1
ZOOLOGY RESOURCE BOOK
PART 3
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PHILOSOPHY
This Zoology course is based on the idea that all animals are important. Our world
and existence must be in constant balance with the diversity of animals in which
we share the Earth. Each animal has a role in a complex web of life that makes its’
survival crucial. All organisms deserve our respect, for if this balance is upset our
lives will ultimately be affected.
This course is designed for students wanting to peruse an academic path,
especially in the sciences. Material in this class is unique to other sciences, and
thus presents an opportunity for the hard working student to achieve success. As
an elective course, Zoology is designed to guide its students to become better
learners, more responsible students, and hopefully more conscience observers of
the natural world. It not our intent to make the course too hard to be successful
in; however, we feel that in challenging our students we provide them with a better
way to learn, therefore helping them to becoming better and more productive
students.
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PHYLUM MOLLUSCA
General Characteristics
• _________________ or more species of molluscs.
• They share 3 major sets of characteristics:
– Body enclosed by a blanket-like __________that secretes a shell
made of _________________ or some other stiffening structure.
– A mantle _________ between the mantle and the internal organs;
the anus, _________________, and excretory ducts open into the
mantle cavity.
– A _________________, muscular foot that is highly modified among the various groups of molluscs.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Invertebrates (lack a backbone)
Unsegmented
Bilateral symmetry
Have a ____________________ ______________________
Simple to complex ___________________ ______________________
Habitats & Niches
• Habitats include:
– _________________ (mostly)
_________________ (a few)
– _________________ (a few)
• Niches (life-style):
– Most live on the ocean bottom and are mostly _________________
– Some are _________________ (the cephalopods)
Classes of Arthropods:
– __________________________ (mono=_______; placo=_______; phora=_______)
•
Ex. _________________
–
__________________________ (a=_______)
•
Ex. _________________
–
__________________________ (poly=_______)
•
Ex. _________________
–
__________________________ (gastro=_______; poda=_______)
•
Ex. _________________, _________________, _________________
–
__________________________ (bi=_______; valvia=_______)
•
Ex. _________________
–
__________________________ (cephalo=______________; poda=_______)
•
Ex. _________________, _________________, etc.
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Class Monoplacophora
• _________________ is the only genus in this entire class.
• These creatures were discovered in the __________ while dredging the deep ocean.
• Specifically, they can be found around ___________ & Central America.
• Prior to 1950s only _________________ _________________ were found.
• Their specific characteristics include:
–
–
–
•
•
They have _______ pairs of gills & eights pairs of foot retractors.
This segmentation suggests an ancestral relationship with _________________.
Class Aplacophora
• Specific characteristics:
•
–
– No _________________, but has a body wall made up of calcium spicules (think of the sponges).
It is this that puts them in the phylum mollusca
– They are generally found on the _________________ _________________.
Class Polyplacophora
• _________________ are the only genus in the class Polyplacophora.
• Their specific characteristics:
– Posses a _________________ that consists of 8 overlapping plates.
–
–
–
– They have a tongue-like tooth-covered rasping organ (_________________) to scrape algae and other
food.
Class Gastropoda
• Most _________________ class of molluscs.
• Consists of snails and snail-like creatures.
• Specific Characteristics:
– They have a _________________ located shell (often coiled).
– They have a well-developed _________________.
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– Visceral mass (organs) is located inside the shell. Their viseral mass is rotated _______ during
development.
– They are _________________ or _________________ (carnivorous).
– Habitats include: _________________, lake, _______________ _________________, coastal shores,
and land.
Class Bivalvia
• Specific Characteristics:
–
–
–
–
–
•
•
They have _______ __________held together by powerful muscles.
They have a _________________ located foot that sticks out between the two valves.
Habitats include: _________________ and _________________.
They tend to burrow into ___________ ________or sand or attach to rocks or other shells.
Large gills are used for respiration and filter feeding.
Food is trapped by ___________ on the gills and moved by cilia. Water enters and exits through siphons.
Class Cephalopoda
• Contains the _________________ molluscs.
• Specific Characteristics:
– May lack a _____________ (like an octopus)
– Shell may be reduced to a _________________ ________ (like the squid or nautilus)
– The foot is highly modified to form a group of _________________ around the mouth.
– They are found in deep and shallow waters along many coasts.
– Squids & Nautilus are ____________________ and move very quickly. Octopuses are found among rocks
or crawling on the bottom of the ocean.
– Complex ____________, two _________________ eyes, excellent eyesight.
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Squid Self–Test Images:
Squid Self-Test:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
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Complete the following chart using your notes and color plate book. Be specific with both!
Structure
1. TENTACLES
2. ARMS
3. SUCKERS
4. SIPHON
5. BUCCAL CAVITY
6. JAWS
7. INK SAC
8. CEREBRAL GANGLIA
9. STOMACH
10. RADULA
11. AFFERENT BRANCHIAL VESSELS
12. EFFERENT BRANCHIAL VESSELS
13. PANCREAS
14. OPTIC NERVES
15. MOUTH
Location
Function
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Mollusk Review Sheet
1.
Most mollusks are _______________________ but some are freshwater and terrestrial.
2.
Mollusks have a _____________ part body plan. List the parts: _______________, __________________,
______________________.
3.
The _____________ ____________ contains the internal organs, including the digestive tract, paired kidneys and reproductive
organs.
4.
The mantle may secrete a ________________ or contribute to gills or lungs.
5.
The _________________ _______________ is an organ adapted for locomotion, attachment, food capture, or a combination of
functions.
6.
The organ that bears many rows of teeth and is used for grazing on food known as the _________________.
7.
Mollusks have a reduced ______________ ___________ that is limited to the region around the heart.
8.
Most mollusks have an ________________ circulatory system except for the class cephalopoda that have a _________________
circulatory system.
9.
Chitons are in the class ___________________________.
10. Chitons have a shell that consists of __________________ overlapping plates.
11. The class __________________ includes snails, terrestrial slugs, whelks, and sea slugs.
12. Many gastropods are herbivores and use their _____________to scrape food from surfaces. Other gastropods are
________________and use their radula to bore through surfaces such as shells to obtain food.
13. Most gastropods have a ________________ shell. Some such as slugs____________ a shell.
14. The class _____________________ contains clams, oysters, mussels and scallops.
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15. The shell of terrestrial snails offers protection and prevents desiccation. What does desiccation mean?
________________________________________________
16. What is secreted from the muscular food of snails to help in movement? _____________________
17. Terrestrial gastropods are ______________________ (contain both male and female sex organs).
18. Bivalves have a ____________ part shell, no head, no radula and little cephalization.
19. Bivalves are __________________ feeders; water comes in the ______________ siphon, passes over the gills where food is
trapped. The water and wastes then exit through the excurrent ______________. Gills are also used for _______________.
20. Bivalves have ___________________ sexes.
21. The class Cephalopoda includes _______________, _______________, ________________, and _________________.
22. Cephalopoda means ______________ _______________.
23. Squids and octopuses propel themselves through the water by ___________ _________________.
24. The muscular foot of cephalopods includes the ______________ and ___________.
25. Cephalopods have well-developed sense organs, eyes and ___________ which show a capacity for learning.
26. Squids and octopuses have ____________ ____________, which squirt a cloud of ink, to help them escape from predators.
27. Nautilus are enclosed in shells, squids have a reduced internal shell and octopuses ______________ a shell.
28. Cephalopods have _________________ sexes.
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PHYLUM ARTHROPODA
Overview
• There are _____________________ known species of arthropods.
– If you include all those species that have not yet been discovered the number is more likely in the
________________.
– This is more ________________ in this one ______________ than you would get by grouping all
members of all other phyla together.
• There are _______________ insects for each person on this Earth.
• There are so many ________________ & tiny crustaceans that together they outweigh all the
___________________ on Earth.
Habitat
• Given that there are ______________ different species, they are found in ____________ __________
habitats on Earth.
– Many crustaceans live in the __________ at depths exceeding _______________. (That’s 2.5 miles
deep)
– Insect collembolans and jumping spiders have been found on ____________ ______________ at
heights exceeding _______________________. (That’s 4 MILES high.)
– Collembolans and the orbatid mites live in ______________________.
– Brine shrimp are found in some _____________________ lakes.
– Beetles, mites, and various crustaceans can live in _____________ _________________.
– Tiny crustaceans inhabit ______________________ waters.
– ___________________ support a large arthropod population, especially insects and arachnids.
Niches
• All are ________________________, and the aspects of their niche that affect humans include:
–
–
–
–
Many species of ______________ and _________________ attack food crops and timber.
_____________________ of all flowering plants are pollinated by insects.
Soil and leaf-mold arthropods, which include insects, mites, myriapods, and some crustaceans (pill
bugs), play an important role in the formation of _____________ from decomposed leaf litter and
wood.
To protect themselves many arthropods (insects) will sting their attacker.
Medical Importance
• Medically, arthropods are significant as carriers of diseases, including:
–
– Yellow fever
–
– African sleeping sickness (via tsetse
flies)
–
– bubonic plague (via fleas)
– Rocky Mountain spotted fever (via ticks)
–
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Arthropod Characteristics
• What makes an organism an arthropod?
–
–
–
–
–
–
Segmented Body with paired ____________________
_____________________ symmetry
___________ ____________ digestive system (mouth and anus)
Open ________________________ system
Separate _______________
Arthropod Subphyla & Classes
• There are many different classes of Arthropods, including:
– Class Merostomata (horseshoe crabs, eurypterids)
– Class _____________________ (spiders, ticks, mites)
– Class _____________________
– Class Chilopoda (centipedes)
– Class Diplopoda (millipedes)
– Class _____________________
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Arthropods Again: The Crustacean
The Crustacean
 The first type of arthropod that we will study is the ________________________.
 There are about _______________ species in this class. They include:
o Barnacles
o
o Lobster
o
o Crab
Crustacean Body Plan
 Crustaceans have a body plan that consists of:
o ________________________________ consisting of:
 _______________, consisting of five segments giving off appendages
 _____________________ Segments – generally modified for food handling or movement
o _______________________ – usually segmented, but may or may not have appendages.
The Crayfish
 Our crustacean of choice to study is the crayfish. We will complete a lab the week of March 20th.
 Like other crustaceans, the crayfish has a head, thorax, and abdomen.
o Specifically it has:
 ____ ___________ segments
 ____ ____________________ segments
 ____ ____________________ segments
Crayfish Segments
• In the crayfish, each segment gives rise to a specific ______________ which has specific functions.
• You will need to know and study what these appendages are, and what their functions are.
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Head Appendages
• Head Segment 1: give off ______________________ that are used as _______________
________________.
• Head Segment 2: give off ___________________ that are also used as _______________
________________.
• Head Segment 3: give off _________________ around the mouth that are used to _________ and
______________ food.
• Head Segment 4 & 5: give off _________________ that are used to ___________ the food around so that it
can be put in the ________________.
Thoracic Appendages
• Thoracic Segments 6-8: give off ____________________ which are also used to ___________________
food.
• Thoracic Segment 9: ___________________ (___________________)are used for ___________________,
getting, and manipulating __________.
• Thoracic Segments 10-13: ______________ _________, which are used for ___________________.
Abdominal Appendages
• Abdominal Segments 14-18: give off ___________________, which create ___________________
___________________, enhance air movement to gills, hold eggs in females, and are modified as
reproductive structures in males.
• Abdominal Segment 19: ___________________
(which houses the anus)– used for waste
___________________ and ___________________. Both structures can be used as a paddle to allow for
rapid ___________________ underwater.
Crayfish Internal Structures
 Do not lose these notes, as this picture will greatly help you with your self-test.
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Get to Know the Exoskeleton
 The dorsal and lateral parts of the ___________________ are covered with the _________________.
o The carapace has an anterior extension known as the ___________________.
 The ventral plates is called the ___________________.
 The abdominal skeletal plates are known as the ___________________.
 All of these structures comprise the ___________________ and act as ___________________ for internal
organs.
Crayfish Muscular System
 Inside the thoracic and abdominal segments are ___________________ ___________________,
___________________, and vessels.
o The abdominal segments are nearly filled with ___________________ tissue.
o These muscles are used to power the appendages of the abdominal regions: ___________________.
Crayfish Digestive System
 Mouth -> esophagous -> stomach -> digestive gland -> intestine -> anus
 Their stomach is divided into a ___________________
region and a ___________________ region.
o The cardiac chamber has calcified plates that act like
___________________ to grind up food into
___________________ bits.
o The food then moves to the pyloric region and
moves on as listed above.
Crayfish Excretory System
 The excretory system is made up of ___________________ glands.
 While these glands are capable of some excretion, they cannot handle all of the chemical & water balance
needs.
o The ___________________ play the largest role in regulating body fluids.
Crayfish Circulatory System
 Crayfish have ___________________ circulatory systems.
o They have ___________________, but the vessels empty into ___________________.
o The blood from the sinuses is then returned to the heart in ___________________, not vessels.
o So, though there are vessels, they empty into sinuses – so it is still considered an open system.
Crayfish Respiration
 Respiration occurs through the ___________________ (found from thoracic segment 2-6).
 Water is circulated over the gills by movement of a paddle-like __________ ____________ which moves
with the second ___________________.
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THE ARTHROPOD STORY
Introduction:
1. Arthropods have been around for _________________ years.
2. There are ___________ insects for each person of Earth.
3. There are so many _____________, tiny crustaceans, that together they outweigh all the
_____________ on Earth.
Habitat & Distribution:
1. Define Habitat:
2. List 3 extreme habitats where arthropods are found:



