Environmental Policy
Origins of Modern Environmental
Movement
 Conservationist Movement: began in the
Progressive Era and was given national attention
during Theodore Roosevelt's presidency
 US Forest Service
 National Parks
 Newlands Reclamation Act of 1902: promoted
construction of dams to irrigate small farms and
placed 230 million acres under federal protection
 John Muir and the Sierra Club
Radford University, "Environmental History Timeline." Accessed January 16, 2012. http://www.radford.edu/~wkovarik/envhist/.
Environmental Policy
Today
• Rules are often uniform nationally
o ex: limit on auto emissions
• There are many regulations and strict guidelines
o In contrast, in Europe, rules are weak and compliance is
voluntary
• Often government (pro-environment) vs. Business (antienvironment)
o leads to gridlock
 ex: Clean Air Act took 13 years to revise in Congress
• Implementation depends heavily on the states
The White House, "Our Environment." Accessed January 16, 2012.
http://www.whitehouse.gov/energy/our-environment.
Why is Environmental Policy so
controversial?
• Every governmental policy creates both winners and losers
o Losers are those who must pay the costs, without getting
enough of the benefits
• Many environmental issues are tangled in scientific
uncertainty
o ex: greenhouse effect
• Much of environmental policy takes the form of
entrepreneurial politics
o leads to "good guys" vs. "bad guys" perspective
Wilson, James Q. American Government. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Types of Environmental Politics
• Entrepreneurial Politics: an unorganized
public is to benefit at the expense of a well
organized group
• Majoritarian Politics: an unorganized
public is to benefit at its own expense
• Interest Group Politics: two organized
groups with a material stake in the outcome
fight over who will pay and who will
benefit
• Client Politics: an organized group gets
a benefit and an unorganized public must
pay
Wilson, James Q. American Government. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Entrepreneurial Politics and Global
Warming
• Global Warming: Earth's temperature rises from trapped gases in
the atmosphere
• Predicted results
o
o
o
floods on coastal areas as the polar ice caps melt
more storms
tropical diseases spread to North America
• Activists vs Skeptics
o
o
Activists agree with predicted results and argue for acting immediately
Skeptics say we should learn more about global warming before taking
action
• In reality, skeptics outnumber the activists, but activists have more
influence
• Activist groups, such as Greenpeace, obtain success by mobilizing
the media and dramatizing the issue, thus convincing congressmen
that their political reputations will suffer if they do not vote proenvironment
o
ex: US signed Kyoto Protocol in 1997, a promise to reduce greenhouse
gases to 7% below the 1990 level
Wilson, James Q. American Government. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Majoritarian Politics and Auto Pollution
• States were required to limit auto pollution to a certain level
o Levels in large cities, such as New York City and Los
Angeles, exceeded maximum level.
o Parking bans, gas rationing, and mandatory busing were
implemented in those cities
o These efforts failed due to extreme opposition
o Congress and the EPA backed down
• Auto industry and Unions objected to restrictions due to...
o Loss of business and jobs
• In general...
o Public will comply if costs are hidden
o Public will comply if there are tangible benefits, such as
highways and bridges
o Public will not comply if there are impractical regulations
or extra costs, such as an increased gas tax
Wilson, James Q. American Government. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Interest Group Politics and Acid Rain
• Acid rain
o precipitation that is acidic
o comes from the burning of fuel containing Sulfur
o Effects:
 acidification of lakes
 destruction of forests
• Regional Dispute: Midwestern businesses create acid rain that
damages Eastern forests. Who will pay the cost?
• Solutions: burning low-sulfur coal
OR
installing scrubbers
• Congress voted for installing scrubbers because...
o saved jobs of high-sulfur coal miners, which pleased Labor Unions
o activist groups preferred scrubbers
o scrubber manufacturers and the interest groups representing them
preferred scrubbers
• Problems
o scrubbers did not work very well
o cost government a lot of money
o failed to address problem of high-sulfur burning plants
• Resulted in stalemate in Congress for 13 years and eventually,
Wilson,
James Q. American Government. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
compromise
Client Politics and Pesticides
• Farmers vs. Pesticides
o Pesticides benefit farmers economically
o However, since 1972, when Rachel Carson published
the book, Silent Spring, the use of pesticides has been
heavily regulated
 50,000 pesticides; 5,000 new ones per year
 testing is expensive and time consuming
o Farmers have achieved success in continuing the use of
pesticides
 Farmers (client group) are well
organized and have strategically
placed allies in Congress
Wilson, James Q. American Government. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA)
• Created in 1970 in response to the Santa Barbara oil spill
• Designed to enforce certain laws governing air, water, and
pesticides
• Major Accomplishments
o 1972- banned the use of DDT after the publication of
Rachel Carson's Silent Spring
o 1973- set deadlines for the removal of lead from gasoline
o 1975- monitored fuel efficiency in automobiles
o 1970-1990- reduced air-pollution emissions in the US by
50%
EPA, "Laws and Regulations." Last modified December 23, 2011. Accessed January 16, 2012.
http://www.epa.gov/lawsregs/.
Clean Air Act
• Regulates hazardous air
emissions from stationary
and mobile sources
• Authorizes EPA to establish
National Ambient Air Quality
Standards (NAAQS) to
protect public welfare
• Major Accomplishments
o 1975- reduced 90% of
hydrocarbons and carbon
dioxide in the
atmosphere
o 1976- reduced 90% of
nitrous oxides in the
atmosphere
"Summary of the Clean Air Act." United States Environmental Protection Agency. January 14,
2012. http://www.epa.gov/lawsregs/laws/caa.html.
Endangered Species Act
• Created in 1973
• Prohibits buying or selling of plants and animals that
are endangered
• Over 600 species are endangered
• Corporations seeking to build in areas where an endangered
specie resides must comply with federal regulations
• Widely supported by the public
"Summary of the Endangered Species
Act." United States Environmental
Protection Agency. January 14, 2012. http://www.epa.gov/lawsregs/laws/caa.html.
Issues Facing Congress and the
President
• What is the problem?
o Many environmental policy issues are not as clear-cut as
they seem
o Science does not know whether we are experiencing a
dangerous level of global warming or how bad the
greenhouse effect is
• What goals do we want to achieve?
o We want reasonably clean air and water, but how clean is
reasonably clean?
• How do we want to achieve our goals?
o In fact, no one knows exactly the best way to go about
improving the environment
Wilson, James Q. American Government. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Best Way to Solve the Environmental
Problem
1. Offsets: If a company creates more pollution in one area by
building a new facility, it must reduce pollution in another
area
2. Bubble standard: a set amount of air pollution that every
factory is limited to
3. Pollution allowances: If a company reduces its emissions by
more than the law requires, the company can expand.
Wilson, James Q. American Government. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Works Consulted
EPA, "Laws and Regulations." Last modified December 23, 2011. Accessed January 16,
2012. http://www.epa.gov/lawsregs/.
"Summary of the Clean Air Act." United States Environmental Protection Agency. January 14,
2012. http://www.epa.gov/lawsregs/laws/caa.html.
"Summary of the Endangered Species Act." United States Environmental Protection Agency. January 14,
2012. http://www.epa.gov/lawsregs/laws/caa.html.
The White House, "Our Environment." Accessed January 16, 2012. http://www.whitehouse.gov/energy/ourenvironment.
Wilson, James Q. American Government. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
Radford University, "Environmental History Timeline." Accessed January 16, 2012.
http://www.radford.edu/~wkovarik/envhist/.