Bell Work
• What is the difference between episodic and
semantic memory?
Think/Pair/Share Bell Work
• What type of memory has information about
how to do things such as ride a bike, tie
shoelaces, or hit a golf ball?
– Explicit
– Semantic
– Procedural
– Episodic
– Flash-bulb
Amnesia
• Retrograde
• Anterograde
Bell Work
• While taking notes, you realize you need to
sharpen your pencil. You get up and walk
downstairs. When you get there, however,
you cannot remember why you went
downstairs. After trying to recall your
purpose, you give up and return to your desk.
As soon as you sit down again, it hits you: “I
wanted to sharpen this pencil!”
• What caused this to occur?
Bell Work
• Discuss with a partner…
– How would you define ‘memory’?
Context effects
Bell Work
• Yesterday’s Closure: Create an analogy for the
three-box/information processing model for
sensory, working, and long-term memory OR
encoding, storage, and retrieval.
• Explain your analogy
Integrated Model Concepts
• Encoding – process of
translating info into
neural codes (language)
that will be retained in
memory
• Storage – the process of
retaining neural coded
info over time
• Retrieval – the process of
recovering info from
memory storage
Closure
• Create an analogy for the threebox/information processing model for sensory,
working, and long-term memory OR encoding,
storage, and retrieval.
Closure
• Give your own example of anterograde
amnesia.
Take out a piece of paper
Name the Seven Dwarves
Difficulty of Task
• Was the exercise easy or difficult.
It depends on what factors?
•whether you like Disney movies
•how long ago you watched the movie
•how loud the people are around you when
you are trying to remember
Turn your paper over.
Now pick out the seven dwarves.
Grouchy Gabby Fearful Sleepy
Smiley Jumpy Hopeful Shy
Droopy Dopey Sniffy Wishful
Puffy Dumpy Sneezy Pop
Grumpy Bashful Cheerful Teach
Snorty Nifty Happy Doc Wheezy
Stubby Poopy
Seven Dwarves
Sleepy, Dopey, Grumpy, Sneezy, Happy, Doc and Bashful
Memory
internal record of some prior event or experience; the
persistence of learning over time through the set of mental
structures and processes that receives, encodes, stores,
organizes, alters, and retrieves information over time
Three Box Model of Memory
Sensory Memory
• A split second
holding tank for ALL
sensory information.
Sensory Memory
• The immediate, initial recording of sensory
information in the memory system.
• Stored just for an instant, and most gets
unprocessed.
Examples:
•You lose concentration in class during a lecture. Suddenly you hear a significant word and return
your focus to the lecture. You should be able to remember what was said just before the key word
since it is in your sensory register.
•Your ability to see motion can be attributed to sensory memory. An image previously seen must
be stored long enough to compare to the new image. Visual processing in the brain works like
watching a cartoon -- you see one frame at a time.
•If someone is reading to you, you must be able to remember the words at the beginning of a
sentence in order to understand the sentence as a whole. These words are held in a relatively
unprocessed sensory memory.
Short Term Memory
• The stuff we encode from
the sensory goes to STM.
• Events are encoded visually,
acoustically or semantically.
• Holds about 7 (plus or minus
2) items for about 20
seconds.
• We recall digits better than
letters.
Short-Term Memory
Also referred to as “Working” Memory—
the information you are currently “working
with”
• The info will be stored into long-term or
forgotten.
How do you store things from short-term to long-term?
Rehearsal
You must repeat things over
and over to put them into
your long-term memory.
Long Term Memory
• Unlimited
storehouse of
information.
• Explicit (declarative)
memories
• Implicit (nondeclarative)
memories
Long-Term Memory
• Implicit (procedural) memory—learn/know how
to do something (like knowing how to ride a bike)
• Explicit (declarative) memory-can state and
“declare” that they know. Deliberate recall of
information
– Episodic: autobiographical (times, places,
emotions)
– Semantic: memory of meanings,
understandings—general knowledge
Overview of LTM
Overview of Memory Model
A Simplified Memory Model
Atkinson-Shiffrin Model
The Memory Process
Three step process….
1. Encoding: The
inputting and
processing of
information into the
memory system.
