CHAPTER 9
BODY ORGANIZATION
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Anatomy and Physiology

Four basic properties of life:
 Reception
• The ability of the organism to control its actions and
respond to changes in the environment
 Metabolism
• The process of taking in and using nutrients to produce
energy and growth
 Reproduction
• The ability to reproduce offspring to continue the species
 Organization
• How the organism is divided into distinct parts to perform
these functions
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Anatomy

Body structures are organized on five levels:
 Cells
• The smallest units of life
 Tissues
• Combinations of similar cells
 Organs
• Collections of tissues working together to perform a
function
A
•
body system
Consists of organs that work together to provide a major
body function
 An organism
• Being that results when the body systems work together
to maintain life
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Cell Structure

Major structures of a cell are called
organelles
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Nucleus
• Controls activity of the cell
• Directs reproduction
Cytoplasm
• Semifluid material that surrounds cell parts
• Transports chemicals and nutrients within the cell
Mitochondria
• Produces the energy used for cellular processes
Cell membrane
• Surrounds the cell
• Controls which substances enter and leave the cell
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Cell Structure (Continued)
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
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Lysosomes
• Helps break down, or digest, molecules
Ribosomes
• Attached to the endoplasmic reticulum
• Work to produce protein for the cell structures
Golgi apparatus
• Makes glycoproteins, which help transport proteins made
by the ribosomes out of the cell
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Figure 9-1 Cell Structure
(Continued)
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Homeostasis

The tendency of a cell or the whole organism
to maintain a state of balance

Generally refers to maintaining constancy of the
“internal milieu” or fluid surrounding cells of the
organisms
• Composition of the tissue fluid that makes up internal
environment is kept constant
• Molecules pass in and out of the cell to maintain balance
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Homeostasis (Continued)

Physiological components of homeostasis or
state of balance:
 Body
temperature
 Gas exchange
 pH values
 Water and ion balance
 Volume and pressure of fluid
 Waste removal
 Nutrient intake
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Table 9-1 Homeostasis and
Body Systems
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Electrolytes

Electrolytes are compounds made of charged
particles called ions


Ions can conduct electrical current in water or in
cytoplasm of cell
• Positive charge (cation) creates an acid
• Negative charge (anion) creates a base
Different electrolytes also have special
functions
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Table 9-2 Electrolytes of the
Body
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pH

pH of a fluid is a measurement of how much acid
or base is present
• Each tissue has a normal pH
• Cells do not function properly if normal pH is not
maintained for that area of the body
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pH of the Body
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Tissue Types

Four main groups of tissue:

Epithelial tissue
• Covers the body, forms glands, and lines the surfaces of
cavities and organs

Connective tissue
• Formed by a protein, includes soft tissue such as fat and
blood cells and hard tissues such as bones, ligaments,
and cartilage
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Tissue Types (Continued)

Muscle tissue
• Made of protein fibers, has the unique property of
shortening to produce movement

Nervous tissue
• Composed largely of specialized cells called neurons
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Body Systems


Physiology is the study of the functions of the
body
Body system


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Group of related organs
Body systems together accomplish functions
necessary to maintain and support life
There are 12 body systems
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Body Systems (Continued)
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Integumentary system covers the body and
protects other body systems
Cardiovascular system transports oxygen and
nutrients to all body parts and removes waste
products
Circulatory system includes the blood and
lymph that move throughout the body
Respiratory system exchanges gases
between the air and blood
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Body Systems (Continued)
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Muscular system allows the body to move
and controls movements within the body
Skeletal system provides body support and
protection
Digestive system processes food and
eliminates food waste
Urinary system filters the blood and removes
liquid wastes
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Body Systems (Continued)
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Endocrine system coordinates body cavities
through hormones
Nervous system regulates the environment
and directs the activities of other body
systems
Sensory system perceives the environment
and sends messages to and from the brain
Reproductive system provides for human
reproduction
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Anatomical Position

Standard position of the body used to
describe the location of the anatomy

Person is in an erect standing position
• Mouth closed
• Eyes and head facing forward
• Feet slightly apart with toes facing forward
• Arms are close to the body and the palms are facing
forward with fingers extended
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Figure 9-4 Anatomical Position
(Continued)
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Body Planes