Ecological Niche:
1. Define Niche:
2. Describe the unique niche of 2 arthropods:


What is an arthropod:
1. List the branches (classes) of the arthropod tree.






2. List the characteristics common to all arthropods.

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



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COLORPLATE INTRODUCTION (CP 38 AND 41)
Subphylum Chelicerata (approximately 60,000 species)
Characterized by:
1. Body divided into _________________(fused head/thorax) and __________________.
2. 6 pairs of appendages
 1st pair are _______________ - claw or pincer bearing

2nd pair are _______________

3rd – 6th pairs are ______________
3. Usually segmented abdomen, generally no appendages
2 Major Classes:

Merostomata – an example is the ____________________________________, whose habitat is
________________________________.

Arachnidia – examples include ______________________________________ whose habitat is
generally _____________________ and whose niche is typically _____________________.
Subphylum Mandibulata (nearly 900,000 species)
Characterized by one of the following:
1. A ___________________ and _____________ (same as Chelicerates)
2. A ________, ___________, and _______________
3. A head and a trunk of similar or identical segments
Shared characteristics include:
1. Collection of appendages that surround the mouth and form jaws
(_________________ and ____________________)
2. Pair of sensory _______________
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4 Classes of Mandibulates:

Crustacea – examples of which include _________________________________________ and
whose habitat is largely ____________________.
Their body plan consists of a ________________ and _______________.

Insecta – examples of which include ________________________________________ and
whose habitat is largely ___________________.
Their body plan consists of a ________________, _________________, and
_________________.

Chilopoda – an example of which is __________________ and whose habitat is
_________________________.

Diplopoda – an example of which is __________________ and whose habitat is
__________________________.
CHILOPODA/DIPLOPODA COMPARISON
CHILOPODA
DIPLOPODA
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Morphology of a crayfish: edible freshwater crustacean, with pincers on the two forelegs.
Claw: ends of the largest of a crayfish limbs.
Rostrum: extension of a crayfish's shell.
Head: foremost part of a crayfish.
Thorax: upper part of a crayfish's body.
Abdomen: lower part of a crayfish's body.
Exopodite: external part of the uropod.
Endopodite: internal part of the uropod.
Uropod: swimming appendage of the crayfish.
Telson: last segment of the abdomen of a crayfish.
Segment: ring of the abdomen of a crayfish.
Walking leg: limb of a crayfish used for forward motion.
Coumpond eye (stalked eye): complex sight organ of a crayfish.
Antennule: small antenna.
Cheliped: front leg which ends in pincers.
Antenna: organ of touch of a crayfish.
PLEASE LOOK AT THE APPENDAGES SET IN THE PLASTIC BLOCK
FOR ADDITIONAL HELP WITH THESE LAB PROCEDURES.
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CRAYFISH ANATOMY WORKSHEET
Directions: Use Color Plate 42 & 43 & your notes to answer the following questions.
1. Fill in the following chart by naming the appendages connected to the segments listed in the left-hand
column and give the function of each appendage. There may be some duplication of functions.
Head Segments
1
Appendage Name
Function
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
2
3
4
5
Thoracic Segments
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
6
7
8
9
10-13
Abdominal Segments
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
14-18
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2. The interior of the abdomen of the crayfish is filled almost entirely with what kind of tissue? Explain
why.
3. The crayfish has teeth in its stomach. Explain this statement.
4. What type of circulatory system does the crayfish have (open or closed)? Describe in your own words
the circulation of blood through the crayfish. Be sure to explain how it circulates through the gills and
returns to the heart.
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CRAYFISH LAB report
Introduction: Using CP 44, compare the crustaceans lobster, shrimp, and crab. Identify two similarities of all
three and at least one difference for each of the three.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
EXTERNAL:
Place a crayfish specimen in a dissecting pan and examine the external anatomy.
1. Is the outside of the body hard or is it rather soft? _______________________
2. Does it have an exoskeleton? _______________________
The segmented hind portion is the abdomen.
3. Is the anterior portion clearly divided into a separate head and thorax, or are the two firmly united?
_______________________
4. What is this area of the carapace referred to as? _______________________
5. Is the anterior part of the body divided into segments? _______________________
The covering of this part of the body is called the carapace and is subdivided into a number of regions by
grooves.
6. What is the name of the groove found between the head and the thorax? _______________________
7. What is the name of the sharp projection found between the eyes? _______________________
8. Is this considered a projection of the carapace? _______________________.
Directly beneath the rostrum are the eyes, which are placed on short, thick, movable stalks.
9. Do the eyes appear to be simple or compound? _______________________
Locate the anus at the posterior end of the abdomen. The central flap-like projection behind the anus is the
telson.
10. Is the anus located on the ventral or on the dorsal side? _______________________
THE APPENDAGES:
11. Are the appendages of the body segmented or not? _______________________
Just below the eyes are two pairs of slender appendages; the upper pair are the antennules and the lower pair are
the antennae. Please write the name of the appendage.
12. Which of these is longer? _______________________
13. Which is made up of two thread-like parts per organ and jointed at the base to a thicker stalk?
_______________________
Such a doubly branched appendage is said to be biramous. At the base of this appendage is the opening of the
green glands, which serve as excretory organs. Examine the base of the antennae.
14. Do they have a sort of branch near their base, too? _______________________
15. Would you consider the antenna to be modified type of biramous or uniramous appendage?
_______________________
The appendages next in sequence are the mandibles, or jaws, which appear as hard gray objects on the midventral line. Gently pry open the mandibles with a blunt instrument.
16. Do they appear to move from side to side as those of the grasshopper or up-and-down as do your jaw?
_______________________
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Note the little side branches of each mandible.
17. Would you consider these to be uniramous or biramous appendages? _______________________
Before studying the appendages further, examine the crayfish with part of the carapace on the lower left side of
the body removed (your teacher will do this for you). The gills will be exposed, which will be seen as grayish
feathery projections that are massed completely together. Move some of the legs gently.
18. Do the gills also move when you move the legs? _______________________
19. Why or why not? ____________________________________________________________________
Locate some of the gills and note that they are attached to the bases of appendages. Now, behind the mandible
on each side, find the short fan-like structures, the maxillae, which lie so closely together as they appear as one.
These, together with the next three pairs of longer appendages, the maxillipeds are used in handling food,
circulating water, and the like. Move the appendages one by one.
20. Do most of the maxillipeds appear to be biramous or uniramous? _______________________
21. Do all the maxillipeds have gills? _______________________
22. Which ones do not have gills? _______________________
The five pairs of long appendages behind the shorter ones are the periopods or walking legs. The first one bears
a large claw or pincher, and is called the cheliped.
23. Are the chelipeds biramous or uniramous? _______________________
24. Which other pairs of walking legs have claws? _______________________
25. Which ones do not have gills? _______________________
26. How many segments are found on the third pair of walking legs? _______________________
27. How many segments are found on the fourth pair of walking legs? _______________________
28. How many segments are found on the first and second pair of walking legs?
_______________________
Zoologists believe that the pincher is composed of the last two segments of the legs.
29. Would all the walking legs have equal number of segments if you include the two composing the claw?
_______________________
On the ventral side of the abdomen are a number of shorter appendages called swimmerets. The first two pairs
are modified for sexual purposes. In the male, the first pair or two are usually thickened and lengthened,
whereas in the female, the first pair is thread-like and may be tucked out of sight between the bases of the last
pair of walking legs. Examine your specimen.
30. What is its sex? Please use the symbols for male and female. _______________________
31. How many pairs of swimmerets are present? _______________________
32. Are the swimmerets biramous or uniramous? _______________________
The last pair of abdominal appendages are flattened and fan-like; they are the uropods located on each side of
the telson.
33. What is the function of the uropod and telson? ______________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
34. Are they uniramous or biramous? _______________________
Count carefully the number of different kinds of appendages found on your crayfish.
35. How many different kinds of appendages are there? _______________________
36. How many pairs of appendages are there? _______________________
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CRAYFISH SELF TESTS
28.
29.
30.
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SELF TEST for the Crayfish. CP 42
1. ______________________________
17. ______________________________
2. ______________________________
18. ______________________________
3.
______________________________
19. ______________________________
4.
______________________________
20. ______________________________
5.
______________________________
21. ______________________________
6.
______________________________
22. ______________________________
7.
______________________________
23. ______________________________
8.
______________________________
24. ______________________________
9.
______________________________
25. ______________________________
10. ______________________________
26. ______________________________
11. ______________________________
27. ______________________________
12. ______________________________
28. ______________________________
13. ______________________________
29. ______________________________
14. ______________________________
30. ______________________________
15. ______________________________
16. ______________________________
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STUDY SHEET ARTHROPODS I – C.P. 38 & 41
38 – INTRODUCTION TO ARTHROPHODS
1. What makes up the exoskeleton?
2. Where is the exoskeleton?
3. Why are these animals called Arthropods?
4. What are three characteristics of the Subphylum Chelicerata?
5. Why are Chelicerate Arthropods different than other Arthropods?
6. What is a cephalthorax?
7. What are the two classes of Chelicerates?
8. List five examples of Arachnids?
9. How do Arachnids kill their prey?
10. What is the function of chelicerae?
11. What is the function of pedipalps?
12. What characterizes mites and ticks?
13. Describe the body of a spider?
14. What do all spiders produces?
41- INTRODUCTION TO ARTHROPODS II
15. What are three characteristics of Mandibulate Arthropods?
16. What surrounds the mouth of all mandibulates?
17. How are the three groups of mandibulates organized?
18. Describe the appendages around the mouth of a crustacean?
19. What are the functions of the appendages of the abdomen?
20. What do all of the appendages have in common?
21. What type of thoracic appendages have the gills?
22. Why are the insects the most successful organisms on rules?
23. Describe the body plan of insects?
24. What is on an insect’s head?
25. What is on an insect’s thorax?
26. Describe the insects abdomen.
27. Give at least two ways centipedes differ from millipedes?
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STUDY SHEET ARTHROPOD III CRAYFISH/CRUSTACEAN C.P. 42-44
CRAYFISH: EXTERNAL STRUCTURES – C.P. 42
1. Name the two body regions of the crayfish.
2. Name the parts and number of segments that make up the cephalothorax.
3. What is the anterior extension of the carapace?
4. What is located at the end of the pedicles?
5. Name the two pairs of sensory appendages located on the head?
6. What are the functions of the mandibles with the palps?
7. What do the two pairs of maxillae do?
8. Where are the maxillae located? Name their functions.
9. Where are the cheliped located and name their function?
10. Where are the gonopores located?
11. What is located under the telson?
12. What is made possible with the telson and uropods?
13. What do swimmerets do?
14. What additional function do swimmerets have in females?
CRAYFISH II : INTERNAL STRUCTURES – C.P. 43
15. What is the ventral transverse skeletal plate called?
16. Where are the thoracic viscera and abdominal structures located?
17. What is the function of the muscles located in the cephalothorax?
18. What do muscles in the abdominal region surround?
19. What occurs in the cardiac region of the stomach? In the pyloric?
20. What is the function of the green glands?
21. What are the main excretory organs in the crayfish?
22. What causes circulation of the water over the gills?
COMPARISON OF SOME CRUSTACEAN BODY FORMS – C.P. 44
23. What are decapods?
24. What determines the differences between the abdomen and abdominal appendages and the
cephalothorax in the decapods?
25. Who has the shortest and widest body of the decapods?
26. What enhances water conservation in the crabs?
26
PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA
echinos = ____________
derma = ____________
General Characteristics:
1.
2.
3.
Special Note: The larval forms are bilaterally symmetrical.
This symmetry is lost during transition to adulthood.
Why transition from bilateral symmetry in larvae to radial symmetry in adults?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
Pentaradial symmetry:
-
-
Why 5 arms instead of 6?


