but they
take into consideration people’s feelings
(kindness) and they respect the law (justice),
all of which is better for society
Utilitarian Theory
Criticisms




As humans we are not capable of knowing the
exact outcome of a situation.
It is highly unlikely that all people will devote their
lives to helping other people for the common
good of all
Not all Utilitarians are concerned with justice as
long as an action benefits most people
There exists the potential of conflicting or
counteracting laws, especially in rule utilitarianism,
thus making an ethically correct answer difficult to
determine (if one exists at all).
Utilitarian Theory
Sulina’s Dilemma
According to Utilitarianism, Sulina should
return the unpaid-for item of clothing
because this would be the best possible
outcome for society. As a result of this
choice, Sulina would be acting in
accordance with the law (justice) and
could help the employee not get in trouble
for his/her mistake (kindness).
Rights Theory


A right is a justified claim that individuals or groups
can make upon others wherein the right of one
implies the duties of another. Typically moral rights
have four features; natural, universal, equal, and
inalienable.
(Fieser, 2009)
In rights theory, rights are determined to be
ethically correct and valid because the majority of
people accept them as so. As a result, society
protects these rights and gives them high priority.
(Rainbow, 2002)
Rights Theory
Values





Justice: each person gets what s/he deserves
Rights: a justified claim that individuals or
groups can make upon others or society
Duty: an obligation one person has to another
Equality: rights are the same for all people,
regardless of gender, race, etc.
Validity: having a premise from which a
conclusion may logically derived
Rights Theory
Vocabulary



Right: a justified claim that individuals or groups
can make upon others or society
(Edwards, 2003)
Correlativity of rights and duties: the rights of one
person imply the duties of another
Features of moral rights




Natural: not invented or created by government
Universal: are the same across different societies
Equal: rights are the same for all people
Inalienable: cannot give our rights over to another
person
(Cavalier, 2006)
Rights Theory
Contributors

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)




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Conceived natural rights as an extension of man’s “state of
nature” and argued the essential human right was to use power
as a means of self-preservation
Further stipulated that humans won’t follow the laws of nature
without first being subjected to a sovereign power
John Locke (1632-1704) argued that our natural rights, laws
of nature given to us by God, shouldn’t harm anyone’s life,
health, liberty, or possessions
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) claimed to derive natural rights
from reason alone
Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) maintained that we derive
more specific rights from our natural ones, including rights
of property, movement, speech, and religious expression
(Fieser, 2009)
Rights Theory
Strengths




Rights provide protection for life, health, liberty,
and property and thus provide a moral framework
for law
Moral, legal, and institutional rules are developed
to distinguish valid rights from those which are
invalid
Rights and duties are correlative which provides
clarity for action
This theory is widely accepted and therefore can
provide a common basis for discussing ethical
problems
(Edwards, 2003)
Rights Theory
Criticisms



This theory is complicated by the fact that
society has to determine what rights to
uphold and what rights to give its citizens
Determining rights requires society to first
decide what its goals and ethical priorities are
As a result, rights theory must be used in
addition to another which establishes and
explains the goals and priorities of society
(Rainbow, 2002)
Rights Theory
Sulina’s Dilemma
According to Rights Theory, Sulina should bring
the unpaid-for item of clothing back to the
store. She should do this because society’s goal
is to have working order and no theft. Sulina
should bring the item back because she did not
pay for it. Furthermore, the employee has a right
to make an honest mistake and it follows that
Sulina has a duty to inform the employee of
his/her mistake so s/he can learn from the
experience and not make the same mistake
again.
Fairness/Justice Theory
The theory of justice as fairness and a form
of social contract theory. Essentially, in the
original position, behind the veil of
ignorance, the rational choice of
fundamental principles for society would be
those which provide the highest minimum
standards of justice for all people.
(Kay, 1997)
Fairness/Justice Theory
Values



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Fairness: the ability to make specific
judgments about something particular; the
ability to judge without referring to feelings or
interests
Justice: giving each person what s/he
deserves (i.e. “their due”); used to refer to a
standard of what is right
Liberty: the freedom from control and
restrictions
Equality: the existence of being equal to
others
Fairness/Justice Theory
Vocabulary

