AP European history: Chapter
16
Toward a New Heaven and
Earth
The Scientific Revolution and the
Emergence of Modern Science
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1
Overview
Scientific revolution
questioned and
ultimately challenged
the beliefs of the day
– Greek and Roman
influence had
prevailed
Pictured: Galileo
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2
Overview
After the reformation
and religious wars
– Environment was
created to “question”
Ecclesiastical concept?
Political realms?
– Now, what about the
“intellectual realm”
– ????????????????
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3
Overview
Shift in world view from earth-centered to
sun-centered cosmos impacted people
emotionally and intellectually
The Scientific Revolution moved slowly but
set the Western Civilization on a secular
and materialistic course
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Overview
Largely secular,
rational, and
materialistic
perspective
– Full acceptance since
19th and 20 centuries
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Overview
Difficult to arrive at
new world view
Galileo outspoken
critic of previous
world view
New world view
challenged by
Catholic Church
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Overview
Galileo: “I hold the
sun to be situated
motionless in the
center of the
revolution of the
celestial bodies, while
the earth rotates on
its axis and revolves
about the sun”
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7
Overview
Galileo: “…nothing
physical that senseexperience sets
before our
eyes…ought to be
called in question
(much less
condemned) upon the
testimony of Biblical
passages”
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8
Overview
Galileo called before
the Inquisition of
Rome
– Age 68, ill health
– Kept waiting for 2
months
– Found guilty of heresy
and disobedience
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9
Overview
Galileo denounced
his “errors”
– …I curse and detest
the said errors and
heresies contrary to
the Holy Church”
But his ideas had
been launched
throughout Europe
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10
Overview
Scientific revolution
not a “revolution” in
the strictest sense
– Not immediate
– Very gradual
Key factor in setting
Western civilization
along secular,
materialistic path
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11
Background to the Scientific
Revolution
Science not new to
the Middle Ages
Middle Ages saw
much interest and
curiosity
– It’s “God’s handiwork”
and study worthy
– But, there was a limit
Pictured: Johannes
Kepler
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Background to the Scientific
Revolution
Thinkers were
subjected to the
framework of earlier
scientists (Ptolemy,
pictured)
New findings
questioned and new
scientists limited as to
where they could take
their theories
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13
Background to Scientific
Revolution
Medieval scientists
were called “natural
philosophers”
– Many preferred refined
logical analysis
– Movement toward
more systematic
approach
– Pictured: Galen
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Ancient Authors and Renaissance
Artists
Earlier Latin translations of Aristotle,
Galen, and Ptolemy by medieval scholars
were contradicted
– Renaissance humanists who spoke Greek
and presented newer writings of Galen,
Archimedes, and Ptolemy.
– It was apparent that newer thinkers had
contradicted older writings
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Ancient Authors and
Renaissance Artists
Contradictions
between earlier and
later writings fostered
exploration: “truth
finding”
Sometimes,
contradictions led to
rejection of classical
authorities
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Ancient Authors and Renaissance
Artists (cont)
Renaissance artists
impact science
– Close observation of
nature
– Accurate renderings of
nature
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Ancient Authors and
Renaissance Artists
Scientists study
perspective and
proportion
– New insights
– Wrote one
Renaissance artists,
“No painter can paint
well without a
thorough knowledge of
geometry”
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Technological Innovations and
Mathematics
Fifteenth/Sixteenth
centuries produced
books dedicated to
machines and
technology
– Stressed importance
of innovation of
techniques
– Technical innovations
produced scientific
discoveries
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Technological Innovations and
Mathematics
Some knowledge
achieved outside the
universities through
experience, insight,
and innovation.