2. Storage: The
retention of encoded
material over time.
3. Retrieval: The
process of getting
the information out
of memory storage.
Encoding
The inputting and processing of
information into the memory system.
Typing info into a computer
Getting a girl’s name at a party
Storage
• The retention of encoded material
over time.
Pressing Ctrl+S and
saving the info.
Trying to remember her name
when you leave the party.
Retrieval
• The process of getting the information out
of memory storage.
Finding your document
and opening it up.
Seeing her the next day
and calling her the wrong
name (retrieval failure).
Did you do better on the first or second dwarf memory
exercise?
Recall v. Recognition
• With recall- you must retrieve the
information from your memory (fill-in-the
blank tests).
• With recognition- you must identify the
target from possible targets (multiplechoice tests).
• Which is easier?
• People typically recall fewer correct words than
they recognize.
• Recognition tasks reveal that we remember more
than we recall.
The Context Matters!!!
• Flashbulb Memories
• Mood Congruent
Memory
• State Dependent
Memory
• Context Effects
Anatomy of
Memory
Amygdala: emotional memory and memory consolidation
Basal ganglia & cerebellum: memory for skills, habits and CC
responses
Hippocampus: memory recognition, spatial, episodic
memory, laying down new declarative long-term memories
Thalamus, formation of new memories and working
memories
Cortical Areas: encoding of factual memories, storage of
episodic and semantic memories, skill learning, priming.
Encoding
Getting the info into our heads
Encoding
Getting Information In
1. Unconscious encoding of incidental information
2. Well-learned information
Effortful Processing
requires attention and conscious effort
Rehearsal
conscious repetition of information to maintain it in
consciousness; encodes it for storage
3. Learned automatic processing
Encoding: Getting Information
In
Encoding
Effortful
Automatic
Automatic Processing
• Unconscious encoding of incidental information.
• You encode space, time, and word meaning without
effort.
• Things can become automatic with practice.
For example, if I tell you that you are a jerk, you
will encode the meaning of what I am saying to
you without any effort.
Effortful Processing
• Encoding that requires attention and
conscious effort.
• Rehearsal is the most common effortful
processing technique.
• Through enough rehearsal, what was effortful
becomes automatic.
• Example: Learning how to play the piano using
sheet music  memorizing it
Research on Encoding
Hermann Ebbinghaus’s Research
• used nonsense syllables to test encoding (i.e. TUV ZOF GEK)
• the more times the list of syllables were practiced on Day 1,
the fewer repetitions were needed to relearn the syllables on
Day 2
Percentage
of
List
Retained
when
Relearning
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
12345
10
1
20
25
5
Time in days since learning list
Curve of
information
forgotten over
a period of 30
days…initially
information is
lost rapidly,
30
then levels off
with time
Spacing Effect
• We encode better
when we study or
practice over time.
• DO NOT
CRAM!!!!!
Study Strategies
• Distributed practice
refers to spacing
learning periods in
contrast to massed
practice in which
learning is
“crammed” into a
single session
• Distributed practice
leads to better
retention
Organizational Methods
Chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units
–776-14-9218; 1-661-944-9859
Rote Learning
repetitive rehearsal (least effective encoding tool)
Method of Loci
use of locations to remember information (second best encoding tool)
Narrative Method
connecting information to the details of a story (best encoding tool)
Schema
cognitive framework for organizing concepts based on previous experience
and current expectations
Prototype
typical example of the concept
Hierarchies
complex information broken down into broad concepts and further
subdivided into categories and subcategories
Encoding Summarized
Encoding
(automatic
or effortful)
Meaning
(semantic
Encoding)
Imagery
(visual
Encoding)
Chunks
Organization
Hierarchies
Things to remember about Encoding
1. The Next-In-Line Effect: we seldom
remember what the person has just said or
done if we are next.
2. Information minutes before sleep is seldom
remembered; in the hour before sleep, well
remembered.
3. Taped info played while asleep is registered
by ears, but we do not remember it.
Take out a piece of paper and….