Equal Liberty Principle

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
Veil of ignorance




When someone has more of something it means someone else has
lost an equivalent amount
One principle of justice = equality
Not knowing who we are or where our standing in the social
hierarchy is
Main distinguishing feature of the original position
Original position: a fair and impartial perspective required to
reason about the principles of justice
Difference Principle


Behind a veil of ignorance we try to make sure that any inequalities
which arise bring those least well-off, up as far as possible
A second, more subtle principle of justice
(Weston, 2008, p.143-144)
Fairness/Justice Theory
Contributors

John Rawls (1921-2002)

Author of the classic work A Theory of Justice where he
developed the concept of justice as fairness


Key components of his theory include the veil of ignorance and
original position
Both integral in determining the construction of a fair society
without any preconceived notions or prejudices
(Wenar, 2012)

Envisioned a society of free citizens holding basic equal rights
cooperating with one another within an egalitarian system
Fairness regardless of social status is emphasized

Conservatives have argued that the American political system
gives everyone an equal chance and that most would choose
this system from behind a veil of ignorance
(Travis, 2010)
Fairness/Justice Theory
Strengths
 The
two principles of justice (Equal Liberty
Principle and the Difference Principle)
mean that everyone benefits from
cooperation
 These principals also ensure a sense of
self-respect (an important good) through
the respect for others
(Chilton, 2005)
Fairness/Justice Theory
Criticisms
 People
cannot really forget who they are
and what society is like, thus any
conclusions reached from the original
position or from behind the veil of
ignorance will be influenced by selfinterest
 Primary concern is social institutions and
the equal distribution of goods
Fairness/Justice Theory
Sulina’s Dilemma
According to one interpretation of this theory, Sulina
would bring the unpaid-for item back to the store.
She would put her feelings aside as well as any
thoughts of what she has to gain by keeping the
item, and look at the situation from behind a veil of
ignorance. Essentially she would take a step back
and try to consider the situation from the perspective
of what would she do if she didn’t know which side of
the issue she were on – the person given an extra
item or the employee who has made a mistake. After
thoughtful consideration she would decide that the
just and fair thing to do is bring the item back.
Care Based Theory
The moral concern of attending to and
meeting the needs of people we take
responsibility for. This theory values the
emotions and relational capabilities which
help the morally concerned person – the
caregiver – determine what would be in the
best interest of the person(s) s/he is caring
for.
(Bagnoli, 2006)
Care Based Theory
Values




Concern for others : looking out for the welfare of
others and loving them as we love ourselves
Relationship: being connected to another person
Responsibility: having the duty of dealing with
something; being accountable for our behavior
Best interest of others: being responsible for taking
action we think is the most advantageous for
others in any given situation
Care Based Theory
Vocabulary



Interdependence: a reciprocal relationship
between at least two individuals who depend on
one another to get their needs met
Caring for: face-to-face encounters where one
person takes care of another
Caring about: something more general that takes
us into the public realm


An example: caring about people who are going
hungry and wanting to do something about it, like
start a food pantry
According to Noddings, this is the foundation upon
which our sense of justice is built on
(Smith, 2004)
Care Based Theory
Contributors

Nel Noddings (1929-present)

In her first major work Caring (1984) she explores a “feminine
approach to ethics and moral education”


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Believes care is basic to all human life and all people want to be
cared for
Also asserts that women are guided by ‘natural’ caring and this is
a significant aspect of their experiences
Concludes ‘natural’ care is essentially a moral attitude – “a
longing for goodness that arises out of the experience or memory
of being cared for”
More recently has highlighted the differences between the
‘caring for’ and the ‘caring about’


Argues ‘caring about’ needs more attention because it is a
significant force in society
Concludes ‘caring about’ is “the foundation for our sense of
justice”
(Smith, 2004)
Care Based Theory
Contributors

Carol Gilligan (1936-present)


Founder of “difference feminism”
Believes women have different moral and psychological
tendencies than men


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Men think in terms of rules and justice
Whereas women tend to think in terms of caring and relationships
Outlines three stages of moral development that women go
through