Rejected abstract
(school) learning
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Technological Innovations and
Mathematics
Inventions such as
telescope,
microscope, and
printing press
provided “tools” for
learning
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Technological Innovations and
Mathematics (cont)
Mathematics credited
with fundamental
understanding of
science and nature
Credit in many way to
Plato—emphasized
the importance of
mathematics in
explaining the
universe
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Technological Innovations and
Mathematics
Key to navigation, military science, and
geography
Key to understanding the nature of things
Leonardo da Vinci: God eternally
geometrizes, thus nature is inherently
mathematical
Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, and Newton,
all mathematicians, agreed
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Technological Innovations and
Mathematics
Mathematical reasoning promotes degree
of certainty, otherwise impossible
daVinci: “Proportion is not only found in
numbers and measurements, but also in
sounds, weights, times, positions, and
whatsoever power there may be”
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24
Renaissance Magic
By the end of the 17th
century, Hermetic
magic became fused
with alchemical
thought into single
intellectual framework
Hermeticism from
Hermes
Trismegistus—sage,
wise Egyptian priest
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Renaissance Magic
Hermes: there are
three parts of wisdom
– Alchemy
– Astrology
– Theurgy
Alchemy in earliest
times was associated
with astronomy
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Renaissance Magic
Alchemy was not
turning lead to gold,
but about the Magnus
Opus (“great work”)
performed on the soul
Different states of
matter are contingent
on the vibrations of
the universe
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Renaissance Magic
Under Hermeticism
– There are many
deities but only one
The All
– The universe is held in
the mind of The All
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Renaissance Magic
Belief the world was living body of divinity
Humans possess spark of divinity
– Could use magic to dominate world of nature
– Employ nature’s powers to humans’ benefit
Hermetic magic
Hermetic magic used to inspire Scientific
Revolution?
Visions, dreams, and intuitive ideas
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Renaissance Magic
The great names of
cosmology expressed
interest in Hermetic
ideas in astrology and
alchemy
–
–
–
–
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Copernicus
Kepler
Galileo
Newton
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A Revolution in Astronomy
TOWARD A NEW HEAVEN
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Greatest Achievements in 16th and
17 Centuries
Fields dominated by the Greeks
– Astronomy
– Mechanics
– Medicine
Cosmological views from Aristotle,
Ptolemy, and Christian theology
– Geocentric conception: a series of concentric
spheres with fixed/motionless earth at center
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Astronomy—Geocentric
Conception
Earth surrounded by
spheres made of
crystalline,
transparent
substance
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Astronomy—Geocentric
Conception
Spheres (planets)
moved in circular
motion
– Thought to be
nonmaterial,
incorruptible
“quintessence”
Aristotle: circular
motion the most
perfect
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Astronomy—Geocentric
Conception
Moving outward from
the earth
– Eight spheres
– Contained moon,
Mercury, Venus, the
sun, Mars, Jupiter,
Saturn, and fixed stars
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Astronomy—Geocentric
Conception
Beyond the tenth
sphere was
Empyrean Heaven
– Location of God and
all saved souls
Finite Ptolemaic
universe—consistent
with Christian thought
God at one end,
humans at center
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Copernicus—Heliocentric
Conception
Sun-centered universe
Studied both math and astronomy
He wrote a famous book on Heliocentric
Conception
– “On the revolution of the Heavenly Spheres”
– Too timid to publish it
– Published, May 1543, just before his death
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Astronomy—Geocentric
Conception
Explanation did not
satisfy astronomers
– Wished to find exact
paths of heavenly
bodies
– Findings did not
always correspond to
accepted theme
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Copernicus—Heliocentric
Conception
Nicolaus Copernicus
– Wrote: On the
Revolutions of the
Heavenly Spheres
A contradiction to earth
centered view
– Timidity and fear of
ridicule delayed
publishing until just
before death
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Copernicus—Heliocentric
Conception
Argued that the
universe consisted of
eight spheres with
sun motionless in
center
Planets revolved sun
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Copernicus—Heliocentric
Conception
Revolutions around
sun had an order
–
–
–
–
–
–
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Mercury
Venus
Earth
Mars
Jupiter
saturn
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Copernicus—Heliocentric
Conception
Appearance of sun
movement explained
– earth’s rotation
– journey of earth
around sun
Raised serious
questions about
Aristotle astronomy
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Copernicus—Heliocentric
Conception
Limited observational
astronomer
Relied on others’ data
Very accomplished
mathematician
Believed data didn’t
“stacked up” to
observed motions