List the U.S. Presidents
The Presidents
Washington
J.Adams
Jefferson
Madison
Monroe
JQ Adams
Jackson
Van Buren
Harrison
Tyler
Polk
Taylor
Fillmore
Pierce
Buchanan
Lincoln
A.Johnson
Grant
Hayes
Garfield
Arthur
Cleveland
Harrison
Cleveland
McKinley
T.Roosevelt
Taft
Wilson
Harding
Coolidge
Hoover
FD.Roosevelt
Truman
Eisenhower
Kennedy
L.Johnson
Nixon
Ford
Carter
Reagan
HW Bush
Clinton
W. Bush
Obama
Serial Positioning Effect
• Our tendency to recall best the last and
first items in a list.
Presidents
Recalled
If we graph an average person remembers presidential list- it
would probably look something like this.
Serial Position Effect
• Primacy Effect-Most likely to remember the
first item(s) in a list (or presenter(s) in class
presentations)…
• Recency Effect-…and the last item(s) or
presenter(s)
Encoding exercise
Types of Encoding
• Semantic Encoding: the encoding
of meaning, like the meaning of
words
•Acoustic Encoding: the encoding
of sound, especially the sounds of
words.
•Visual Encoding: the encoding of
picture images.
Memory Encoding
• 1. Visual (picture)
• 2. Acoustic (sound)
• 3. Semantic (meaning)
• For example, how do you remember a telephone
number you have looked up in the phone book? If
you can see it then you are using visual coding,
but if you are repeating it to yourself you are
using acoustic coding (by sound).
Think/Pair/Share
• Which do you think is the principle coding
system for short-term memory (STM): visual,
acoustic, semantic?
Evidence suggests that this is the principle coding
system in short term memory (STM) is acoustic
coding. When a person is presented with a list of
numbers and letters, they will try to hold them in STM
by rehearsing them (verbally). Rehearsal is a verbal
process regardless of whether the list of items is
presented acoustically (someone reads them out), or
visually (on a sheet of paper).
Think/Pair/Share
• Which do you think is the principle coding
system for long-term memory (LTM): visual,
acoustic, semantic?
The principle encoding system in
long term memory (LTM) appears
to be semantic coding (by meaning).
However, information in LTM can
also be coded both visually and
acoustically.
Which type works best?
Self-Reference Effect
• An example of how we
encode meaning very
well.
• The idea that we
remember things (like
adjectives) when they
are used to describe
ourselves.
Memory Strategies
• Mnemonic devices are strategies to
improve memory by organizing
information
– Method of Loci: ideas are
associated with a place or part of a
building
– Peg-Word system: peg words are
associated with ideas (e.g. “one is a
bun”)
– Word Associations: verbal
associations are created for items to
be learned
Tricks to Encode
• Use imagery: mental pictures
Mnemonic Devices use imagery. “peg word”
system
"Mary Very Easily Makes Jam Saturday Unless No Plums."
Mars, Venus, Earth, Mercury, Jupiter,
Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto.
Give me some more examples….
Links to examples of mnemonic devices.
Chunking
• Organizing items into familiar, manageable
units.
• Often it will occur automatically.
1-4-9-2-1-7-7-6-1-8-1-2-1-9-4-1
Do these numbers mean anything to you?
1492, 1776, 1812, 1941 how about now?
Retrieval
How do we recall the information we
thought we remembered?
Lets Jog Our Memory!!!!!!!
Storage and Retrieval
• STM is stored and retrieved sequentially. For
example, if a group of participants are given a list
of words to remember, and then asked to recall
the fourth word on the list, participants go
through the list in the order they heard it in order
to retrieve the information.
• LTM is stored and retrieved by association. This
is why you can remember what you went upstairs
for if you go back to the room where you first
thought about it.
Organization
• Organizing information can help aid retrieval. You
can organize information in sequences (such as
alphabetically, by size or by time). Imagine a
patient being discharged from hospital whose
treatment involved taking various pills at various
times, changing their dressing and doing
exercises. If the doctor gives these instructions in
the order which they must be carried out
throughout the day (i.e. in sequence of time), this
will help the patient remember them.
Parallel processing is the ability of
the brain to simultaneously process
incoming stimuli of differing quality.
This becomes most important in
vision, as the brain divides what it
sees into four components: color,
motion, shape, and depth.
