Section I
Corrections Past and Present
Chapter 1
History of Corrections
Objectives
• Grasp why the concept of punishment has
become such a major force in the
American administration of justice.
• Identify the differences between the
Auburn and Pennsylvania systems.
• Outline the history and trends of prison
reform, including the significant change in
the prison environment after World War II
and the decline of the medical model.
Sentencing
• Four predominant sentencing goals in America
– Rehabilitation
– Specific deterrence
– General deterrence
– Punishment
• Fines – monetary sanctions as punishment for
crime
• Restitution – compensation to victim or
community for damages
• Probation – supervision that allows an offender to
remain in the community under certain conditions
• Incarceration – confinement in a prison or jail
Role of Law
• Law – social construct – members trade
some restrictions in exchange for benefit
from the government
• Definition of what is legal and what is
illegal can change as society changes
• Punishment – infliction of a penalty, often
with a component of retributive suffering
Role of Religion
• Evolution of retributive punishment has
intertwined with that of religion over the
years
• Concept of free will has evolved from the
religious beliefs
• Idea that people chose to violate the law
and should be held responsible for their
actions has formed the center focus for
American CJ system
History of Punishment
• Earliest prisons in America were modeled
after English gaols
• Severe corporal punishment was
commonplace
• All punishment was public
• Bridewells – institutions used to confine
and beat misdemeanor offenders were
commonplace
History of Punishment (cont.)
• Reformer John Howard noted that more prisoners
died from sickness and disease than from
execution
• All inmates were confined together
• England used deportation to send criminals to
American colonies and later to Australia.
• Penitentiary Act of 1779 provided major reforms
– Secure and sanitary facilities and inspections
– Abolishing fees for basic services
– Introducing reformatory model
Punishment in the American
Colonies
• Harsh penalties, including death,
banishment, and corporal punishment
• Jail conditions were as bad as in England
• William Penn – passed Great Law to
combine reform and rehabilitation in
Pennsylvania system
• Following Penn’s death, the state returned
to corporal and capital punishment
Punishment in the American
Colonies (cont.)
• America’s first prisons
– Abandoned copper mine in Simsbury, CN
– In 1790, Pennsylvania legislature opened the
Walnut Street Jail
• Humanitarian approach
• Educational opportunities, religious and
health care services, prison industries
• Closed in 1835 due to staff turnover
– Concepts of penitence, work, single cells, and
separation by type of offender became
important
Punishment in the American
Colonies (cont.)
• American Prison Philosophy
– Pennsylvania system was founded on belief
of solitary reflection and solitary cells
– Silent or separate system – prisoners not
allowed to talk to one another
– Goal was rehabilitation through isolation,
contemplation, silence, and prayer
– Pervasive idleness led to mental illness
Punishment in the American
Colonies (cont.)
• American Prison Philosophy (cont.)
– Alternative system was Auburn, or congregate
system in New York
– Kept in solitary confinement at night, but
permitted to work collaboratively outside of
cell during the day
– Expected to maintain total silence
– Designed as industrial factory with small cells
Punishment in the American
Colonies (cont.)
• American Prison Philosophy
– Principles of economical operation, restricted
interaction among convicts, congregate work,
extreme discipline, and tight control
– Chains, beatings, solitary confinement, and
limited food became instruments of
punishment and control
– Auburn system emerged as the model
adopted by most states – highly regimented
activities and fiscally successful due to
prisoners’ work.
Punishment in the American
Colonies (cont.)
• Regional Differences
– Southern states developed a program where
citizens could lease prisoners as laborers
– Western settlers built small local jails,
contracted with other states for housing of
prisoners, and eventually developed their own
prison system modeled after the Auburn
system.
Development of Reformatories
• Overcrowding, poor management,
insufficient funding, and shifting of
resources post-Civil War led to end of
original models of prison management
• Custodial concerns were dominant
• Decision was made to replace prisons with
reformatories emphasizing educational
and vocational programming for young
adult offenders
Development of Reformatories
(cont.)
• Alexander Maconochie
– “Mark” system - prisoners earn freedom
through marks for industrial work and
conformity to rules
– Progress through various stages of increasing
responsibility
• Walter Crofton
– Stages of imprisonment
– Progression through stages leads an inmate
closer to release
Development of Reformatories
(cont.)