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Copernicus—Heliocentric
Conception
Copernicus was
conservative
– Calculations included
Aristotle’s existence of
heavenly bodies
– Retained Ptolemy’s
epicycles
– Resulted in very
complicated system
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Copernicus—Heliocentric
Conception
Shift from earth
centered to sun
centered system
raised questions
about Aristotle’s
physics
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Copernicus—Heliocentric
Conception
Created uncertainty
about humans’ role in
the universe and
God’s location
Protestant reformers
and Luther attacked
the theory: “…wants
to turn the whole art
of astronomy upside
down”
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Copernicus—Heliocentric
Conception
Conservative theory
of Copernicus was
that heavenly bodies
moved in circles
– Fostered a very
complicated
mathematical theory
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Copernicus—Heliocentric
Conoception
Even though
reformers railed
against Copernicus:
Philip Melanchthon,
“The eyes are witness
that the heavens
revolve in the space
of twenty-four hours”
3/11/2016
The Catholic Church
remained silent for
the time being
– It did not denounce
Copernicus until the
work of Galileo
appeared
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Brahe
Danish nobleman—
Tycho Brahe
– “The noble Dane”
Studied planets 20
years
Rejected AristotelianPtolemaic system, but
was not convinced
the earth moved
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Brahe
Kepler takes the next
major step in
obliterating geocentric
concept, but not
without the work and
material of Brahe
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Brahe
Built elaborate
Uraniborg castle
– Library
– Observatories
– Instruments of precise
observation
Patiently documented
movement of
heavenly bodies for
20 years
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Brahe
Emperor Rudolph II
assigned him as the
imperial
mathematician
Johannes Kepler was
assistant
Pictured: Brahe and
Rudolf II
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Kepler
Considered by many
to be the “father of
cosmology”
Initially interested in
Lutheran ministry
Influenced by Michael
Mastlin, best known
German astronomer
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Kepler
Kepler illustrates
narrow line between
science and magic
Pictured: On
halloween, ghost
head of nebula
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Kepler
Interested in Hermetic
mathematical magic
– Soul was mirrored in
numeric relationships
– Tried to discover
“music of the spheres”
Moon and other planets
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Kepler
Book discussed that
the universe was
constructed on
geometric figures
– Pyramid and cubes
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Kepler
Brahe died but left his
records
Succeedd Brahe as
mathematician to
Rudolph
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Kepler
Possessed Brahe’s
astronomical data
– Arrived at three laws
of planetary motion
– Confirmed Copernicus’
heliocentric theories,
with slight modification
– Refuted AristotelianPtolemaic system
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Kepler
Three changes to
Copernicus
– Orbits of planets were
elliptical, not circular,
with sun at one focus
rather than in center
– Planet speed is faster
when closer to sun
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Aurora
59
Kepler
Three changes (cont)
Planets with larger orbits
revolve at slower average
velocity than those with
smaller orbits
People began to think
in new ways of the
elliptical orbiting
system
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Kepler
Theories eliminated
– Idea of circular motion
of the planets
– Crystalline spheres in
circular orbit
Open questions were
– What were planets
made of
– Motion in the universe
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Galileo Galilei
Taught mathematics
First European to
observe the heavens
using telescope
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Galileo
Discovered that
universe made of
similar substances as
earth
Discovered sun spots
and other orbital
phenomenon
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Galileo
Wrote “The Starry
Messenger” in 1610
bringing great acclaim
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Galileo Galilei
Accepted court
mathematics of
Grande Duke Cosimo
of Florence
Increasing suspected
by the Catholic
authorities
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Galileo and the Inquisition
“The Starry
Messenger”
confirmed Galileo to
agree with
Copernicus’
heliocentric theory
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Galileo
The Roman
Inquisition had
condemned
Copernicus theory
and the Catholic
Church ordered
Galileo to reject it
publicly
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Galileo
Inquisition: “The
intention of the Holy
Spirit is to teach us
not how the heavens
go, but how to go to
heaven”
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Galileo
Galileo rejected his
theory
Told he could study the
theory as long as it was
treated as a supposition,
not fact
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Galileo and the Inquisition
Copernican system threatened scripture
and conception of the universe
– Heavens were no longer spiritual, but matter
– Humans no longer the universe’s center
– God was no longer in a specific place
Raising such uncertainties, it seemed
prudent merely to condemn it
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Galileo and the Inquisition
Galileo didn’t accept the condemnation
Published his most famous work