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Moral thinking begins with selfishness
The “conventional” middle stage is the opposite: self-sacrifice
Final stage is where women find a balance between self and
others and understand how they are intertwined with others (i.e.
an ethics of relationships)
(Weston, 2008, p.200)
Care Based Theory
Strengths




Highlights the fact that people, especially women,
think about others in a humane and caring way
The validity of emotions, feelings, and virtues in
ethics is recognized
Particular attention is given to the family and has
brought the home to the forefront of moral
discourse
Starts its reasoning from the moral obligation to
meet the needs of others instead from some
universal principle
(Noda, 2001)
Care Based Theory
Criticisms



The concept of care, which is central to the
ethics of care, is vague and may require an
external principle to determine whether the
care is right or wrong
Care ethics cannot solve the problem of the
conflicts of virtues, a problem in all virtue
ethics
There isn’t a mechanism to deal with feelings
of vengeance
(Noda, 2001)
Care Based Theory
Sulina’s Dilemma
According to this theory, Sulina should take
the unpaid-for item back to the store. This
decision is based on Sulina’s desire to do
what is in the best interest of the employee
who mistakenly gave her an unpaid-for
item. Sulina doesn’t want the employee to
get into any trouble for his/her mistake and
wants to continue to have a good
customer-employee relationship.
Virtue Theory
This theory is based on traits. It is the belief
that virtues are the kinds of character traits
we should seek and sustain, perhaps
because they originate from something
deep within human nature or the world. It is
thought that there exists a relationship
between virtues and happiness: maybe
virtues make us happy simply because they
are virtues.
(Weston, 2008, p.173)
Virtue Theory
Values
 Commitment:
being dedicated to a
particular behavior or course of action
 Rational self-regulation


The ability to discern an appropriate
response or course of action when faced
with extreme emotion or behavior
The ability to follow the middle path, that of
moderation
Virtue Theory
Vocabulary

Virtues
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Vice


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
The appropriate, rational middle between extremes of emotion,
behavior, or action
Character traits that allow us to act in ways that develop
positive and good morals, values, and attitude
Habit that once acquired become characteristic of a person
Excessive emotion , behavior, or action
A practice, behavior, or habit considered immoral, depraved,
or degrading in society
Examples are insensitivity, discontent, insatiability, willful
ignorance, denial, and bad temper
Defect: too little emotion, behavior, or action
(Weston, 2008, p.172-174)
Virtue Theory
Contributors
 Aristotle


(834-322 BCE)
Believed everything in the world has a
distinct and essential function, a function
which in turn determines its admirable traits
(i.e. virtues)
Suggested the characteristic which defines
human function is rational self-regulation,
the function which in turn determines our
moral virtues
(Weston, 2008, p.174)
Virtue Theory
Contributors

Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274)

Borrowed Aristotle’s “logic of virtue”

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According to Aquinas, “reason is not an end in itself”



Derived virtue from human activity or function
However, understood human activity in very different
terms
Rather, reason is a means to better understand ourselves
and God
Believes our ultimate purpose is “communion with God,
as far as we can achieve it in this life”
Added the virtues of faith, hope, and charity to the
“natural” virtues like justice and temperance
(Weston, 2008, p.176-177)
Virtue Theory
Strengths

Virtues are beneficial and not just because
they’re admirable traits; virtues are valuable



They’re socially and ethically valuable and seen
as positive characteristics of people
They’re valuable because of the good or
positive consequences they tend to bring with
them
We should cultivate virtuous dispositions
because such dispositions tend to maximize
benefits and positive outlooks of people
Virtue Theory
Criticisms
 There
exists a potential difficulty in
establishing the nature of virtues
 People from different cultures and
societies often have differing opinions on
what constitutes a virtue
 Virtues are considered ideal character
traits and may conflict with one another
Virtue Theory
Sulina’s Dilemma
According to Virtue Theory, Sulina should
return the item of clothing that she didn’t
pay for but was mistakenly placed in her
shopping bag. Returning the item would
make her a morally good and virtuous
individual. By returning the item, she would
appear honest and caring, character traits
which are deeply valued in our society.
Divine Command
“What’s good is good because God says so.
God’s commanding something defines it as
good” (Weston, 2008, p.49). Divine Command
essentially teaches that something (i.e. action,
behavior, choice, etc.) is good because God
demands it to be done and evil because God
forbids it to be done. Thus, to say it is good to
love our neighbors is semantically equivalent to
saying God Commands us to love our neighbors.
Similarly, it is evil to commit murder because
God forbids us to murder.
Divine Command
Values