Planes are used to describe the body

Three planes:
• Coronal or frontal

Separates the front and back of the body
• Transverse

Divides the upper and lower body
• Sagittal

Divides the body into right and left sides
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Body Planes (Continued)

Location of organs is described in relation to these
planes:
• Inferior (below)
• Superior (above)
• Medial (close to)
• Lateral (away from)
• Anterior or ventral (in front of)
• Posterior or dorsal (behind)
• Other terms used to a point where one organ attaches to
another


Proximal (close to)
Distal (away from)
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Figure 9-5 Body Planes (Continued)
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Body Cavities

Five body cavities:

Thoracic
• Contains lungs, heart, esophagus, trachea, and major
blood vessels

Abdominal
• Contains stomach, gallbladder, pancreas, intestines,
liver, spleen, adrenal glands, and kidneys
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
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Pelvic
• Contains reproductive organs, bladder, and rectum
Cranial
• Contains the brain, ventricles, and some glands
Spinal
• Houses the spinal cord and nerves
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Figure 9-6 Body Cavities (Continued)
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Figure 9-7 Body Regions

Abdominal and pelvic cavities are described
in terms of regions

Nine regions:
• Right hypochondriac
• Epigastric
• Left hypochondriac
• Right lumbar
• Umbilical
• Left lumbar
• Right inguinal
• Hypogastric
• Left inguinal
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Figure 9-7 Body Regions
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Abdominal Quadrants

Four quadrants:

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

Right upper
Right lower
Left upper
Left lower
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Figure 9-8 Abdominal Quadrants
(Continued)
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Cell Function

Cell reproduction

Mitosis is the process by which a cell divides to
reproduce, creating an identical replica with the
same chromosomes
• Each cell (except gametes) contains 46 chromosomes
• All chromosomes (except sex chromosome x and y) are
paired and called homologous autosomes

Heredity

Heredity is the passing on of genetic information
that determines the characteristics of an individual
person
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Cell Function (Continued)

Meiosis

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
Cell divides into two parts with only one half of the
chromosomes
Part of the reproduction process
Results in the formation of sex cell (gametes)
• Fertilization is the combination of two gametes with
chromosomes from different parents into one cell

Offspring inherits any abnormal gene found on the
chromosome of either parent
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Cell Function (Continued)

Heredity


Heredity is the passing on of genetic information
that determines the characteristics of an individual
person
Genes contain the hereditary information in the
cell
• Made up of protein chains in a molecule called DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid)
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Cell Function (Continued)

Chromosomes

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Threadlike strands of DNA
Contain between 50,000 and 100,000 genes
• Genotype


Configuration of genetic information in the chromosomes
Phenotype
– Trait or appearance that results from the genotype
• Dominant gene
• Recessive gene
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Cell Function (Continued)
• Homozygous

Two genes alike on the chromosome pair
• Heterozygous


Two genes that are different on the chromosome pair
Genetic information carried on all chromosomes is
responsible for
• The development of all body cells
• Formation of tissues, organs, and body systems
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Cell Formation Diseases

Genetic disorders


Abnormal genes or chromosomes cause many
disorders
Cancer

The uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells that
tend to spread (metastasize) and invade the tissue
around them
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Issues and Innovations

Genetic engineering

3,000+ disorders are known to result from genetic
abnormalities
 Advanced techniques and procedures can now
identify abnormal genes in the unborn fetus
• Chorionic villus sampling
• Preimplantation diagnosis
• Gene splicing
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Issues and Innovations
(Continued)
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Cancer treatments

Immunotherapy
• Involves using:



Chemicals that are isolated from bacteria infected with the
cancer
Killed suspensions of bacteria
Biological substances that harm tumors:
–
–
–
–
Interferon
Interleukin
Tumor necrosis factors
Growth factors
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Issues and Innovations
(Continued)

Cancer treatments


Lasers
• Destroy cancerous cells
• Photodynamic therapy (fiberoptic technology)
Hyperthermia (increase in temperature)
• Used in combination with radiation to treat some tumors
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