– “Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems:
Ptolemaic and Copernican”
– Written in Italian for wider readership
– Written in dialogue form with the winning debater
supporting Copernicus
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Galileo and the Inquisition
Summoned to
Inquisition for second
time in 1633
Forced to recant,
placed under house
arrest, and studied
Victorian crater on Mars
mechanics last 8
years
– Excellent contributions
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Galileo and the Problem of Motion
Had difficulty with
theory that objects
needed force behind
them to remain in
motion
Saturn
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Galileo and the Problem of
Motion
Investigating force
– Discovered that if
uniform force is
applied to object, it
accelerates speed, not
remains constant
– Discovered law of
inertia whereby a body
in motion remains in
motion unless
deflected by an
outside force
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Galileo and the Problem of Motion
Threatened with the
Inquisition, leadership
of the sciences
moved to northern
countries—especially
England, France, and
the Dutch
Netherlands
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Galileo and the Problem of
Motion
The problem of
explaining motion in
the universe and tying
together the ideas of
Copernicus, Galileo,
and Kepler would fall
to an Englishman,
Isaac Newton
Newton
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Isaac Newton
Born English village
of Woolsthorpe
Unremarkable until
attending Cambridge
University
Discovered creative
talents upon taking
time off from school
Newton
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Newton
Invented calculus, a
mathematical means
of calculating rates of
change
Started investigation
into composition
Started work on
universal law of
gravitation
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Newton
Completed the new
cosmology begun by
Copernicus, Kepler,
and Galileo
Described rules of
reasoning by which
he arrived at universal
law in “Principia”
Master of Royal Mint
until death
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Newton
Made president of the
Royal Society
Knighted in 1705 for
achievements
Only English scientist
to be buried in
Westminster Abbey
Sir Isaac Newton
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Newton and the Occult
Although a
distguished modern
scientist, Newton had
interest in the occult
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Newton and the Occult
Left behind hundreds
of manuscripts on his
study of alchemy
He repressed
publication due to
psychological and
political reasons
Representative of the
Hermetic tradition
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Newton and the Occult
Newton’s Occult
research thought to
involve
– Cosmology
– Elements (alchemy)
– Papers and traditions
handed down through
the ages from the time
Babylonia
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Newton, Warden of
Royal Mint
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Universal law of Gravitation
Newton’s major work: “Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy” known as
“Principia”
– Last influential book in Europe written in Latin
– Mathematical proofs demonstrating his universal
law of gravitation
– Culmination of Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo
– First to piece together coherent synthesis for a
new cosmology
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Universal Law of Gravitation
Copernicus, Kepler,
and Galileo had
undermined the
Ptolemaic-Aristotelian
cosmology
Until Newton, no one
had pieced together a
coherent synthesis for
a new cosmology
Sir Isaac Newton
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Universal Law of Gravitation
Book one--Three laws
of motion
– Objects continue in
state of rest or motion
unless acted upon
– Rate of change of
motion of object
proportional to force
acting upon it
– Equal & opposite
reaction for each
action
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Universal Law of Gravitation
Book three
– Universal law of
gravitation whereby
every object in the
universe is attracted to
the other, holding the
universe in equilibrium
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Universal Law of Gravitation
One universal law
could explain all
motion in the universe
The secrets of the
natural world could be
known by human
investigations
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Universal Law of Gravitation
Cosmology seen in mechanistic terms
Universe seen as uniform machine
operating according to natural laws—
”world-machine”—operating in time,
space, and motion
God everywhere present and moved all
the bodies based on the laws discovered
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Universal Law of Gravitation
His ideas immediately
accepted in Europe
Took much of 18th
century before they
were generally
accepted everywhere
in Europe
Also reinforced by
developments in
medicine
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Universal Law of Gravitation
Dominated Western
world view until
Einstein’s Theory of
Relativity
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Advances in Medicine and
Chemistry
Scientific Revolution
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Advances in Medicine and Chemistry
Medical teaching
dominated by Galen
from 2nd century, not
Aristotle
Galen relied on
animal, not human
dissection
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Advances in Medicine and Chemistry
Physiological
teachings also
dominated by Galen
– Taught that there were
two blood systems