Additions to our directional terminology:
Aboral:
Habitat:
-
Oral:
ata = ____________
27
Niche:
o
o
o
o
Classes of Echinodermata:
Class Stelleroidea
examples: sea stars (starfish), brittle stars
*sea stars:
-
general characteristics:
1.
2.
3.
-
found on pier pilings and rocks in tide pools along coasts
*brittle stars:
-
general characteristics:
1.
2.
3.
-
found on the seashore, burrowed in sand or deep sea sediments or under rocks and
kelp
Class Echinoidea
examples: sand dollars, sea urchins
*sand dollars
28
-
general characteristics
1.
2.
3.
4.
*sea urchins
-
general characteristics
1.
2.
3.
Class Holothruoidea
examples: sea cucumbers, feather stars
*sea cucumbers
-
general characteristics
1.
2.
-
found on the sea bottom, often partially submerged in mud or sand, or among
intertidal rocks
*feather stars
-
general characteristics
1.
2.
29
Digestive System:
o
o
Reproduction:
o
o
Nervous System:
o
o
o
30
echinodermata lab: starfish
The phylum Echinodermata consists of familiar seashore animals commonly known as starfish, sea
urchins, sand dollars, sea cucumbers, and sea lilies. The phylum is so named because of the presence of spiny
plates (calcareous ossicles), which form a dermal skeleton. Echinoderms are typically radially symmetrical
(although the larva is bilaterally symmetrical) and they have true coeloms arising as outpocketings from
embryonic mesoderm of the gut. It is on the basis of this last characteristic, and because the bilateral larva more
closely resembles the chordate larva, that the echinoderms are said to be more closely related to the chordates.
An unique feature of the echinoderms is a derivative of the coelom known as the water vascular system.
Although a circulatory system is present, it is greatly reduced. Thus, the coelomic fluid acts as the principal
medium for the transport of food, respiratory gases, and so forth. There are no excretory organs and thus
enchinoderms have little capacity for ionic exchange, which explain why this group of organisms has never
invaded fresh waters. The phylum is divided into at least ten distinct classes but only the following five include
live species:

Class Asteroidea (starfish): having a star-shaped body, with five to twenty-five arms, that are covered by a flexible
spine skeleton

Class Crinoidea (feather stars and sea lilies): having a flower-like body with many slender branched arms

Class Ophiuroidea (brittle stars): having a body with a central disc and five distinct slender jointed arms

Class Echinoidea (sea urchins and sand dollars): having a cynlindrical or disc-shaped body in a shell of fused plates
that bear moveable spines.