Trust: faith; the belief that God and his
commandments are good
Faith: reliance that if He commands it, it is
good
Courage: resolution to what God deems is
good even if it goes against our values
Commitment: obligation to follow God’s will
Loyalty: consistent allegiance to God’s will
Fortitude: courage to do God’s will
Divine Command
Vocabulary
 Divine:
transcendent or transcendental
power
 Religion: views established with symbols,
beliefs, spirituality, and moral values
 Morality: the difference between right
and wrong
 Moral absolution: the ethical view which
states certain actions are absolutely right
or wrong
Divine Command
Contributors

Augustine (354-430)



Believed ethics to be the pursuit of supreme
good, which provides the happiness that all
humans are looking for
Claimed the way to obtain this happiness is to
love the right objects in the right way and this
requires we love God
Thus, according to Augustine, our love of God
helps us love everything else in a way
proportional to their value
(Austin, 2006)
Divine Command
Contributors

Immanuel Kant(1724-1804)



Claimed the requirements of morality are too
much for us to bear alone so we must believe in
the existence of God who will help us live moral
lives
Also believed that being moral does not
guarantee happiness, so we must believe in a
God who will reward the morally righteous with
happiness
Did not use his concept of faith as an argument for
Divine Command Theory, but contemporaries
could use his reasoning to do so
(Austin, 2006)
Divine Command
Strengths



Provides an objective metaphysical
foundation for morality
Good and bad are relevant to God and our
sense of what is good or bad corresponds to
God’s sense of good and bad
Those who do evil will be punished and those
who live moral lives will be vindicated and
even rewarded
(Austin, 2006)
Divine Command
Criticisms
 Morality
based entirely on God’s whim
makes morality arbitrary
 We are morally blind and have no direct
knowledge of good and evil, so have to
rely solely upon God and His guidance
 It is contingent upon the existence of a
person’s religion and beliefs
Divine Command
Sulina’s Dilemma
According to this theory, Sulina would need
to return the item because keeping
something that does not rightfully belong to
her is stealing; even though it was mistakenly
put in her bag, she did not pay for it. One of
God’s commandments states “thou shalt
not steal”. In other words, God forbids
stealing, making it wrong and as a result,
Sulina must return the item
Natural Law Theory
 Moral
perspective: the moral standards
which govern human behavior derive
from the nature of human beings and the
nature of the world
 Legal perspective: the authority of legal
standards derives from the consideration
their moral merit
Natural Law Theory
Values






Justice: conformity to moral rightness in action
or attitude
Obedience: compliance with that which is
required and subject to rightful restraint or
control
Rights: we much respect the rights of others
Responsibility: that for which someone is
responsible or answerable
Self-discipline: making ourselves do things
when we should, even if we don’t want to
Law abiding: abiding by the rules of society
Natural Law Theory
Vocabulary



Self preservation: behavior that ensures the
survival of an organism
Moral judgment: evaluations or opinions
formed as to whether some action or
inaction, intention, motive, character trait, or
person as a whole is more or less good or bad
as measured against some standard of good
Legal norm: a mandatory rule of social
behavior established by the state
Natural Law Theory
Contributors

Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)



Catholic priest and an important philosopher
and theologian
His goal was to make people good by following
the order that exists in nature, obeying what
nature has taught all animals, and by pursuing
inclinations and tendencies of human reason
Believed a person does anything and
everything because that ‘thing’ at least
appears to be good
(Garrett, n.d.)
Natural Law Theory
Contributors

Hugo Grotius (1583-1645)




Defined natural law as a perceptive judgment
in which things are good or bad by their own
nature
Law is what God has shown to be His will
Believed God to be an active, creative God,
persistent in the management and application
of Divine or natural law
Believed that human nature, including traits of
reason, are divine gifts from God
(Miller, 2011)
Natural Law Theory
Strengths





Natural law is based on reason and is a “clear-cut”
ethical theory
Attempts to connect ethics to the general
structure of the universe
It is not based on feelings or emotions but on the
mind working out what is natural, according to a
rational process
For both the religious and non-religious, making a
moral judgment is a matter of listening to one’s
reason
There is no need to look at an individual’s situation
to determine what is right and wrong, it’s
straightforward
Natural Law Theory
Criticisms

What happens when it contradicts Christian
teachings?