Treatment highly
influenced by Galen’s
four humors
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Advances in Medicine and Chemistry
Four Humors
Blood
Humor Description
Warm and moist
Yellow bile
Warm and dry
Phlegm
Cold and moist
Black bile
Cold and dry
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Advances in Medicine and Chemistry
Examination of urine
became the chief
method of diagnosing
a patient
Purging and bleeding
harmful to patient, but
often treatment with
herbals helped
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Paracelsus
Philippus Aureolus
von Hohenheim
renamed himself
Paracelsus (greater
than Celsus)
– Born in small town
near Zurich
– Left home at 14
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Paracelsus
Paracelsus is one of
three men to be
associated with
medical changes in
16th to 17th centuries
Traveled widely and
may have been
awarded medical
degree from
University of Ferrara
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Paracelsus
Highly arrogant and
contemptuous of
people who disagreed
with his theories
Contempt for
universities and
doctors who
disagreed with him
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Paracelsus
City physician and
professor of medicine
at Basel
Highly arrogant and
forced to wander from
town to town until his
death
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Paracelsus
Rejected Aristotle and
Galen and attacked
universities
Medicine to be based
on new chemical
system
– Derived from new
observation,
experimentation, and
understanding
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101
Paracelsus
All parts of the
universe were
represented in each
person
Universe chemical
reactions were
reproduced in human
beings on smaller
scale
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102
Paracelsus
The microcosmmacrocosm principle
– The outer and inner
are one thing
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Paracelsus
Microcosmmacrocasm principle
(cont)
– Diseases caused by
chemical imbalances
located in specific
organs and corrected
by chemical remedies
– “like cures like”
remedies
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Paracelsus
Quantities of
chemicals used
important
Disease-causing
poison used as cure
Forerunner of holistic
and homeopathic
medicine
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Vesalius
Received doctorate in
medicine at the
University of Padua
Taught as professor
of surgery
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Vesalius
Emphasized practical research
Wrote “On the fabric of the Human Body”
– Personally dissected bodies to explain lecture
– Presented examination of organs and general
structure of human body
– Made easier by artistic advances of
Renaissance and advances in printing
Illustrations superior to anything to date
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Vesalius
Able to correct much
of Galen’s errors
However, he clung to
several of Galen’s
assertions including
two types of blood
Vesalius sketch
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William Harvey
Demonstrated many things about blood
circulation
– Emanated from the heart and not liver
– Same blood flows through veins and arteries
– Blood makes a complete circulation
His theory of circulation of blood laid
foundation for modern physiology
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William Harvey
Wrote, “On the Motion of the Heart and
Blood”
– Ideas didn’t achieve recognition until 1660s
– Not until capillaries were discovered
Explains how blood passes from arteries to veins
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Chemistry
Robert Boyle was one
of first scientists to
conduct controlled
experiments
Pioneering work in
property of gases
– Volume of gas varies
with pressure exerted
on it
Robert Boyle
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Chemistry
Not until 17th and 18th
centuries was there a
science of chemistry
Boyle’s works
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112
Chemistry
Robert Boyle one of
first scientists to
conduct controlled
experiments
– Pioneering work on
gases led to Boyle’s
Law
– Explained matter was
formed from atoms,
later to be known as
chemical elements
3/11/2016
Boyles’s vacuum chamber
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Chemistry
Boyle
– Matter is composed of
atoms, he called “little
particles of all shapes
and sizes”
Later known as
chemical elements
Robert Boyle
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Chemistry
Antoine Lavoisier
invented system of
naming chemical
elements
– Regarded by many as
founder of modern
chemistry
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115
Women in the Origins of
Modern Science
Overview
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Overview
Women historically hampered by assigned roles
– Daughter
– Wife
– Mother
Enthusiasm for secular learning caused by
humanism encouraged learned men to
encourage women to study various subjects
Persisted for privileged women into 17th century
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117
Margaret Cavendish
Prominent female
scientist of 17th
century
Noblewoman of
prominent birth
Participated in
scientific debates
Excluded from
membership in the
Royal Society
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Margaret Cavendish
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Margaret Cavendish
She didn’t believe in
the rationalists and
empiricist to scientific
knowledge
– “We have no power at
all over natural causes
and effects…”
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119
Margaret Cavendish
