Vocabulary of an
argument...
Basic principles
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Assertions
a claim or statement of opinion
not a fact
be skeptical
never should stand alone
conclusions without evidence
Thesis and Topic
Sentences
A really big, main assertion which the whole
paper is trying to prove
Body paragraphs contain smaller assertions
which prove the larger
Assertion
Evidence
support
fact, figure, statistic, poll, scientific data,
example, testimony from an expert, other
forms in literature
proves the assertion
should be accurate, recent, sufficient and fair
college poll
interview 5 students about the administration
and approval.
report that 4 out of 5 approve
80% of the campus approves
What’s wrong with the report?
2 Types of Evidence
Primary
Secondary
Primary
letters
diaries
first hand accounts, interviews, witnesses
surveys, polls
scientific research from reputable scientist
author, director (sometimes questionable)
in the work (story, drama, poem)
Secondary
criticism
journalist’s story
interpretations, explanations
Assertion
Evidence
L
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Evidence
Assertion
Logical Reasoning
2 types
inductive
deductive
Inductive
Moves from specific pieces of evidence to a
general conclusion
An inductive leap
Common sense
Can never be certain
The better your evidence, the less likely you
will be proven wrong
Deductive
less common
more certain
based on syllogism - 2 general,true premises
lead to 1 valid conclusion
socrates is a man
all men are mortal
Socrates is mortal
Deductive
If the premises are true, then the conclusion is
100% valid, in other words, “I win.”
To identify other dogs, all dogs use their
noses to sniff other dogs’ butts
My dog meets dogs regularly on our walks
I should not kiss my dog on her nose
The problem with logic...
Everybody wants to be logical; everyone
thinks they are logical, but not very many
people actually ARE logical.
It is a rare quality, but one CAN LEARN to be
more logical.
Logical Fallacies
Errors in logical thinking
Sometimes difficult to see
Many types
They are EVERYWHERE
Top 27 Logical Fallacies
These are the ones most often used
This is not an extensive list
Fallacies of Ethos or
Pathos
False Authority (False Ethos) - When the
authority does not have obvious, pertinent
experience
Even Denzel Washington, who portrayed
Colin Powell in a movie, believes the US
should not be in a war.
Fallacies of Ethos or
Pathos
Appeal to Pathos (Emotion: Pity, Fear,
Patriotism, etc.) - good for persuasion, bad for
argument based on REASON. Argumentation
is supposed to be objective. USed to make the
reader want to act, and if used instead of real
evidence for action, it is a fallacy.
Examples
Fallacies of Ethos or
Pathos
Bandwagon - Appeals to the desire to be
popular, or with the “in” crowd. Argues that a
person will like something because everyone
else likes it. OR Because something is
popular, it is right.
Fallacies of Distraction
Designed to get you off track, you guys are
good at this!
Red Herring - Rubbing a new topic into the
argument so opponent follows the scent of the
new topic and leaves the old argument (which
you are probably losing)
"We admit that this measure is popular. But
we also urge you to note that there are so
many bond issues on this ballot that the whole
thing is getting ridiculous."
Fallacies of Distraction
Ad Hominem (Argument to the person) - type
of red herring where you make a personal
attack on your opponent to try to get them off
track of the true issue. (It usually works
because we don’t like to be attacked. It makes
us angry, and we can’t think when we are
angry.)
Bill: "I believe that abortion is morally wrong."
Dave: "Of course you would say that, you're a
priest."
Fallacies of Distraction
Poisoning the Well - Trying to completely
discredit an opponent, making his words
suspect.
It’s hard to believe a journalist’s facts when
he spent two years in jail for perjury.
Fallacies of Distraction
Guilt by Association - Associating opponent
with something negative, illogical association
Dr. Spelman was Hitler’s doctor in Germany
during WWII.
Fallacies of Distraction
Tu Quoque (“You’re another”) - when a person
is attacked with an Ad Hominem and counters
with another. (This works because the
opponent thinks that if he/she doesn’t address
the remark then people will believe it is true
when the correct response would be to point
out the ad hominem.)
Peter: "Based on the arguments I have presented, it is
evident that it is morally wrong to use animals for food or
clothing."
Bill: "But you are wearing a leather jacket and you have a
roast beef sandwich in your hand! How can you say that
using animals for food and clothing is wrong!"
Fallacies of Distraction
Common Practice (Everybody does it) - When
an individual, group, or corporation gets
caught doing something wrong but claims that
at the time, every individual, group, or
corporation was doing it OR that other groups
did worse. (You guys are REALLY good at
this.)
Fallacies of Distraction
Shifting Terms - When you establish one term
to discuss an issue, but change to another.