Recall versus Recognition
I probably cannot recall the Smurfs,
but can I recognize them?
Lazy Smurf or Lethargic Smurf
Papa Smurf or Daddy Smurf
Handy Smurf or Practical Smurf
Brainy Smurf or Intellectual Smurf
Clumsy Smurf or Inept Smurf
Retrieval Cues
• Things that help us
remember.
•We often use a process
called priming (the
activation of
associations in our
memory) to help us
retrieve information.
PRIMING EFFECT
• Priming effect occurs when people respond faster
or better to an item if a similar item preceded it.
•For the most part, the priming effect is
considered involuntary and is most likely an
unconscious phenomenon. The priming
effect basically consists of repetition
priming and semantic priming.
Repetition Priming
1. Repetition priming refers to the fact that it is easier
(quicker) to recognize a face or word if you have
recently seen that same face or word.
Semantic Priming
2. Semantic priming refers to the fact that it is
easier (quicker) to recognize someone or word
if you have just seen someone or a word
closely associated.
Priming
Exercise 2
Context Effects
• It helps to put yourself back
in the same context you
experienced (encoded)
something.
• If you study on your favorite
chair at home, you will
probably score higher if you
also took the test on the
chair.
Mood-Congruent Memory
• The tendency to recall experiences that are
consistent with one's current good or bad
mood.
• If you are depressed, you will more likely recall
sad memories from you past.
• Moods also effect that way you interpret
other peoples behavior
Retrieval Cues
Retrieval Cues
Reminders associated with information in memory we are
trying to retrieve
State-Dependent Memory
what is learned in one state (i.e. high, drunk,
depressed) can more easily be remembered when in
same state
A Real-Life Example:
After learning to move
a mobile by kicking,
infants had their
learning reactivated
most strongly when
retested in the same
rather than a
different context
(Experiment by: Butler
& Rovee-Collier, 1989)
Forgetting
False Memory
This activity demonstrates
people’s capacity to form a
false memory. We do not
recall exact copies of past
events. Rather, we construct
our memories.
Acknowledgements: This demonstration was written by
Martin Bolt, Calvin College
Encoding Failure
Encoding Failure
• We fail to encode the information.
• It never has a chance to enter our LTM.
Test Your Memory
Which is the real penny?
• Cents
Memory isn’t all it seems
Videos
Memory Issues
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Mind Decay
Disease
Interference
Chemicals
Context dependent
Physical Trauma
Severe Mental Trauma
Theories of Forgetting
• Proactive interference: old information
interferes with recall of new
information
• Retroactive interference: new
information interferes with recall of
old information
• Decay theory: memory trace fades with
time
• Motivated forgetting: involves the loss
of painful memories (protective memory
loss)
• Retrieval failure: the information is
still within LTM, but cannot be recalled
because the retrieval cue is absent
Storage Decay
• Even if we encode
something well, we
can forget it.
• Without rehearsal,
we forget things over
time.
• Ebbinghaus’s
forgetting curve
Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve
Retrieval Failure
• The memory was encoded and stored,
but sometimes you just cannot access
the memory.
Types of Retrieval Failure
Proactive Interference
• The disruptive
effect of prior
learning on the
recall of new
information.
If you call your new girlfriend your
old girlfriend’s name.
Types of Retrieval Failure
Retroactive Interference
• The disruptive effect of
new learning on the
recall of old
information.
When you finally remember this
years locker combination, you
forget last years.
Retroactive Interference
Percentage
of syllables
recalled
90%
Without interfering
events, recall is
better
80
70
After sleep
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
After remaining awake
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Hours elapsed after learning syllables
8
Primary Types of Forgetting
Retrograde Amnesia – (i.e. Alzheimer’s)
Information in short-term never gets transferred to long-term
Anterograde Amnesia – (i.e. memory loss shown n “50 First Dates)
Can learn semantic information but can’t form new long-term
memories
Psychogenic Amnesia –
Subconscious way of protecting self by forgetting traumatic life
events
Transient Global Amnesia (TGA) –
Non-permanent amnesia, most likely caused by lack of blood flow
Dissociative Amnesia (Fugue) –
Sometimes permanent amnesia caused by extreme emotional stress
Source Amnesia –
The false recollection of information due to inaccurate associations
Korsakoff’s Syndrome –
Memory loss resulting in retrograde or anterograde amnesia as a
result of vitamin deficiency (i.e. Alcoholism)
Damage to the Hippocampus –
Memory loss due to medial temporal lobe or hippocampus damage
Organization of LTM
• Tip-of the tongue
phenomenon: person can’t
easily recall the item, but
shows some recall for its
characteristics (“…it begins
with the letter ….”)