Wrote many books on scientific matters
– Observations upon Experimental Philosophy
– Grounds of Natural Philosophy
In Germany, traditional women
participated in craft production, paving the
way for women in observational science
Between 1650 and 1710, one of every
seven German astronomers was a woman
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Maria Merian
Born into Swiss family
Important
entomologist
Training in father’s
workshop
Illustrations of plants
and insects superb
First illustrations at
age 14
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Maria Merian
Wrote
“Metamorphosis of
the Insects of
Surinam
– Sixty illustrations
– Reproductive and
development cycles of
Surinam’s insect life
Maria Merian illustration, 1730
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122
Maria Winkelmann
Born in Germany
(1670-1720)
Craft organization of
astronomy gave
women a chance at
science
Encouraged and
educated by father
and uncle
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Maria Winkelmann
Most famous of
female astronomers
Married famous
astronomer Gottfried
Kirch
Discovered comet
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Maria Winkelmann
Denied post at Academy of Berlin
Women denied acceptance into Royal
Academy of Sciences and French
Academy of Sciences
Science considered man’s domain until
20th century
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Debates on the Nature of Women
Ongoing debates—”querelles des
femmes—
Male opinions carryover from middle ages
– Women were inherently base, prone to vice,
easily swayed, and “sexually insatiable”
– Hence, men needed to control them
Learned women seen as overcoming
liabilities
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Debates on the Nature of Women
Unfortunately, science was used to
support old stereotypes about women
– Larger pelvic area justified women for child
bearing
– Small head for justified lesser intellect
– Males took over traditional female roles like
midwife duties and others, except among poor
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127
Debates on the Nature of Women
History would expect a era of scientific
discoveries would foster more openness to
female acceptance, but…
– Scientific Revolution affirmed beliefs about
women. Male scientists used science to
justify that women belonged in the home
– Differences in physiology of women
highlighted
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Debates on the Nature of Women
Male used new scientific devices and
knowledge to take over traditional services
performed by women such as midwifery
Midwives continued to serve the poor
Scientific Revolution endeavored to justify
the belief in the inferiority of women
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129
Toward a New Earth
Descartes, Rationalism, and a
New View of Humankind
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130
Rene Descartes
Born into French
lower nobility
Important figure in
Western view of
humankind
Philosophy would
dominate Western
thought until 20th
century
Rene Descartes
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Rene Descartes
In 1618, volunteered
for military service,
perhaps for travel and
time to reflect
On Nov 10, 1619,
underwent “ecstatic
illumination of the
mystic”
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Rene Descartes
Perceived, in one
night, the outline of a
new rationalmathematical system
– Had sense of Divine
approval
– Made a new
commitment to mind,
mathematics, and a
mechanical universe
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Rene Descartes
Impacted by
cosmological
revolution of the 16th
and 17th centuries
The “Father of
Modern Rationalism”
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Rene Descartes
Had a vision of a new rationalmathematical system—dedicated life to it
Believed people could understand the
world—itself a mechanical system—by the
same rational principles inherent in
mathematical thinking
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135
Rene Descartes
Starting point for new
system was doubt
– Explained in his most
famous work,
Discourse on Method
(1637)
“…the endeavor to
instruct myself had
served only to disclose
to me more and more of
my ignorance”
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Rene Descartes
One fact seemed beyond question: his
own existence
– “…while I was disposed to think that all was
false, it was absolutely necessary that I who
thus thought should be something; and noting
that this truth, I think therefore I
am…skeptics…could not avail to shake it”
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137
Rene Descartes
Emphasized his mind
– Would believe only
those things his mind
told him were true
– Leaned on reason
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Rene Descartes
Started with four postulates or rules
– Starting point was “doubt”—accept nothing as
true unless known to be—avoid precipitance
and prejudice—add nothing extra
– Examine difficult problems by parts—divide
them up
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Rene Descartes
Four postulates (cont)
– Assign things to learn
from easiest to hardest
– Examine and write up
so completely and so
generally that nothing
would be omitted
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Rene Descartes
Trusted mathematics to
discover and prove truth
Dominated Western
thought until 20th century
Most famous work
“Discourse of Method”
First principle of his
philosophy and
unquestioned fact—his
own existence
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141
Rene Descartes
“I think therefore I am”
But the more I learn the more I realize I don’t know