(this happens when the opponent is hostile
towards the initial term)
Fallacies of Distraction
Shifting Ground - Making an assertion, and
later changing (usually because he is losing
the original assertion)
Fallacies of
Oversimplification
Ignore the complex situations, try to convince
using a false “common sense”
Hasty Generalization - a really bad inductive
leap, you do not have enough or the right kind
of evidence
Stereotyping - unsubstantiated claims about a
whole group using little to no evidence
Fallacies of
Oversimplification
Post Hoc (False Cause) - Because A
happened first, then B happened later, A must
have caused B.
Joan is scratched by a cat while visiting her
friend. Two days later she comes down with a
fever. Joan concludes that the cat's scratch
must be the cause of her illness.
Fallacies of
Oversimplification
Slippery Slope - the title is based on a
metaphor - if you take one step down a
slippery slope, you will have to take another
quicker step to keep from falling, which causes
you to speed up and need to take an even
quicker step - a series of future false causes,
none proven A causes B, B causes C, C
causes D, and so on until tragedy occurs.
"We have to stop the tuition increase! The next thing you
know, they'll be charging $40,000 a semester!"
Fallacies of
Oversimplification
False Analogy - an analogy is when you
compare two very different things, all
analogies are false as in they are inherently
different. If the argument relies SOLELY upon
analogy, you should not trust it. Valuable
teaching tool to relate to the audience, but
again, all you have to do to win that type of
argument is point out the differences in the
compared things.
Government is like business. Just as business, government
also must be sensitive primarily to the bottom line
Fallacies of
Oversimplification
Either, Or - When you want to force your
opponent into a single course of action or
intellectual position by narrowing all
possibilities down to only two and then makes
one of them completely undesirable.
The Ultimatium
Fallacies of Unfairness
These distort or dismiss evidence to favor your
case or weaken your opponents
Begging the Question - when you make an
assertion and then use that assertion as
evidence to defend the point without proving it
true.
Circular Logic - used interchangeably with
“Begging the Question” when you make an
assertion and then defend the assertion by
rewording the assertion
•
"If such actions were not illegal, then they
would not be prohibited by the law.“
•
Bill: "God must exist."
Jill: "How do you know."
Bill: "Because the Bible says so."
Jill: "Why should I believe the Bible?"
Bill: "Because the Bible was written by God."
Fallacies of Unfairness
Card Stacking - one of the most common,
easily avoided by a concession and counter
argument - When you ignore opponent’s
strong points.
ShamWow only shows us how well it soaks up
liquid but doesn’t show its durability or
toughness.
Fallacies of Unfairness
Straw Man - When you describe your
opponents positions in an unfair (incorrect)
manner, making it weaker than it really is.
Thus, your argument beats up on a lesser
opponent (scarecrow) instead of the real
powerful argument (Spiderman).
"Senator Jones says that we should not fund
the attack submarine program. I disagree
entirely. I can't understand why he wants to
leave us defenseless like that."
Fallacies of Unfairness
Reductio Ad Absurdum (Arguing to the
absurd) - similar to straw man except that
instead of weak you make opponent appear
absurd, crazy, or evil by pushing arguments to
extreme.
I am going into surgery tomorrow. Please
everyone, pray for me, so I will have a
successful surgery and a speedy recovery.
Fallacies of Unfairness
Self-Contradiction - A 2 or 3 part statement
where at least two parts disagree.
We don’t pollute the air with our exhaust,
we just drive everywhere we go.
I don’t care what you believe, as long as
your beliefs don’t harm others.
Fallacies of Unfairness
Ad Ignoratiam (Appeal to Ignorance) - asserts
that since there is no evidence to prove my
argument false, it is true. Assertion based on
no evidence, admits none, but then says that
lack of evidence (or ignorance) is proof of
truth.
"No one has ever proven that UFOs exist.
Therefore, they don't exist."
Fallacies of Unfairness
Proving a Negative - a relative to Ad
Ignorantium, No evidence is possible for an
event that did not occur. This is impossible.
There is a purple dragon behind the moon that
created the earth…now prove me wrong.
Fallacies of Unfairness
Out of Context - When a writer cites only a
part of a statement in such a way as to distort
the overall meaning of the original statement.
BE CAREFUL.
However, sometimes the person who says
something stupid later claims that it was taken
out of context.
Praying for help and letting God guide your
finger.
Fallacies of Unfairness
Ambiguity and Equivocation - when a
statement is written in a way that can be
understood in more than one way, tricking you
into interpreting the text in the one way the
writer intends.
President Clinton: “I did not have sex with
that woman, Monica Lewinsky, not one
time.
Fallacies of Unfairness
Non-Sequitur (It doesn’t make sense) - When
the conclusion bears no logical relation to the
statements which precede it.
Bill Morrison is a great writer, so he will
make a great US Senator.
Americans love movies, so Garfield will be
very popular.