• Indeterminate sentencing allowed reformatory
officials to decide when an inmate was ready to
be released.
• Benefits were canceled out by overcrowding,
poorly trained staff, and continued emphasis on
control
• Reformatory era presented American corrections
with a new model that included individual
treatment, indeterminate sentencing,
classification, parole, and a focus on education
Industrial Period and
Progressive Era
• Industrial programs offered a structured
means of establishing a strong work ethic
and vocational training while offsetting
institutional costs
• Different prison industrial systems:
– Contract
– Lease
– State-use
– Public works and ways
Industrial Period and
Progressive Era (cont.)
• Industrial prisons produced a wide range
of products and were widely accepted
• Labor organizations began to complain
• Hawes-Cooper Act – prison made goods
were subject to the laws of any state
where the product would be sold
• Ashurst-Sumners Act – prohibited
interstate shipment of prison-made goods
Industrial Period and
Progressive Era (cont.)
• Reformers continued to propose normalization
of the institutional setting
• Classification became very important to
separate inmates by age, aggressiveness, and
programmatic needs
• Education and vocational training were
reemphasized
• Federal Bureau of Prisons was created
Post-World War II
• In the 1940s and 1950s, inmates were
seen as misunderstood
• Treatment programs were instituted in
many prisons
• Inmates were seen as individuals with
social, intellectual, or emotional
deficiencies who needed diagnosis and
treatment
The Medical Model
• Three components
– Diagnosis
– Evaluation
– Treatment
• Proper classification was important
• Wardens and superintendents had a hard
time accepting this new “gentle”
incarceration
The Medical Model (cont.)
• Associations and Federal Guidelines
– APA published manual of standards for prison
administration
– Congress created LEAA to provide research
grants and help in development of programs
• Architectural Programs
– Medical model brought architectural
restructuring with it
– Prisons included educational and vocational
programs, extensive health care, counseling,
and prison work industries
A Return to Punishment
• Public wanted to toughen system
• Federal courts developed a “hands on”
approach
• Brought prisons in compliance with Bill of
Rights and Constitution
• Chaos and confusion reigned, especially
after the riot in Attica
A Return to Punishment (cont.)
• Private Family Visiting
– Furlough system allowed inmates to leave prison
to visit family, seek education, and pursue jobs
– Cut back or eliminated after high-profile case of
an inmate on furlough attacking a young couple
– Family visiting idea promoted conjugal visits to
maintain marital ties, but it never gained much
popularity
A Return to Punishment (cont.)
• End of the Medical Model
– Basically vanished by the late 1970s
– Major blow was report by Robert Martinson
that showed no significant difference in
recidivism rates for those in rehabilitation
programs vs. those who did not participate
– Public desire for punishment took the place of
rehabilitative programs
Conclusion
• Evolution of prisons and jail has followed
the shifting forces at work in the nation
• Some have advocated that prisons work to
reform criminals
• However, primary focus over time has
been custody and punishment of offenders
• Fiscal resources have continued to be
insufficient to meet the needs
Chapter 2
American Jails
Objectives
• Identify the size and scope of the local jail
population in the United States
• Explain the system of health care in
American jails and issues of mental illness,
substance abuse, and infectious and
communicable diseases
• Comprehend the difficulties associated with
housing long-term prisoners in local jails.
Jail Populations
• Federal, state, and local correctional
facilities house over 2.3 million persons on
a daily basis, with 750,000 of those in local
jails
• Between 10 and 15 million persons pass
through jail systems in a calendar year
• Most persons booked into jail remain for
short periods of time
Health Care
• All persons entering jails receive initial
screening, evaluation, treatment, or
community-based referral
• Magnitude of health care problems
– HIV/AIDS
– Hepatitis
– Sexually transmitted diseases
– Tuberculosis
– Alcoholism and substance abuse
– Heart disease
– Women’s issues
Health Care (cont.)
• People often arrive in jail with preexisting
conditions and little or no relationship to
community health care programs.
• Jail must triage extant issues, secure
emergency interventions, and provide
referrals to community-based health care
delivery programs
Health Care (cont.)