Class Holothuroidea (sea cucumbers): having a soft wormlike body with no arms or spines.
CLASS ASTEROIDEA (STARFISH)
The simplest and perhaps most familiar of all echinoderms is the starfish. The common starfish, Asterias, found
on the Atlantic coast of North America is a typical example of this class. Starfish crawl on the shallow bottom
or in tide pools among the rocks and sand of the seashore and coral reef. They have been serious predators of
oysters. At one time oyster fishermen caught starfish, cut them up, and threw them back into the ocean. Then it
was discovered that each of the pieces could regenerate and grew into another starfish. Today, “sea mops” made
of cloth are dragged over the oyster beds to entrap the starfish. They are then exposed to the sun to dry.
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS:
1. Why are starfish considered to be more closely related to chordates?
2. What is one unique feature of echinoderms?
3. Compare and constrast the classes: Asteroidea, Crinoidea, Ophiuroidea, Echinoidea, Holothuroidea.
4. Where are starfish found?
5. What interesting aspect of starfish was discovered by oyster fisherman?
6. How are starfish caught?
31
echinodermata lab: starfish
1. External Aatomy
Examine a preserved specimen and notes that the body is composed of a central disc from which radiate
five arms or rays. Some of the specimens may have fewer arms but this is usually because they have been
broken off in handling. Some starfish have more than five arms and in rare cases, specimens with as many
as twenty-five have been found. The oral, or ventral, surface of each arm contains grooves extending
outward from the centrally located mouth. The spiny surface is the aboral or dorsal, surface. Locate the
madeporite plate, a small, porous, button-like structure at on side of the aboral surface. The spines of the
aboral surface are part of small calcareous plates (ossicles) that lie buried beneath the integument. These
plates form the exoskeleton. Around the spines are many minute pincher-like pedicellariae. Each
pedicellaria has two jaws that are moved by muscles and that open and shut when touched they keep the
body surface clean of debris and may also help to capture food.
The groove on the oral surface of each arm is called the ambulucral groove. Along the sides of the
ambulucral groove are a series of flexible spines that can lie across the groove for protection. Located in
these grooves are rows of small, finger-like projections called tube feet, which are organs of locomotion. IF
you separate the tube feet, you may be able to see the thick, which radial nerve cord that runs down the
center of each arm. At the tip of each arm locate the small, light sensitive, eye spot. These light sensitive
tips are thrust upward during locomotion.
2. Internal Anatomy
Cut off the tip of one of the arms and then make longitudinal cuts on one side of the arm to the central
disc. Carefully remove the aboral surface to expose the internal organs. Note that most of the coelom in
each arm is taken up by two highly branched digestive glands, the hepatic caeca. Examine the glands with
a hand lens or dissecting microscope and note the numerous lobes that secrete digestive enzymes. The two
main ducts of these glands join at the base of the arm to form the pyloric duct, which enters the centrally
located saclike stomach. A ventral mouth and a short esophagus lead directly into the stomach, which
consists of a lower cardiac stomach, which is lobed, and an upper pyloric stomach. During feeding, the
cardiac stomach is everted through the mouth. The food is partly digested and passed into the pyloric
stomach which empties into the anus located in the center of the aboral disc. Two small rectal caeca can
usually be found near the anus. These caeca are thought to function as temporary storage areas for waste
products.
Cut the pyloric duct where it enters the stomach and remove the hepatic area. If the starfish was caught
during the breeding season, the arms will be filled with the gonads (reproductive organs). At other times the
gonads are normally very small.
The male and female gonads look alike. The ovaries of the female produce spherical eggs that are
considerably larger than the sperm. Eggs and sperm are discharged into the water where fertilization takes
place.
The water vascular system of the starfish consists of a series of seawater-filled ducts that function in
locomotion and feeding. To study this system, carefully remove the reproductive organs and remaining
parts of the digestive system – the stomach and anus. Be careful not to damage the sieve plate. Water
enters this system through a sieve-like madreporite, which is connected to a circular ring canal by the
stone canal. The water is then distributed to the radial canals that are in each of the rays. The margin of
the ring canal bears Tiedemann’s bodies, which apparently produce the free amoboecytes found in the
water vascular system.
Lining the ridge through which each radial canal passes is a double row of bulb-like structures called
ampullae. These structures are connected to the tube feet, which project from the ambulucral groove on
the under surface of each ray. Water from the radial canal collects in the ampullae. Contraction of the
ampullae causes the tube feet to elongate as water is forced into them. Expansion of the ampullae results in
shortening of the tube feet. Thus, thorugh the use of small suction discs at the end of each tube foot and the
alternale expansion and contraction of the ampullae, the starfish is able to move.
32
STARFISH LAB REPORT
Introduction: Using CP 58 and pg.52 in the RB to list the three characteristics all echinoderms share. Explain
how radial symmetry is an advantage for echinoderms. Describe the niche and the habitat of echinoderms.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Results: Please read the procedures outlined on pg. 53-54 in the resource book.
1. Locate the structures listed in the dissection list. Be sure to be signed off by your teacher.
EXTERNAL
1. DISC
2. ARM/RAYS
3. MADREPORITE PLATE
4. AMBULACRAL GROOVE
5. SPINES
6. TUBE FEET
7. MOUTH
2. CHART
STRUCTURE
1. MADREPORITE PLATE
2. PEDICELLARIA
3. AMBULACRAL GROOVE
4. TENTACLE
5. TUBE FEET
6. MOUTH
7. PYLORIC/HEPATIC CECA
INTERNAL
8. CECUM
9. PYLORIC DUCT
10. PYLORIC STOMACH
11. GONADS
12. RING CANAL
13. STONE CANALS
14. RADIAL CANALS
15. AMPULLA
LOCATION
FUNCTION
33
8. CARDIAC STOMACH
9. PYLORIC STOMACH
10. GONADS
11. DERMAL GILLS
12.AMPULLAE
13. WATER VASCULAR
SYSTEM
Starfish Self-Test using C.P. 59.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6. xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
34
STARFISH ANATOMY
C.P. 59
1. Name the major structures of the water vascular system of the starfish.
2. Describe the function of the water vascular system of the starfish.
3. How do the tubefeet stick to the objects they touch?
4. Describe the structures making up the endoskeleton of the starfish.
C.P. 60
5. Describe the structure, location, and function of the dermal gills.
6. What are pedicellariae, and why are they important for the proper functioning of the dermal gills?
7. Explain the following statement: A starfish can stick its stomach out at its prey.
8. How do starfish reproduce? (2 ways)
35
STUDY SHEET ECHINODERMS
INTRODUCTION TO ECHINODERMS – C.P. 58
1. What three characteristics do all Echinoderms have in common?
2. What type of symmetry does the larvae show?
3. What does the radial symmetry of the echinoderms make possible?
4. What are the aboral and oral surfaces on the echinoderm?
5. What are the four ways that echinoderms can get their food?
6. What is the most common echinoderm?
7. How do brittle stars differ from sea stars?
8. What is on the aboral surface of the sand dollar?
9. What is the function of tube feet in the sand dollar?
10. What is fused in the sea urchin?
11. What characterizes the sea cucumber?
12. Where do sea cucumbers live?
13. What is the most primitive echinoderm?
SEA STAR I: EXTERNAL STRUCTURES – C.P. 59
14. On what surface is the mouth located?
15. What supports the body?
16. What pushes up through the epidermal-lined surface?
17. What is the function of the madreporite? Where is it located?
18. What is located inside the ambulucral groove?
19. What makes up the water vascular system? What is its function?
20. What is the stone canal?
21. From what does the radial canals project?
22. What branches off the radial canals? Where do they lead?
23. Describe how the tube feet are extended and retracted?
SEA STAR II: INTERNAL FEATURES – C.P. 60
24. List the five parts of the body wall?
25. What are the functions of the pedicellariae?
26. What is the difference between the visceral and parietal peritoneum?
27. Where are the stomachs located?
28. What occurs before the prey can be brought into the body?
36
PHYLUM CHORDATA
CLASSES: AGNATHA, CHONDRICHTHYES, AND OSTEICHTHYES
(Around 45,000 species found in every possible habitat throughout the planet Earth.)
General characteristics of member of this phylum:
1. bilaterally symmetrical, ______________ animals
deuterostome –
2. 4 unique characteristics present at some stage in
development:
a.
b.
c.
d.
Notochord
 The notochord is:
Pharyngeal Slits:

Dorsal Tubular Nerve Cord:

Postanal Tail:

Examples of chordates:
 sea squints (or tunicates)