Shows what a moral life should be like, on the
assumption we are rational beings living in a world
designed by a rational creator




Jesus taught us to ‘turn the other cheek’ when abused
Natural Law suggests we have a right to self-preservation
If this is challenged, so is the theory
Do really know what our purpose is?
The idea of a single human nature is rejected by
many
How do we decide what is natural and normal?
Natural Law Theory
Sulina’s Dilemma
Sulina knows that the extra item does not
belong to her. Natural law states that deep
down inside herself, Sulina knows the right
thing to do – return the unpaid-for item.
However, the moral perspective of natural
theory also says we make our own choices,
thus giving Sulina the choice to do what
natural law says or not.
Ethical Relativism
The belief that nothing is objectively right or
wrong because the definition of what is right
or what is wrong depends on the view of the
individual, cultural, or historical period.
Ethical Relativism
Values





Loving kindness: treat others the way you
want to be treated
Accountability: taking responsibility for your
behavior
Care for others: feeling and exhibiting
concern and empathy for others
Honesty: fairness and straightforwardness of
conduct
Fairness: consistent with rules, logic, or ethics
Ethical Relativism
Vocabulary
 Prevailing
view: the view shared by most
people of a group or ‘the most commonly
accepted view’
 Primitive notion: an undefined concept
 Ethical universals: a set of principles which
apply to all humans
Ethical Relativism
Contributors

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)



G. E. Moore (1873-1958)



Formulated a standard that would identify moral laws
Believed generations that failed this test would contain a logical
contradiction or would somehow be self-defeating
(Ess, n.d.)
Believed the term ‘good’ was a primitive notion and could not
be analyzed into parts
Concluded that ‘good’ referred to a “non-natural” property of
things
Melville Herskovits (1895-1963)


Believed evaluations are relative to the culture they come from
Believed there might be ethical universals that were the same
across cultures
(DeLapp, 2011)
Ethical Relativism
Strengths
 Encourages
tolerance of other cultures
 Promotes respect for other individuals and
societies
 Helps keep societies from falling apart
 Allows individuals to choose their own
values
Ethical Relativism
Criticisms
 Confuses
what should be done with what
is currently being done
 No universals or absolutes
 There can be no moral progress
 Upholds morality of things like slavery,
sexism, and racism as long as the culture
accepts them
Ethical Relativism
Selena’s Dilemma
According to this theory, Sulina’s decision to
keep or return the unpaid for item is not
objectively right or wrong, but instead
depends on what she values and society
supports. In this case, Sulina values honesty,
a trait that is also valued in society. As a
result, the right thing for her to do is return
the unpaid-for item.
Social Contract Theory
Sulina’s Dilemma
According to Social Contract Theory, Sulina has
willfully agreed to follow the laws of society and
to hold herself accountable for her behaviors. As
a result, she will return the unpaid-for item;
keeping it would essentially be stealing, which is
in violation of the law. Furthermore, she would
not want the employee who mistakenly put the
item in her bag, to get in any trouble, as another
key tenet of Social Contract Theory is preserving
our rights and freedoms by cooperating with
other individuals.
Ethical Egoism
Sulina’s Dilemma
According to Ethical Egoism, Sulina has the personal
freedom decide whether or not she will return the
unpaid-for item. On one hand she could keep it,
which at first glance appears to be in her best
interest – she has a shirt she didn’t have to pay for;
however, with the freedom to choose comes the
obligation to allow others this same right. And
furthermore, ethical egoism also states it is in Sulina’s
best interest to look long-term at how her actions
affect other people. If Sulina keeps the shirt, other
people in the same situation may do the same, and
over time this could lead to a price increase which is
not in the best interest of anyone. As a result, Sulina
returns the unpaid-for item.
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