• Standards of Healthcare Delivery
– Jails must provide constitutional levels of
health care
– Proactive efforts must be made with respect
to medication, intake screening, interviews,
health assessments, sick call procedures,
emergency services, recordkeeping, etc.
– Standards of correctional health care have
blended the security responsibilities of access
to health care with the screening, evaluation,
and treatment of health care professionals.
Health Care (cont.)
• Mental Illness and Substance Abuse
– Jails face increased level of persons with
mental illness and substance abuse due in
part to closing of mental health facilities
– Mentally ill prisoners tend to remain in jail
longer than other prisoners with the same
offense
– Jails are generally not appropriate mental
health treatment environments
– Mentally ill offenders require a tremendous
amount of resources to ensure treatment
services are met
Health Care (cont.)
• Mental Illness and Substance Abuse (cont.)
– Jail populations would drastically decrease if
levels of substance abuse decreased in
community
– In 2004, 68% of jail inmates nation-wide
abused or were dependent on drugs or alcohol
– Jails can provide effective short-term
intervention if they are funded properly
Health Care (cont.)
• Co-Occurring Disorders
– Triage uncovers a growing population with cooccurring disorders
– Particularly disproportionate numbers of
persons who are both mentally ill and
substance abusers
– Police are often unable to find treatment
options that offer alternatives to jail
Health Care (cont.)
• Occupational Exposure and
Communicable Disease Safety Measures
– Staff training on universal precautions helps
alleviate fears regarding diseases
– Dealing with bloodborne and airborne
pathogens are a routine part of operations
– Variety of communicable diseases found in
jails
– Jails must have written exposure control plan
Health Care (cont.)
• Occupational Exposure and
Communicable Disease Safety Measures
– Court orders can compel testing of inmates
following potential exposure incident
– Requires commitment to training for staff
– Following safety measures and ensuring both
training and proper equipment will
dramatically minimize the potential for
transmission
Victim Notification
• Historically, jails did not become involved
in affairs of victim
• Victims groups have advocated for release
hearings and notification of victims prior to
release, especially in domestic violence
situations
• Names of those in custody are not kept
confidential if release of information would
protect victims
Information Technology and
Integration
• Historically, human error and poor data
entry resulted in release of inmates with
pending warrants or additional charges
• Technologies such as electronic imagery,
swift fingerprint identification, multiple
systems to seek identity, etc. have
improved this situation
• Still little collaboration and systems
integration between agencies
The Hidden Jail Population
• Thousands of misdemeanant bookings do
not occur due to insufficient jail space
• Hundreds of thousands of existing
warrants are not served or citations are
given when arrest would be more
appropriate
• Challenge to sheriffs who are sworn to
uphold the law, but must turn away
prisoners due to a lack of space and funds
Diversity in Jail Intake
• Linguistic skills and cultural sensitivity are
extremely important in jail intake process
• Jails must increase staff diversity to deal
with diverse population of inmates
Systems Partnership and the Role
of the Community
• Jails should be seen as an integral part of
the community, as part of communitybased service networks
• Jails should collaborate with service areas
and share information on inmates
• Jails must serve as broker of services
Growth of Jail Populations
• Most jails keep pretrial offenders, prisoners
in transit, probation/parole violators, people
in protective custody, or those serving
sentences of less than 1 year
• Crowding pressures have resulted in
increased numbers of jails housing longterm convicted inmates sentenced to state
or federal prisons
• Jails are not designed for long-term
inmates
Growth of Jail Populations (cont.)
• Reasons for increase in prison/jail
populations:
– More crime and longer sentences
– Overcrowded state facilities
– Local jurisdictions “renting out” jail space
• In 2005, jails held about 5% of state and
federal prisoners
Growth of Jail Populations (cont.)
• Housing Long-Term Inmates
– Jails lack program and recreational space
needed by long-term inmates
– Budgets are insufficient to meet their needs
– State laws increasing sentence lengths seem
to be the main factor in increasing prison
crowding
Growth of Jail Populations (cont.)