 lampreys


 bony fishes
 frogs, toads, salamanders
 alligators, snakes, lizards


37
The representative member of the phylum Chordata we will begin with is the spiny dogfish shark, Squalus
acanthias.
phylum ________________ (_______________________________________________________________)
 subphylum _________________ (______________________________________
 class _______________________________ (____________________________________)
 subclass ________________________________
The spiny dogfish shark, ______________________________.
a.k.a piked dogfish, skittledog, spotted dogfish, white-spotted dogfish, codshark, and thorndog
Useful information concerning your specimen:
Habitat:
 worldwide distribution, from the _____________________ to the __________________ regions, from the
_____________ waters of the __________________ to depths of _________ fathoms (________________)
Niche:
 They are voracious eaters, feeding on:
o
o
o
 omnivorous –
o
o
o
Life span:
 Typically from _____________ years.
Reproduction:
 _______________________________; most shark “pups” hatch internally, and continue their development
within the _________________ of the mother
 ___________________________ – born alive as much smaller versions of the adult
 Gestation period up to _____________ (the ______________ of any vertebrate)
Adaptations:
 Sharks do not drink ____________?! The regulate their osomotic pressure by retaining a high concentration
of ___________ and other ____________ in their body fluids. Water enters their cells by _____________.
 The lack a __________________________ as seen in most bony fish.
 The above 2 facts are responsible for the following interesting fact. Sharks must _________
______________ in order to survive. If they stop moving they _________ because they are somewhat
heavier than the water they displace. If stopped, they sink, and will be crushed by the
_____________________ of the deep ocean. Sharks of the deeper ocean must continue to move from the
moment of _____________ to the moment of ______________!
38
39
WORKSHEET: Noncranial Chordates
Directions: Using color plate 61, answer the following questions.
1. How is the nerve cord of animals in Phylum Chordata different from the nerve cords in other animals?
2. What is the notochord? In what stage of development is the notochord well developed in numbers of Phylum
Chordata?
3. What replaces the notochord in adult sharks and adult higher vertebrates?
4. Describe the unique features of the pharynx of a Phylum Chordata embryo.
5. How do fish use the unique features of the pharynx to help in respiration?
6. What is the major difference between Subphylum Vertebrata and the other two subphyla (Urochordata and
Cephalochordata) in Phylum Chordata?
40
PHYLUM CHORDATA
FISH C.P. 70
CLASSES: AGNATHA, CHONDRICHTHYES, AND OSTEICHTHYES
A. CLASS AGNATHA (AG-NAH-THE)
1. Commonly referred to as what?
2. List the common characteristics of agnates:
a. Skin –
b. Support/Skeleton –
c. Appendages/Fins –
d. Mouth –
e. Habitat –
f. Niche –
3. Examples B. CLASS CHONDRICTHYES (CON-DREE-ICK-THESE)
1. Commonly referred to as what?
2. List the common characteristics of chondricthyes:
a. Skin –
b. Support/Skeleton –
c. Appendages/Fins –
d. Mouth –
e. Habitat –
f. Niche –
3. Examples –
C. CLASS OSTEICHTHYES (O-STEE-IKE-THESE)
1. Commonly referred to as what?
2. List the common characteristics of osteichthyes:
a. Support/skeleton –
b. Importance –
3. Examples –
41
D. Comparing the Sharks and Bony fish: CP 72 (Using text and pictures)
CHARACTERISTIC
SHARK
1. Scales (List the types)
2. Presence of spiracles (y/n) &
(purpose)
3. Teeth
4. Location of the mouth on the
body
5. Gill Slits (type)
6. Lateral line present (y/n) &
(purpose)
7. Types of fins
BONY FISH
42
STUDY SHEET - INTRODUCTION TO CHORDATES
C.P. 61, 67, 68
INTRODUCTION TO CHORDATES – C.P. 61
1. What three structures do all Chordates exhibit at some time?
2. How does the chordate’s nerve cord differ from the invertebrates?
3. What is the notochord?
4. What replaces the notochord in sharks? In vertebrates?
5. Where are the vestiges of the notochord in adult mammals?
6. Describe the pharynx of the embryos of all Chordates.
7. What replaces the gill slits in other vertebrates?
8. What is formed by some pharyngeal pouches and gill in adults?
9. What are the two groups of Chordates?
10. Give two examples of the noncranial chordates and their subphylum.
11. What is the name of the subphylum of chordates with a cranium?
12. List the seven classes of Vertebrates and give an examples of each.
TUNICATE METAMORPHOSIS C.P. – 67
13. Give three characteristics of larval tunicates.
14. What happens to the notochord and nerve chord during metamorphosis?
15. What are two common names of Tunicates?
16. Where are Tunicates usually found?
17. What three thing happen during Tunicate Metamophosis?
18. What is the Tunic?
AMPHIOXUS – C.P. 68
19. What is an amphioxus?
20. What is located in the dermis?
21. Where is the transverse muscle located? What is its function?
22. What makes up the notochord?
23. What is present in the ventral aorta, that takes the place of a heart?
24. What is the vestibule?
25. What is the function of the cirri?
26. What is the function of the velum and tentacles?
27. What enhances digestion?
43
SHARK LAB REPORT
External Anatomy:
1. Dorsal Lobe of Caudal Fin
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Tail
Trunk
Head
Eye
Spiracle
7. Gill Slits
8. Pectoral Fin
9. Lateral Line Canal
10. Pelvic Fin
11. Ventral Lobe of Caudal Fin
12. Posterior Dorsal Fin
13. Fin Spine
14. Anterior Dorsal Fin
15. Clasper
16. Spine (only on male)
17. Urinary Papillae
18. Cloacal Aperture
Score: _______
Head
1. Spiricular Pore
2. Spiricular Valve
3. Upper Eyelid
4. Conjunctiva
5. Lower Eyelid
6. Pupil
7. Iris
Score: _______
The Viscera
1. Mesentary Tissue
2. Colon
3. Pericardial Cavity
4. Atrium
5. Ventricle
6. Liver
7. Gall Bladder
8. Hepatic Portal Vein
9. Common Bile Duct
10. Pancreas
8. Gill Slits
9. Interbranchial Septa
10. Medial Aperture
11. Nasal Flap
12. Lateral Aperture
13. External Naris
14. Labial Groove
15. Labial Pouch
16. Mouth
17. Teeth
18. Pore of Ampullae of
Lorenzini
11. Anterior Mesenteric
Artery
12. Posterior Intestinal Vein
13. Rectal Gland
14. Gills
15. Transverse Septum
16. Falciform Ligament
17. Cardiac Stomach
18. Ventral Gastric Vein
19. Duodenum
20. Spleen
21. Lateral Abdominal Vein
22. Valvular Intestine
23. Dorsal Aorta
24. Pyloric Stomach
25. Esophagus
26. Esophageal Papillae
27. Spiral Valve
28. Esophageal Rugae
5.
6.
7.
8.
9. Atrium
10. Gill Lamellae
11. Gill Pouch
12. Pericardial Cavity
Score: _______
Circulatory System
1. Coronary Artery
2. Conus Arteriosus
3. Atrium
4. Ventricle
Score: _______
Sinoatrial Aperture
Transverse Septum
Sinus Venosus
Common Cardinal Vein
44
Reproductive System (Female)
1. Ostium of Oviducts
2. Ovary
3. Shell Gland
4. Oviduct
5.
6.
7.
8.
Mesovarium
Mesotubarium
Uterus
Abdominal Pore
9. Rectum
10. Cloaca
11. Urogenital papillae
5.
6.
7.
8.
Seminal Vesicle
Siphon
Cloaca Opening
Clasper
9. Sperm Sac
10. Urogenital Papillae
Score: _______
Reproductive System (Male)
1. Testis
2. Mesorchium
3. Ductus Deferens
4. Kidney
Score: _______
Brain & Nervous System
1. Superficial Ophthalmic
Nerve
2. Cerebral Hemisphere
3. Foramen of Monro
4. Optic Lobe
5. Aqueduct of Sylvius
6. Cerebellum
7. Fourth Ventricle
8. Gill
9. Spinal Cord
10. Medulla Oblongata
11. Mouth
12. Tegmentum
13. Hypophysis
Score: _______
Total Points: _________
Shark Self-Tests
External Self-Test -- Pg. 9 in Shark Dissection Manual
14. Third Ventricle
15. Optic Nerve
16. Olfactory Nerve
17. Olfactory Bulb
18. Cerebellum
19. Vagus Nerve
20. Diencephalon
45
Male & Female Reproductive System Self-Test -- Pg. C.P. 75 & Pg. 81-88 in shark dissection manual.
46
Circulatory System Self-Test – Pg. 67-73 in shark dissection manual.
Digestive System Self Test – Pg. 49-54
47
Shark Lab Self-Tests Answer Sheet
To complete the following self tests, use your shark dissection manuals as well as the coloring books.
External Self-Test Pg.55.
1.
6.
11.
2.
7.
12.
3.
8.
13.
4.
9.
14.
5.
10.
Circulatory System Self-Test Pg. 57.
1.
5.
9.
2.
6.
10.
3.
7.
4.
8.
Male & Female Reproductive System Self-Test Pg. 56.
1.
7.
13.
2.
8.
14.
3.
9.
15.
4.
10.
16.
5.
11.
17.
6.
12.
Digestive System Self Test Pg. 57.
1.
5.
9.
2.
6.
10.
3.
7.
11.
4.
8.
12.
48
SHARKS STUDY SHEET I – C.P. 69-71
VERTEBRATE ORGANIZATION – C.P. 69
1. Complete the following chart listing the eleven systems of the vertebrate body for each system, list the
organs and the function. Use the skeletal system as an example.
SYSTEM
ORGANS
FUNCTION
1. SKELETAL
BONES, JOINTS, LIGAMENTS
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
INTRODUCTION TO FISH – C.P. 70
2. What are the three groups of fishes?
3. What are the principle living agnates?
4. What does the word “agnates” mean?
5. Describe the skin of an agnate?
6. What replaces the jaw in these animals?
7. Give three examples of Chondrichthyes?
8. How do Chondrichthyes differ from agnates in their skeleton?
9. What covers the skin of Chondrichthyes?
10. Why do sharks sink to the bottom when they are not swimming?
11. How does the ratfish differ from sharks and rays?
12. Name two bottom dwelling representative of the class Osteichthyes.
13. Why are lungfish unique?
49
SHARKS STUDY SHEET II – C.P. 71-72
LAMPREY AND ITS LARVAE – C.P. 71
1. What is an ammocoetes?
2. Where and how long does a sea lamprey spend its larvae life?
3. How and where does a sea lamprey spend its adult life?
4. List four parts of the larvae mouth.
5. What two structures help water with nutrients and oxygen enter the buccal cavity?
6. How does food enter the esophagus?
7. What are two functions of the notochord?
8. What is at the anterior end of the nerve cord?
9. What makes up the spinal column?
10. What does the hypophysis and the hypothalamus make up in higher vertebrates?
11. What replaces the oral hood of the larvae in adult sea lampreys?
12. How does water enter the adult pharynx?
SHARKS AND BONY FISH: A COMPARISON – C.P. 72
13. Give two differences between teeth in sharks and in boney fish?
14. How are gill slits different in sharks and fish?
15. What is the lateral line?
16. Give the function and location of each of the following fins:
a. Pectoral –
b. Pelvic –
c. Dorsal –
d. Anal –
e. Caudal –
17. Sharks do not have which of the above fins?
18. Give the location and the function of the following structures:
f. Gill Arches:
g. Gill Septum:
h. Gill Filament:
i. Gill Rakers:
j. Gill Slits:
50
SHARKS STUDY SHEET III – C.P. 73-74
SHARK I: SKELETON – C.P. 73
1. List the regions of the shark skeleton.
2. Describe the brain case of the shark.
3. What is located in the nasal capsule?
4. What is located in the orbital region?
5. What are the two functions of the shark’s ear?
6. What joins the cranium to the first vertebrae?
7. What are formed by the seven pairs of gill rakers?
8. What projects from the centrum of the shark’s vertebrae?
9. What extends below the centrum?
10. What is the function of the intercalary plates?
11. What replaces the notochord?
12. What are the two cartilaginous girdles?
SHARK II: CIRCULATORY – C.P. 74
13. What is the sinuous venosus?
14. What vessels bring blood to the sinous venosus?
15. To what chamber does the blood flow after the sinous venosus?
16. Where is the major propulsive force for the blood generated?
17. Into what vessels lead immediately off the ventral aorta?
18. What vessel leads immediately off the ventral aorta?
19. Into what vessel is oxygenated blood conducted?
20. What is the principle conducting artery to the tissues and organs?
21. List what organ is nourished by the following vessels:
k. Subclavian
l. Celiac
m. Iliac
n. Caudal
22. What vessels drain the head and the anterior of the body?
23. What vessel drains the tail and the kidney?
24. What vessel gives blood to the kidney?
25. What is the systems of the vessels that feed the liver?
26. What transports blood from the liver to the common cardinal vessel?
51
SHARKS STUDY SHEET IV – C.P. 74-75
SHARK I: NERVOUS SYSTEM –C.P 74
1. What are the parts of the central nervous system?
2. What are ventricles?
3. List three regions of the brain and give their divisions.
4. List the two divisions of the telencephalon and give their functions.
5. What are the two divisions of the diencephalon and what are their functions?
6. What parts of the shark’s brain correlates sensory impulses and motor responses?
7. What is the main part of the metencephalon and what is its function?
8. From what part of the brain does the medulla oblongata originate and what is its function?
9. What makes up the spinal cord?
10. What makes up the peripheral nervous system?
SHARKS II: UROGENITAL SYSTEM – C.P. 75
11. What is the nephron?
12. What are the kidneys and where are they located?
13. Into what do the uninary and genital ducts open?
14. What system compose the urogenital system?
15. What are the archinephric ducts?
16. In males, where does the urine go after the archinephric ducts?
17. What composes the testes in sharks?
18. What is the epididymis?
19. Where do the seminal vesicles lead?
20. What is the function of the claspers?
21. Where are the eggs discharged in the female?
22. Where do the eggs go after entering the funnels?
23. Where are the shell glands located?
52
FISH STUDY SHEET: C.P. 76-77
BONY FISH: SKELETON – C.P. 76
1. What are the three reasons that bony fish have more complex skeletons than sharks?
2. What are the two kinds of bone present in the higher vertebrate skeleton? Describe each type.
3. Where do you find endochondral bone? Membranous bone?
4. What composes the posterior part of the brain?
5. What are the four parts of the occipital?
6. What is the function of the auditory capsule bones?
7. What does the trabecular section surround?
8. Name two bones of the nasal region?
9. What composes the operculum? What is its function?
10. What composes the upper jaw?
11. Name the three parts of the lower jaw.
12. What has replaced the notochord in adult fish?
13. What is the centrum?
14. What specifically surrounds the nerve cord?
15. What are the two flat bones embedded in the body wall that compose the pelvic girdle?
16. What supports the dermal rays of the median tail fin?
BONY FISH: INTERNAL STRUCTURE – C.P. 77
17. What is present in the oral cavity?
18. What may occur in the fish’s esophagus?
19. How does the liver receive absorbed foodstuff?
20. What occurs in the gall bladder?
21. Name two chemicals secreted by the pancreas.
22. What are nephrons?
23. What is the function of the nephrons?
24. What is the function of the bladder?
25. How does sperm get to the urogenital sinus?
26. Describe the swim bladder.
27. What is the function of the swim bladder?
28. Why is the spleen associated with the cardiovascular system?
53
PHYLUM CHORDATA
CLASSES: AMPHIBIA & REPTILIA
Class Amphibia
(American bullfrog – Rana catesbiana)
Froggy Classification:
Phylum – ________________________
Sub-phylum – ________________________
Class – ________________________
Super-order – ________________________
Order – ________________________
Family – ________________________
Genus – ________________________
Species - ________________________
The Orders
Amphibia:
1. ___________________________ – examples are frogs & toads
2. ___________________________ – examples are salamanders & newts
3. ___________________________ – examples are caecilians
Amphibians are significant because they represent the most ______________ ___________________with four
limbs that maintain a terrestrial niche.
3 Examples of the order Anura

There are about ___________ species of frogs and toads.
Frog:

Habitat –

Niche –
Toad:

Characteristics –

Habitat & Niche –
54
Salamanders / newts:

Characteristics –

Habitat –

Niche –
General Characteristics



Most have a tongue that is _________________ and _________________

Spends first stages of life in water as ___________________________

They go through drastic changes during development (caused by changes in hormones)

Tadpoles are ___________________________ while adults are ___________________________

They are ___________________________. During extreme environmental conditions they either
___________________________ (winter) or ___________________________s (summer).