Motivated Forgetting
• We sometimes revise our own histories.
Motivated Forgetting
Why does it exist?
One explanation is
REPRESSION:
• in psychoanalytic theory,
the basic defense
mechanism that banishes
anxiety-arousing
thoughts, feelings and
memories from
consciousness.
Forgetting
Memory Construction
• We sometimes alter
our memories as we
encode or retrieve
them.
• Your expectations,
schemas, environment
may alter your
memories.
My Trip To Cheesecake Factory
You go to the Cheesecake Factory for dinner. You are
seated at a table with a white tablecloth. You study
the menu. You tell the female server you want
Avocado Egg Rolls, extra sauce, Roadslide Sliders,
Thai Lettuce Wraps, and a Porterhouse Steak
(medium). You also order a Cherry Coke from the
beverage list. A few minutes later the server
returns with your Avocado Egg Rolls. Later the rest
of the meal arrives. You enjoy it all, except the
Porterhouse Steak is a bit overdone.
Cheesecake Factory (Framing)
How did you order the steak?
Was the red tablecloth checkered?
What did you order to drink?
Did a male server give you a menu?
Misinformation Effect
• Incorporating misleading information into
one’s memory of an event.
Misinformation Effect
Depiction of Accident
Misinformation Effect
Leading Question: About how fast were the cars
going when they smashed into each other?
Elizabeth Loftus
Research on Forgetting
Elizabeth Loftus’s Research
• Misinformation Effect – incorporating misleading information
into one's memory of an event
• Eyewitness Testimony – misinformation effect most often
happens when witnesses try to recall specific details of an event
Constructive Memory
• Memories are not always what they
seem.
• Elizabeth Loftus
• A constructed memory is a created
memory.
• Misinformation effect
Research on Forgetting
Daniel Schacter’s Research
•Three Sins of Forgetting –
1.Absent-Mindedness – inattention to details causes encoding failure
2.Transience – storage decays and dwindles over time
3.Blocking – when stored information is inaccessible
•Three Sins of Distortion –
1.Misattribution – confusing the details of how an event occurred
2.Suggestibility – misinformation skews accurate recall
False Memory Syndrome - condition in which a person’s identity
and relationships center around a false but strongly believed
memory of traumatic experience
3.Bias – skewed recollection of memories based on what the person
does/does not want to remember
•One Sin of Intrusion –
1.Persistence – when unwanted memories seem to haunt you
Amnesia
• Amnesia is forgetting produced by
brain injury or by trauma
– Retrograde amnesia refers to problems
with recall of information prior to a
trauma
– Anterograde amnesia refers to problems
with recall of information after a
trauma
Anterograde amnesia
Retrograde amnesia
Point of Trauma
Issues in Memory
• Reasons for inaccuracy of
memory:
– Source amnesia: attribution of a
memory to the wrong source (e.g. a dream
is recalled as an actual event)
– Sleeper effect: a piece of information
from an unreliable source is initially
discounted, but is recalled after the source
has been forgotten
– Misinformation effect: we incorporate
outside information into our own
memories
Dementia vs. Alzheimer’s
• Dementia affects communication and the
performance of activities. Umbrella term
– Alzheimer’s (60-70%)
– Huntington’s
– Parkinson’s
Alzheimer’s
• Affects parts of the brain where thought and
memory happen
• Sundowning
Amnesia
• Retrograde-loss of memories before accident
• Anterograde-unable to create new memories
• Examples
Anatomy of Memory
Bilateral damage to
the hippocampus
results in anterograde
amnesia (Patient H.M.)
Normal Brain
Alzheimer Brain—There is no one place
where memories are stored