Separation of mind and matter
– “The mind cannot be doubted but the body and material world
can”
– Man can know matter because ti was created by God and has
physical laws
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Rene Descartes
“Cartesian dualism”
– Absolute duality between mind and body
– Using the mind and mathematics, man qua
man can understand the material world
– World is a pure mechanism
– Created by God, the great geometrician
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143
Rene Descartes
Allowed scientists to view matter as dead
and inert—separate—and could be
investigated independently by reason
Westerners equated their identity with
mind rather than whole organism
His books placed on papal Index of
Forbidden Books and condemned by
many Protestant theologians
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144
The Scientific Method and
the Spread of Knowledge
Scientific Learning and
Investigation Increases
Dramatically
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Overview
During 17th century, scientific learning
increased dramatically
Universities established new chairs of
science
Royals began to pay attention and to
patronize scientists by hiring them into
important imperial positions
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The Scientific Method
Science needed an organized and
structure methodology
– To understand and examine physical realm
– The development of the scientific method was
crucial to the evolution of science
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The Scientific Method
Francis Bacon
– Englishman
– Lawyer and lord
chancellor
– Few scientific
credentials
– Attempted to put
together system for
acquiring knowledge
Francis Bacon
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The Scientific Method
Francis Bacon
– Wrote The Great
Instauration
“…to commence a total
reconstruction of
sciences, arts, and all
human knowledge,
raised upon the proper
foundations”
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The Scientific Method
Bacon believed
humanity could
understand the
natural world, but
believed they had
proceeded incorrectly
– “…fabric of human
reason…without
foundation”
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The Scientific Method
Bacon’s new
foundation was built
of inductive principles
– Rather than
proceeding “down”
from assumed
principles, he urged
proceeding “up” from
the particular to the
general
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Principle
Evaluate
Evidence
151
The Scientific Method
The specific scientific
method depends on
the field and specific
experiment; generally
– Define the question
– Gather information
and resources
– Form hypothesis
– Perform experiment
and collect data
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– Analyze data
– Interpret data and
draw conclusions that
serve as a starting
point for new
hypothesis
– Publish results
– Retest
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The Scientific Method
Bacon interested more in practical rather than
pure science
– “human life endowed with new discoveries and
power”
– Wanted to create devices that would benefit industry,
agriculture, and trade
– To conquer and control nature
– Establish foundations of human utility and power
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The Scientific Method
In the 20th century,
scientists questioned
whether this
philosophy was at the
heart of earth’s
ecological problems
Francis Bacon Memorial
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The Scientific Method
Rene Descartes emphasized deduction
and mathematical logic
Wrote “Discourse of Method”
– Each step in argument should be “sharp and
well founded as a mathematical proof”
– One can start with self-evident proofs and
deduce more complex conclusions
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The Scientific Method
Discourse of Method…cont
– Emphasis on deduction and mathematical
order complemented Bacon’s stress of
experiment and induction
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The Scientific Method
Isaac Newton synthesized Descartes and
Bacon into a single scientific methodology
– United Bacons’ “empiricism” and Descartes
“rationalism”
– Scientific method
Begins systematic observations and experiments
Arrives at general concepts
New deductions are derived, tested, and verified
by precise experiments
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The Scientific Method
The Scientific Method
– “How” something works
– Does not deal with the question of “why”
something happens or purpose behind nature
This allowed religion to hold its central
importance in the 17th century
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The Spread of Scientific Knowledge
Emergence of
Learned Societies
and Journals to
Disseminate
Information
– Scientists could share
information
Francis Bacon
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The Scientific Societies
The first societies appeared in Italy
Those later in France and England more
significant
The English Royal Society evolved out of
informal gatherings of scientists
The French Royal Academy of Sciences
also rose out of informal meetings
Their true contribution was that science
should proceed as a cooperative venture
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The Scientific Societies
Government control
and support
– The French provided
state support
– The English provided
little state support
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161
Science and Society
What were the
reasons for the rapid
acceptance of
science in the 17the
and 18th centuries?