Temperature regulation is mainly behavioral

They breathe through ___________________________ and ___________________________.
Amphibians – Systems

Well developed brain attached to the ___________________________.

They contain a well developed ___________________________.

___________________________ located all over the skin

Good vision since these animals are mainly ___________________________; that is, they have to use
their sight to ___________________________ food (think of a frog going after a fly!)
Amphibians – Reproduction & Reproductive System

___________________________ – 2 different sexes very similar in structure (appearance)

___________________________ in moist environments. Exceptions to the external fertilization are
___________________________ (only about 10% are external).

Jelly-like eggs need to be laid in water

Interactions between internal (___________________________) controls and extrinsic factors
determine the timing of ___________________________ activities.

Their offspring develop through a process called ___________________________.
55
Vocalization

Sound production is primarily a ___________________________ function of male anurans.

These calls attract females to breeding areas and to announce to other males that a given territory is
occupied.

These calls may also cause some ___________________________ internally to occur, readying the
breeding process in females.

Sounds are caused by ____________ being forced from the lungs over the __________________and
cartilages of the larynx, causing them to ____________.
Our Dissection Froggy
The American bullfrog – ___________________________

Typically the specimens are ___________________________ and ___________________________,
measuring about 7 inches from the tips of their snouts to the ends of the trunks. Their long hind legs,
when extended, add another 8 inches to their total length of ___________________________.

Arteries are injected with _________ latex, and veins with _________ or _________ latex.

Frogs show ___________________________, along with a relatively complete ___________________
& __________________ system.
Special Amphibian Facts

Amphibians have a “double life” because they spend half their life in _____________ and half on
_____________.

In PA waters, the presence of _____________ and frogs show signs of _____________ environment
_____________.
56
PHYLUM CHORDATA
CLASSES: AMPHIBIA / REPTILIA
Using CP 78
A. CLASS AMPHIBIA (AM – FIB – E – AH)
1. Name the three orders of amphibians and give at least one example for each.



2. Why are they significant?
3. Identify any characteristics, habitats and niches for the following amphibians.
 Frog –
Hab –
Niche –

Toad –
Char Hab –
Niche –

Salamanders/Newts –
Char Hab –
Niche –
4. Why are amphibians sometimes referred to as having a “double life?”
B. CLASS REPTILIA (REP – TILL – LEEAH)
1. Name the three orders of reptiles and give at least one example for each.



2. Why are the embryos of reptiles important?
57
3. Identify any characteristics, habitats and niches for the following reptiles.