• Housing State Inmates
– State officials sometimes allow inmates to
back up in local jails to relieve overcrowding
– State of Texas faced lawsuits related to
overcrowding of state inmates in jails, and
ultimately had to pay millions in
reimbursement to jails for housing prisoners
– At one time, local jails in New Jersey housed
over 10% of prison population
– Lawsuits and threats of lawsuits were needed
in other states to alleviate back up of state
prisoners in jails
Growth of Jail Populations (cont.)
• Resolution
– By July 1994, state prison construction
relieved some of the pressure on counties
– Some jails increased their capacity and rented
out space to the state or federal governments
– Missouri contracted out with a private
corrections company, but had to regain control
following allegations of prisoner abuse
Growth of Jail Populations (cont.)
• Considerations with Commitments to
Other Jurisdictions
– When prisoners are serving longer terms, the
orientation of the detention operation must
shift
– Security measures must also be enhanced
– Authorities must insist that counties
contracting out bed space are providing
certain services for state inmates
Matrix Classification System
• Plan for release of inmates due to
overcrowding at a jail and prison
• Least dangerous persons should be
released first, based on an objective,
computer-based scoring system
• Score based on the nature of the crime
committed, with additional points for felony
charges and failure to appear in court
Conclusion
• Public administrators and elected officials
should understand the unique role of the
jail and its potential in broader public
safety considerations
• Local jail has increasingly been used to
house federal and state inmates
Chapter 3
Prison Architecture
Objectives
• Understand the limitations of building
correctional facilities with specific
materials
• Distinguish different housing unit models
on the basis of their architectural
characteristics.
• Differentiate among security levels that are
suitable for various housing units
Housing Configuration
• Prison architecture is influenced
significantly by the operating agencies’
policies and management styles
• Sometimes architecture changes
depending on a shift toward increased
punishment or increased rehabilitation
• In recent years, prison architecture has
reflected classification systems that
assess inmates’ behavior
Historical Models
• The Bastille
– Linked to a harsh approach to punishment
– Four levels high, continuous stone masonry
wall, eight cylindrical towers linked together
– Two interior courtyards, crenellated parapet,
accessible only by drawbridge
– Only design goal was containing masses of
people and resisting attackers
Historical Models (cont.)
• Convict Hulks
– Wooden ships docked in harbors
– Crowded, dirty, infested with insects and
diseases
– Separated England’s convicts from freedom
regardless of offense
Historical Models (cont.)
• Panopticon
– Two-person cells arranged side-by-side in a
circular plan in the form of a drum
– Four tiers high – supervision tower in the
center
– Difficult for officers to move about on the
upper floors
– Extremely high ambient noise levels
Historical Models (cont.)
• Pennsylvania Model
– Eastern Penitentiary in Philadelphia was
developed based on cellular housing
– Cell buildings arranged in a spoke pattern
– Flanking cells were arranged in a linear plan
and faced a common central corridor and
another row of cells on the other side
– Concept led to radiating wing organization for
large housing units
Historical Models (cont.)
• Auburn Model
– Two back-to-back rows of multi-tiered cells
arranged in a straight, linear plan
– Dominated US prison and jail design in 19th
and 20th centuries
– Over time, electrical, plumbing, and ventilation
systems were introduced to housing unit
design
– Usually accommodated in a continuous space
behind cells known as a chase
Historical Models (cont.)
• Pennsylvania and Auburn Models (cont.)
– Rows of cells can be stacked in tiers
accessible by stairs
– Cells are organized in the middle of the overall
space and facing the exterior walls
– Beginning in late 1970s, modern fire and
safety concerns have influenced correctional
architecture
– Together, the Auburn and Pennsylvania
configurations are now known as the linearindirect configuration because both of them
feature the long, narrow organization and can
only be effectively supervised by walking back
and forth
Direct Supervision
• Federal BOP developed a housing unit that is
nearly square
• Large, open central day room space
• Individual cells organized around square
• Correctional officer can see interior space from
any vantage point
• Cells stack two high
• Known as the direct supervision model
• Encourages inmate-staff communication as well
as security
Supermaximum Security
• BOP operated US Penitentiary on Alcatraz Island
for 30 years for dangerous inmates
• Was a combination of Auburn and Pennsylvania
systems
• Cells were high – also featured a central dining
room, outdoor stacked two recreation, industries,
and staff housing
• California introduced security housing units to
house the most violent offenders
• Featured single cells, a grille-covered recreation
yard, and little movement from the cell for inmates
Supermaximum Security (cont.)