– Elite saw science as a
means to profit
Practical applications
for building bridges, etc.
Separate elites from the
common man--ego
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Science and Society
Reasons for rapid
acceptance…
– Those with political
interests saw science
as a means to bolster
social stability
– English Revolution
(1640-1660)
Church reformers saw
chance to change
society
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John Calvin
163
Science and Society
By 18th century, most mercantilists and
other business and government interests
saw the Scientific Revolution as a means
to “retain a social order that primarily
rewarded and enriched themselves while
still improving the human condition“
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Science and Religion
The conflict between
science and religion
marked much of
history in the 17th and
18th centuries in
Western Civilization
Galileo believed there
should be no conflict
Galileo
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Religion and Science
Galileo said nature has no opinion or
interests in such arguments—it’s just there
– “she never transgresses the laws imposed
upon her, or cares a whit whether her
abstruse reasons and methods of operations
are understandable to men”
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Religion and Science
Religion had held a powerful position in
emphasizing the Ptolemaic-Aristotelian
cosmology—and it fit within the religious
framework
As science moved forward, religious
beliefs suffered and society became more
secularized
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Science and Religion
Many scientists were highly religious
– Believed implications of split would be tragic
– Some believed split was unnecessary
– Some believed everything could be combined
into a God-human-mechanical universe
synthesis
– Spinoza and Pascal represent the divergent
approaches and response to European
intellectuals on revised cosmology
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Spinoza
Benedict de Spinoza
– A “product” of
relatively tolerant
Amsterdam
– Excommunicated from
synagogue at age 24
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Started by living quiet
life, grinding lenses
for eye glasses
Refused to accept
academic position at
university of
Heidelberg
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Spinoza
Read much science
– Influenced by
Descartes
– Didn’t accept the
separation mind and
body
– God was everything
and in all things
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His philosophy of
pantheism (monism)
was set out in his
book, Ethics
Demonstrated in the
Geometrical Manner
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Spinoza
Human beings are not
just “situated within
nature as a kingdom
within a kingdom”
– “…a part of God or
nature or the universal
order as other natural
objects”
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People worshipped
God to help them
through life, but…
– “good and evil fortunes
fall to the lot of pious
and impious alike”
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Spinoza
Human emotions and
passions also are a
part of nature and
must be studied and
understood
Man can know all
“I shall consider
human actions…with
lines, planes and
solids”
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True happiness
comes from
understanding the
order and necessity of
nature
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Pascal
Blaise Pascal (1623-1662)
French scientist who sought to keep
science and religion united
Inventing calculating machine and a theory
on probability—wide ranging intellect
Had profound mystical vision that God
cared for the human soul
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Pascal
Accomplished
scientist and brilliant
mathematician
Profound mystical
vision on November
23, 1654
– God cared for the
human soul
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Pascal
After vision, devoted
his life to religious
matters
Planned to write
apology for the
Christian religion, but
died before being
written
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Pascal
Wrote “Penses”
– Tried to convert rationalists to Christianity by
appealing to reason and emotion
– “Man is but a reed…but he is a thinking reed”
– Christianity is only religion that recognizes
man’s true state as being both vulnerable and
great
– God is a reasonable bet; it is worthwhile to
assume that God exists. If He does, then we
win all; if He does not, we lose nothing
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Pascal
In the new cosmology of the 17th century, “finite
man” was lost in the new infinite world, a
realization that frightened him
– “The eternal silence of those infinite spaces strikes
me with terror”
Pascal settled on faith in the final analysis
– Reason, he thought, could take people only so far
– “The heart has its reasons of which the reason knows
nothing”
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Pascal
Failed to achieve his goal of uniting Christianity
and science
Gap in Europe between science and religion
grew wider and continued along its progression
to secularism
But churches did not lose followers
However, more intellectual, social, and political
elites began to act in a secular way rather than
basis on religious assumptions
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Summary
Discuss….
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