Lizards
Char Hab –
Niche –

Turtles –
Char Hab –
Niche –

Snakes –
Char Niche –

Alligators/Crocodiles –
Char Hab –
C. Comparing Amphibians and Reptiles:
Characteristic
Amphibians
1. Type of skin
2. Presence of nails on
toes.
3. Types of eggs
4. Teeth
5. Mouth
6. Life Cycle
Reptiles
58
AMPHIBIAn self tests
Head/Mouth Region – C.P. 85
Dorsal Musculature – C.P 81
Ventral Musculature – C.P. 80
Internal Organs I – C.P. 82-85
59
Internal Organs II – C.P. 82-85
Male Urogenital Region – C.P. 86
Female Urogenital Region – C.P. 86
Skeletal System – C.P. 79
60
Frog Lab Self-Test Answer Sheet
To complete the self-tests, use your frog dissection manuals as well as the coloring books.
Head/Mouth Region
1.
4.
7.
2.
5.
3.
6.
Ventral Musculature
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
Dorsal Musculature
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25
26.
Internal Organs I & I
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
Female & Male Urogenital System
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
Skeletal System
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
82.
83.
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
92.
93.
94.
95.
96.
61
AMPHIBIAN LAB: DISSECTION LIST
MUSCULATURE:
1. Deltoid
2. Pectorialis
3. External Oblique
4. Rectus Abdominis
5. Triceps Femoris
6. Sartorius
7. Gastrocnemius
8. Tibialis Anterior
9. Tibialis Posterior
10. Temporalis
11. Triceps Branchii
12. Biceps Femoris
13. Peroneus
14. Gluteus
15. Latissimus Dorsi
Score : ____________ Teacher Sign Off : ________________________ Date :________
INTERNAL ORGANS:
1. Pharynx
2. Maxillary Teeth
3. Vomerine Teeth
4. Internal Naris
5. Tongue
6. Lungs
7. Liver
8. Spleen
9. Heart
10. Large Intestine
11. Stomach
12. Small Intestine
13. Duodenum
14. Pancreas
15. Fat Bodies
Score : ____________ Teacher Sign Off : ________________________ Date :________
REPRODUCTIVE/UROGENITAL:
1. Testis
3. Cloaca
2. Ovaries
4. Bladder
5. Kidney
6. Oviducts
Score : ____________ Teacher Sign Off : ________________________ Date :________
WORKSHEETS FOR MUSCLES AND SKELETON
Make a chart listing the following muscles. In the first column, list the name of the muscle, in the second
column, tell what the muscle does. See example below.
MUSCLE
Submaxillary
Subhyoid
MUSCLES FOR THE CHART
1. Temporalis
2. Masseter
3. Pectorialis
4. External Oblique
5. Deltoid
6. Common Flexors
7. Rectus Abdominus
8. External Oblique
9. Internal Oblique
10. Triceps Femoris
11. Sartorius
12. Abductor Magnus
LOCATION
Side of lower jaw
Side of lower jaw
MOVEMENT
Swallowing & breathing
Swallowing & breathing
13. Gracilis
14. Semitendinosus
15. Gastrocnemius
16. Tibialis Major
17. Common Extensors
18. Dorsalis Scapulae
19. Latissimus Dorsi
20. Triceps Branchii
21. Gluteus
22. Piniformis
23. Peroneus
62
Amphibians
Fill in the Blanks:
1. Members of the order Anura do not contain a(n) ________________.
2. The males enlarged thumb allows it to help expel eggs from the female during the process of _____________________.
3. The two girdles of the frog's endoskeleton are the __________________ and the _______________.
4. The frog's liver produces the substance called ____________ which is stored in the organ called the _______________.
5. Salamanders differ from frogs and toads by the presence of a(n) ________________.
6. Amphibians are ectothermic and must hide during unseasonable weather. _______________ is a period of summer
inactivity and _____________________ is a period of winter inactivity.
7. The area behind the frog's tympanic membrane is connected to its throat by a tube called the _____________________.
8. The frog's heart contains _____________ chambers. Of these the ___________________ collects blood from the lungs.
9. The part of the frog's brain that controls its involuntary responses is the _____________________.
10. The frog uses its lungs and ________________ to carry on respiration.
Matching:
______ 11. Excretory & Reproductive Opening
______ 12. Tail-less Amphibians
______ 13. Structures for transmitting sounds
______ 14. Food for tadpoles
______ 15. Brain part associated with involuntary responses
______ 16. Order of leg-less amphibians
Compare the tadpole and adult frog:
Characteristics
# of Heart Chambers
Tadpole
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
Apoda
Algae
Cloaca
Anura
Tympanic Membrane
Medulla Oblongata
Frog
Type of Limbs
Type of Food Eaten
Respiratory Organ
Essay:
1. Discuss the evidence for the hypothesis that amphibians are intermediates between fish and land-living
animals.
2. Discuss the characteristics that enable the frog to be successfully on land and in the water.
63
Graph the Following Data:
Number of Tadpoles pH of Water
45
8
69
7.5
78
7
88
6.5
43
5
5
4.5
Graph Title: __________________________________________________________________
1. What is the optimum water pH for tadpole development? ___________________.
2. What is the mean pH of the experiment? ________________.
3. What is the dependent variable?__________________________________.
4. Between what pH readings is there the greatest change in tadpole number? _______________.
5. How many tadpoles would we expect to find in water with a pH reading of 4? _____________.
6. What is pH? ________________________________________________________________.
64
FROG STUDY SHEET I – C.P. 79-81
INTRODUCTION TO AMPHIBIANS & REPTILES – C.P. 78
1. List the three orders of amphibians and give an example of each.
2. Why are amphibians especially significant?
3. What do frogs eat?
FROGS I: SKELETON – C.P. 79
4. Name the four body regions of the frog.
5. List the three bones that compose the upper jaw.
6. List the two major bones of the skull.
7. What forms the foramen magnum? What is it’s function?
8. List the four parts of the vertebral column.
9. What are the two basic parts of the vertebrae?
10. What composes the lower parts of the pectoral girdle?
11. What is the base of the pectoral girdle?
12. What is the dorsal arm of the pectoral girdle?
13. Where does the humerous join the scapula?
14. What bone is in-between the carpels and the humerous?
15. What supports the palm of the hand?
16. What are the bones of the fingers?
17. List the three main bones of the pelvic girdle.
18. To what do the two ilia bones fuse?
19. What is the acetabulum?
20. To what does the femur articulate with at the knee?
21. What bones form the major support for the foot?
22. What joins to the base of the phalanges in the foot?
FROGS II: MUSCULATURE – C.P. 80 & 81
23. What must you do to determine one muscle from another when dissecting a frog’s muscle system?
24. What is the origin of a muscle?
25. What is an insertion of a muscle?
65
FROG STUDY SHEET II – C.P. 82, 85, 86
DISSECTION – C.P. 82
1. When does the quantity of fat bodies vary?
2. When are the ovaries filled with eggs?
3. What is the pleuroperitoneal cavity?
4. What takes up the most room inside the body?
5. What is located under the liver?
6. Where is the spleen located?
FROG VI: DISSECTION & RESPIRATORY SYSTEMS
7. Complete the chart below.
STRUCTURE
LOCATION
Maxillary Teeth
FUNCTION
Internal Naris
Vomerine Teeth
Auditory Orifices
Tongue
Pharynx
Esophagus
Stomach
Small Intestines
Large Intestines
Liver
Pancreas
Spleen
8. Explain how the frog gets air inside his body. Use the terms glottis, floor of mouth and larynx.
9. Where are the vocal cords located?
10. How is sound created in the frog?
11. Describe the passage of air into the air sacs. Use terms such as bronchus, lung, and alveoli.
12. How is air returned to the outside of the frog?
66
FROG VII: UROGENITAL SYSTEM – C.P. 86
13. Describe the appearance of the kidney.
14. What composes the kidney?
15. What is the function of the tubules?
16. What is the name for the filtrate of these tubules?
17. Into what structure does the bladder release its contents?
18. From what site do the fat bodies originate?
19. Trace the passage of sperm from the testis to the cloaca.
20. What happens to the eggs once they are deposited inside the female’s body cavity?
21. When are the eggs discharged outside the female?
FROG V: HEART AND ARTERIAL SYSTEM – C.P. 83
22. List the four parts of the amphibian heart.
23. What is the function of the valves?
24. What type of blood enters the right atrium?
25. What type of blood enters the left atrium?
26. What is the function of the ventricle?
27. Name the three parts of the wall of the heart.
28. List the structures become the following vessels after metamorphosis: conus arteriosus, carotid arch,
systemic arch, and pulmonary arteries.
29. What part/parts of the body receive blood from the following vessels: coeliacomesenteric, celiac, hepatic,
mesenteric, genital, renal, femoral, and sciatic.
FROG VI: VENOUS SYSTEM – C.P. 84
30. Why is the pulmonary vein different than all other veins?
31. How is blood returned from the kidneys?
32. Where does the posterior vena cava enter the heart?
33. What forms the hepatic portal vein?
34. What is contained in portal blood? Where does the hepatic portal system lead?
FROG IX: NERVOUS SYSTEM – C.P. 87
35. What do the olfactory and cerebrum do in the frog?
36. What is the function of the thalamus?
37. What is the function of the hypothalamus?
38. What is centered in the optic lobes?
39. What is the function of the cerebellum?
40. What is located within the medulla oblongata?
41. List the names of the ten cranial nerves and the spinal nerves.
67
REPTILES
Reptiles are one amazing group of animals. There are giant snakes longer than a bus that
can swallow crocodiles whole. There are bizarre turtle with fleshy skin flaps that lure fish to their
death. There are three-horned lizards with turret-like eye sockets and tongues as long as their
bodies. And there are sea turtle, weighing as much as a large horse, that can swim faster than you
Turret
can run. And that’s just the start. We’ll take a close-up look at the characteristics of this diverse crew, which
includes the turtles, lizards, snakes, crocodiles, and two lesser-known groups – the worm-lizards and the tuatara.
And we’ll focus on some of the amazing ways they are adapted for survival.
TAKING A LOOK AT TURTLES
There are over 200 species of turtles in the world, living on almost every continent and in most of the
world’s oceans. Some turtles, such as sea turtles and soft-shell turtles, spend almost their entire life in oceans,
lakes, or rivers. Others, such as bog turtle and wood turtles, are semi-aquatic, spending their time in bogs,
swamps, marshes, and other wetland areas. And many turtles, such as tortoises and box turtles, live their entire
life on land. (NOTE: The term “turtle” refers to all reptiles in this group. “Tortoise” and “Terrapin” are
sometimes refer to specific kinds of turtles.)
What makes a Turtle a turtle?: The most noticeable feature turtles share is a shell, the tough, armorlike
covering that encloses their bodies. The shell varies from species to species, but it always consists of the same
three-part structure, the carapace, which covers the back; the plastron, which covers all or part of the belly, and
the bridge, which connects the two. Most turtle shells are covered with horny plates, others are protected by
tough, leathery skin.
Turtles lay clusters of eggs in soil or sand. And they breathe with lungs, although a few may also get
some oxygen through their skin and the lining of the throat.
Feeding, Turtle-Style: Like birds, turtle do not have teeth, instead they use their feet
and horny beaks to rip, tear, and cut their foods. (Most turtles have hard beaks, but a
few, such as the matamata, have soft mouthparts.) As a group, turtles feed on a variety
Matamata Turtle
of foods, from insects, worms, and fish to fruits, mushrooms, and other plant material.
GETTING TO KNOW LIZARDS, SNAKES, AND WORM-LIKE LIZARDS
Together, lizards and snakes make up the largest group of reptiles. (There are roughly 3700 species of
lizards and 2400 species of snakes.) Even though they don’t look like “cousins,” these scaly creatures are closely
related. By studying fossil remains and comparing characteristics of living snakes and lizards, scientists have
68
concluded that snakes probably evolved from an ancient line of lizards about 135 million years ago. (WormLizards, a small group of burrowing reptiles, are also considered part of the lizard and snake group. Although
rarely seen, these reptiles have characteristics of both lizards and snakes, they are different enough to make
many scientists think they should be classified as a separate group.)
LOTS OF LIZARDS
When you’re talking lizards, you are talking variety. Take the way they get around. Some climb tress,
some glide from tree to tree; some “swim” through hot desert sands; a few can stand up and run on their hind
legs; some can crawl upside down; some burrow into the soil; and some don’t have any legs at all and slither to
get around. Lizards also vary in color, size, and shape, and in the way they behave. So what makes a lizard a
lizard? Here are some general characteristics:
Eyes, Ears, and Legs: Like most vertebrates, many lizards have movable eyelids. And most also have external
ear openings on the sides of their head. (Most lizards have good hearing, but they also rely on their sense of
sight and smell to know what going on.) And although there are a few species legless lizards, most lizards have
four legs, and with five clawed toes on each foot.