• Administrative maximum institution at US
Penitentiary in Colorado is the current
federal supermax facility
• Each cell has its own shower, toilet, and
lavatory
• Inmates can use a large recreation area
between units on schedule
Other Design Factors
• Housing unit of a prison or jail is the most
important element of correctional design
• Space is also needed to prepare and serve food,
run programs, provide medical services, put out
fires, ensure security, and provide for sanitation
and maintenance
• Institutions often undergo continuous
renovations
• Prisons often employ technology originally
designed for other buildings
• Architecture needs to contribute to safety and
health of inmates and staff
Conclusion
• Prison design and architecture are driven
by societal attitudes and directly relate to
the purpose for which the institution is
designed.
Chapter 4
Developing Technology
Objectives
• Examine technological developments in
the field of corrections
• Outline concerns about new technology
and institutional security
• Grasp implementation techniques to
increase the acceptance of new
technology
Development of New Technology
• New technological and automated
processes can greatly assist staff
• Many military innovations have been
adaptable to prison and jail settings:
– Barrier wire
– Infrared night vision technology
– Identification verification equipment
Development of
New Technology (cont.)
• Information Management Systems
– Computers monitor many aspects of
institutional life
– One of the best uses of technology in a
correctional environment is management of
inmate data – disciplinary records, work
assignments, educational needs, medical
needs
– Law enforcement entities are improving their
information sharing, and information is also
more readily available to the public
Development of
New Technology (cont.)
• Prisoner Identification
– Technology helps update prisoner
identification, processing, and tracking
• Digital mug shots
• Retina-imaging
• Iris-scanning equipment
• Barcoded wrist bands and electronic bracelets
– PRISM – Prison Inmate and Safety Management
System – monitors location of staff and inmates
with electronic wristbands
Development of
New Technology (cont.)
• Perimeter Security
– Motion detectors
– Electric fences
– Closed-circuit television cameras
– Perimeter points of ingress and egress,
including identification cards with magnetic
barcodes, voice printing and hand geometry
readers, biometric recognition, heartbeat
detectors, x-ray screening, etc.
Development of
New Technology (cont.)
• Inmate Programming
– Inmate programming that teaches about
technology and computer skills can greatly
ease reintegration
– Can be done at minimal cost using donated or
recycled computers
Development of
New Technology (cont.)
• Medical Services
– Management of inmate medical records is a
substantial challenge
– Electronic files allow heath care providers to
focus more on treatment rather than
redundant histories, lab work, filing
– Advances in digital imaging and data
transmission have enhanced the provision of
medical care by allowing for remote diagnosis
and treatment of a variety of conditions
Development of
New Technology (cont.)
• Crisis Management
– Less-lethal weapons are now the first level
of response in crisis situations
• Stun guns
• Flash bang distraction devices
• Gas
Development of
New Technology (cont.)
• New Construction and Reconstruction
– Pre-finished concrete modules have become
widely accepted
– Modular buildings have exceptional quality
control, last longer, require less maintenance,
and are cheaper and faster to build
Security Concerns
• Critical that staff be trained in protecting
system access and protecting information
from 3rd party disclosure
• Technology should be secured when not in
use by authorized persons
• Staff should be trained thoroughly on
when and how information can be
disclosed
Security Concerns (cont.)
• Access
– Staff should only be given access to
information that is required to perform their
jobs
– Line staff should not be able to access
sensitive medical data
– Software systems that store private inmate
data should include user access controls and
secure passwords
Implementation of Technological
Change
• Correctional workers often express
ambivalence toward new technology and
change
• Technology is expensive and often
represents a departure from the traditional
direct supervision of inmates
• Staff reluctance to adapt to new
procedures creates a significant
management issue
Conclusion
• Corrections-related expenditures have
grown exponentially
• New technology is important and critical
for survival
• To meet the demands of the future,
correctional leaders need to seek new
ways of doing business, while continuing
to operate safe, secure, and humane
correctional programs