Lizard Chow: Lizards usually feed on anything they can catch and swallow which, depending on the species,
can include other reptiles, insects, spiders, worms, and mammals. But some feed mainly on fruit, flowers,
leaves, and almost all vary their diet with the season.
Lizard Survival: When lizards run into trouble, each species has its own survival strategy. Some lizards
nimbly scramble out of sight. Others putt up, act tough and then run. A few stay and fight. Some “freeze.”
Some can change colors in a matter of seconds to match their surroundings --- a great way to seem to disappear
quickly.
Some lizards also use the tails as a special defense decoy. When a lizard is attacked, its tail breaks off at
a special fracture joint. Often the tail keeps twitching for a few seconds, distracting the predator while the lizard
makes a quick getaway. Lizards that lose their tails can slowly regenerate new ones.
Tail and Tongue Tricks: Tails are also important to lizards for other reasons. They help lizards keep their
balance as they walk, swim, or run. Many lizards rely on their tails as storehouses of fat that can be used during
cold weather and droughts when food is scarce. Lizards also have well-developed tongues, and many use them
to zap food, clean their eye coverings, smell, and even scare their enemies. Chameleons’ tongues are incredibly
long and can shoot out about as far as the length of their body.
69
Born a Lizard: Most lizards are egg-layers, usually hiding their eggs in nest cavities they dig in the soil or
under logs or rocks. But, in some species, the eggs develop inside the mother’s body until the embryos are well
developed. The females then give birth to live young.
SIZING UP SNAKES
Snakes are missing body parts that many other animals have. For example, they don’t have legs, eyelids,
outside ear opening, or bladders. And instead of having a pair of lungs, many have only one. Snakes also look
very different from most other animals. They have greatly elongated bodies that can twist and turn in ways that
make them look like contortionists.
Moving Like A Snake: Snakes can coil, climb, and slither because they have a very flexible spine made up of
100-400 vertebrae, each of which is attached to a pair of separate, thin ribs. Most snakes move in a series of Sshaped curves, pushing themselves along using plants, rocks, sticks, and other irregularities as shove-off points.
Many snakes can also travel in almost a straight line using the wide, overlapping plates, or belly scales,
on their undersides. Muscles attached to the ribs pull and lift, these scales, creating a series of wave-like
motions. As the scales push against rough surfaces on the ground, the snake moves forward. Many thickbodied snakes, such as pythons, often move in this way. Most snakes use a combination of these methods, but
some also use an accordion-type movement especially when climbing trees. And a few desert snakes move
using a complicated series of sideways body movements.
Snake Senses: Snakes have a variety of ways to sense their environment. They have fairly good “close-up”
eyesight and an excellent sense of smell. Their flicking forked tongue and a structure in the roof of their mouth
called the Jacobean’s organs are, in combination, responsible for their incredible ability to “smell” the
environment. For a long time, people thought snakes were deaf. But they can actually hear low-frequency
sounds and they can feel vibrations. That’s why snakes often sense your presence long before they see you.
Some snakes also have incredible sensory devices that other reptiles don’t have – heat sensors located in pits on
the sides of their face or on their lips. These heat sensors can detect slight differences in the amounts of radiant
heat energy that animals give off. Snakes process the information to determine both the direction and distance
of the objects. These heat sensors allow snakes to successively hunt mammals, birds, and other prey in complete
darkness.
Gulping Their Grub: Snakes always swallow their food whole. They can do this because they have some
incredible “mouth machinery.” Snakes can move their upper jaw away from their lower jaw and the left side of
their lower jaw away their right side. This expandability, due to extremely elastic muscles and ligaments of the
70
throat and between bones in the jaw, allows snakes to swallow animals that are several times bigger than their
head. Most snakes also have rows of sharp teeth on each jawbone that help hold the prey and “walk” it down
the throat. Because they can eat such huge meals at one time and because they are cold-blooded, snakes don’t
have to eat as often as other animals. If necessary, most snakes can get away with eating just a few times per
year.
Meat-Eating Strategies: All snakes are meat eaters that feed on a variety of prey, including other snakes,
lizards, birds, worms, mammals, amphibians, and fish. Snakes, such as boas, pythons, and rat snakes, kill their
prey by constriction – squeezing so tightly that the victim can’t breathe and eventually suffocates. Others, such
as garter snakes and water snakes, rely on jaws and curved teeth to keep hold of their struggling prey. And
poisonous snakes such as rattlesnakes, cottonmouths, and cobras use venom to subdue their prey. The venom is
located in sacs connected to sharp fangs. When some poisonous snakes, such as rattlesnakes, bite their prey they
jab their fangs into the prey’s skin, or muscle. This forces the venom to flow from the sacs through the fangs
and into the animal’s body. Poisonous snakes, such as coral snakes, have shorter fangs, and their venom is
injected only after several bites or as they hang on to chew their prey.
Reproduction, Snake-Style: Most snakes lay eggs, but some give birth to live young, just as some lizards do.
And like most reptiles, snakes don’t care for the young after hatching. Some snakes, such as pythons, incubate
their eggs by coiling their bodies around the eggs until they hatch. A few snakes, such as the king cobra use
mud, leaves, and other materials to build a nest.
CLOSE-UP ON CROCODILIAN
Crocodiles, alligators, caimans, and gavials – the major types of
crocodilian are all semi-aquatic predators that live in warm areas around the
world. They all have the distinctive crocodilian look: a large toothy snout, a
compressed powerful tail, and a tough, leathery hide. As a group, crocodilians
The restored skull of Deinosuchus, featuring (left to right)
have been around for over 200 million years, having evolved from the same
‘terror crocodile’ grew so big” by Erickson and Brochu,
B. Brown, R. T. Bird and E. M. Schlaikjer [ref: “How the
Nature 398, 205-206 (18 March 1999)]
group of reptiles that eventually gave rise to dinosaurs. The largest crocodilian of all time, Deinosuchus, was
over 50 feet (15 m) long – a monster compared to crocodilians today.
Adapted to Water: Special adaptations help crododilians hunt for food, which, depending on their species and
age, could include insects, crustaceans, mollusks, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Here are just a
few of their aquatic feeding tricks: eyes and nostrils set high on their head that allow them to see and breathe
while the rest of their body is submerged in the water, out of sight. They have a third eye lid, called the
71
nictitating membrane, that protects their eyes under water, nostrils and ears that close when they dive. They also
possess a valve at the back of their mouth that closes when they dive, allowing them to catch prey without
swallowing water. Lastly, they have a compressed tail that helps propel them through the water and webbed feet
that help them walk on mud and sand.
Mounds of Heat: Like most reptiles, crocodilians are egg-layers. Their eggs look something like chicken eggs,
although they are not as brittle. Some species dig shallow pits in the sand and bury their eggs. Others hide their
eggs in nests of decaying vegetation and mud. Some croc mothers also protect their nests, staying around until
the nests hatch.
WHAT IS A TUATARA?
Most people have never heard of a tuatara, a lizard-like reptile that lived on about 30 small islands off the
coast of New Zealand. Tuataras are the only survivors of an entire order of reptiles that evolved about 220
million years ago – about the time of the first dinosaurs. What else is special about the tuataras? For one thing,
these nocturnal borrowers have a third “eye” on top of their head, which is connected to their brain and which
scientists think is sensitive to light. (Several lizards also have this “eye.”) Tuatara eggs also have the longest
incubation time of all the reptiles, taking about 15 months to hatch. Many of these reptiles have incredibly long
life spans, living more than a century.
TURTLES
H
A
B
I
T
A
T
T
R
A
I
T
S
E
X
A
M
P
L
E
S
R
E
P
R
O
D
U
C
T
I
O
N
LIZARDS
SNAKES
CROCODILES
TUATARA
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Turtle self – tests
Turtle Self-Tests:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
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EXTERNAL:
REPTILIA PRACTICAL
1.coastal scutes
2.marginal scutes
3.vertebral scutes
4.plastron
5.supracaudal scute
6.nuchal scute
7.carapace
8.Vent
9. abdominal scute
10. anal scute
Score : ____________
INTERNAL:
1.heart
2.lung
3.stomach
4.liver
5.intestines
Score : ____________
6.bladder
7.cloaca
8.trachea
9.tail
11. Humeral scute
12. Femoral scute
13. pectoral scute
14. gulat scute
15. bridge scute
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APPENDIX – Self-test terms.
Self test for squid
-SUCKER
-SUCKER
-FIN
-FIN
-VALVE
-INTESTINES
-CHELIPED
-LONG ANTENNAE
-HEART
-DORSAL ABDOMINAL ARTERY
-EYE
-ABDOMEN
-MANDIBLE/MOUTH
-ROSTRUM
-WALKING LEGS
-VENTRAL NERVE CORD
-EYE
-EYE
-FUNNEL
-HEAD
-GILL
-BODY
-MANTLE
-ARMS
-TENTACLES
-INK SAC
Self test for crayfish
-3RD MAXILLIPED
-CEPHALIC GROOVE
-SWIMMERETS
-CARAPACE
-EYE
-UROPODS
-ANUS
-TELSON
-1ST MAXILLIPED/MANDIBLE
-ESOPHAGUS
-DIGESTIVE GLAND
-FLEXOR MUSCLES
-GONADS
-ANTENNULES
-CEPHALOTHORAX
-GREEN GLAND
-CARDIAC STOMACH
-TAIL FIN
-BRAIN
-INTESTINES
Self test for starfish
-TENTACLE
-CARDIAC STOMACH
-GONAD PORE
-RADIAL CANAL
-MOUTH
-GONAD
-ABORAL SPINE
-INTESTINE
-MADREPORITE (STONE CANAL)
-ANUS
-TUBE FOOT
-RAYS
-MOUTH
-RING CANAL
-LATERAL CANAL
-MADREPORITE
-CENTRAL DISC
-RECTUM
-PYLORIC STOMACH
-AMPULLA
Self test for shark – external
-ANTERIOR DORSAL FIN
-CAUDAL FIN (DORSAL LOBE)
-PELVIC FIN
-GILL SLITS
-LATERAL LINE CANAL
-TRUNK
-DORSAL SPINE
-POSTERIOR DORSAL FIN
-PECTORAL FIN
-CAUDAL FIN (VENTRAL LOBE)
-TAIL
-EYE
-SPIRACLE
-HEAD
Self test for shark – circulatory system
-VENTRAL AORTA
-SUBCLAVIAN ATRERIES
-CONUS ARTERY
-VENTRICLE
-AFFERENT BRANCHIAL ARTERY (IV) -ATRIUM
-EFFERENT BRANCHIAL ARTERY (IV
-SINUS VENOSIS
-CONUS ARTERIOSIS
-DORSAL AORTA
-UROGENITAL PAPILLA
-OVIDUCT (LEFT)
-UROGENITAL PAPILLA
-TESTIS
-URINARY PORE
-MESOTUBARIUM
Self test for shark – male & female reproductive system
-MESONEPHRIC DUCT
-KIDNEY
-MESORCHIUM
-SEMINAL VESICLE
-MESOVARIUM
-SHELL GLAND
-KIDNEY
-SPERM SAC
-OVARY
-UTERUS
-YOLK SAC
75
Self test for shark – digestive system
-COMMON BILE DUCT
-COLON
-SPLEEN
-CARDIAC PORTION OF STOMACH
-FALIFORM LIGAMENT
-DORSAL LOBE OF PANCREAS
-PYLORIC PORTION OF STOMACH
-ESPOPHAGEAL PAPILLAE
-GALL BLADDER
-RECTAL GLAND
-RUGAE
-LIVER
Self test for frog – head/mouth region
-TONGUE
-OPENING OF EUSTACHIAN TUBE
-VOMERINE TEETH
-OPENING OF ESOPHAGUS
-INTERNAL NARIS
-PALATINE RIDGE
-GLOTTIS
Self test for frog – ventral musculature
-SATORIUS
-EXTERNAL OBLIQUE
-DELTOID
-TRICEPS FEMORIS
-MYLOHYOID
-RECTUS ABDOMINIS
-TRICEPS BRANCHII
-GASTROCNEMIUS
-TIBIALIS ANTERIOR
-PECTORALIS MAJOR
Self test for frog – dorsal musculature
-LATISSIMUS DORSI
-ILIOFIBULARIS
-TRICEPS BRANCHII
-TEMPORALIS
-EXTERNAL OBLIQUE
-GLUTEUS
Self test for frog – internal organs I & II
-CAROTID ARTERY
-OCCIPITOVERTEBRAL ARTERY
-LUNG
-SMALL INTESTINE
-OVIDUCT
-HEPATIC PORTAL VEIN
-TRUNCUS ARTERIOSUS
-GALL BLADDER
-STOMACH
-SMALL INTESTINE
-LARGE INTESTINE
-INTERNAL NARIS
-MAXILLARY TEETH
-VOMERINE TEETH
-RECTUM
-SYSTEMIC DUCT
-STOMACH
-CYSTIC DUCT
-COMMON ILIAC ARTERY
-PULMONARY ARTERY
-OPENING OF EUSTACHIAN TUBE
-OPENING OF ESOPHAGUS
-URINARY BLADDER
-KIDNEY
-ARCHINEPHRIC DUCT
-CLOACA
-TARSALS
-FEMUR
-FRONTOPARIETAL
-TIBIO-FIBULA
-DENTARY
-PHALANGES
-CLAVICLE
-UROSTYLE
-#74
Self test for frog – female & male urogenital system
-URINARY BLADDER
-KIDNEY
-ARCHINEPHRIC DUCT
-FAT BODIES
Self test for frog – skeletal system
-HUMERUS
-SUPRASCAPULA
-METACARPALS
-ISCHIUM
-ATLAS
-PHALANGES
-RADIO-ULNA
-VERTEBRAE
-TIBIALIA ANTERIOR
-PERONEUS
-DELTOID
-LIVER
-LIVER
-SPLEEN
-LARGE INTESTINE
-SPLEEN
-TONGUE
-URINARY BLADDER
-PANCREAS
-GLOTTIS
-POSTCAVAL VEIN
-SYSTEMIC ARCH
-TESTIS
-OVARY WITH EGGS
-CLOACA
-FAT BODIES
-SCAPULA
-ILIUM
-MAXILLA
-HIP JOINT
-CARPALS
-CORACOID
-OMOSTERNIUM
RE LIST
-METATARSALS
76
Self test for turtle
: ____________/9
-RADIUS
-BLADDER
-HEAD
-TRACHEA
-CARAPACE
-MARGINAL SCUTES
-MARGINAL SCUTES
-VERTEBRAL SCUTES
-COSTAL SCUTES
-CLOACA
-PHALANGES (CARPALS)
-CERVICAL VERTEBREA
-HEART
-DORSAL VERTEBRA
-ULNA
-LUNG
-STOMACH
-JAW
-CLAWS
-INTESTINES
-TIBIA
-TAIL
-FIBULA
-PHALANGES (TARSALS)
-EYE
-HUMERUS
-PUBIS
-ACROMINAL PROCESS
-PLASTRON
-PLASTRON
-FEMUR
-LIVER
-HYOID BONES
-31=Anterior coracoid
-32=Acrominal Ligament
77