• DAMA
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MINIX 3 - Limit damage from buffer overflows
MINIX 3 uses fixed-length messages for
internal communication, which eliminates
certain buffer overflows and buffer
management problems. Also, many exploits
work by overrunning a buffer to trick the
program into returning from a function call
using an overwritten stacked return address
pointing into the overrun buffer. In MINIX 3,
this attack does not work because instruction
and data space are split and only code in
(read-only) instruction space can be
executed.
1
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DAMA
DAMA (the Data Management
Association) is a not-for-profit, vendorindependent, international association of
technical and business professionals
dedicated to advancing the concepts and
practices of information resource
management (IRM) and data resource
management (DRM).
1
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DAMA
DAMA's primary purpose is to
promote the understanding,
development and practice of
managing information and data as a
key enterprise asset.
1
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DAMA
The group is organized as a set of
more than 40 chapters and membersat-large around the world, with an
International Conference held every
year. DAMA currently has chapters in
16 countries, with the most substantial
presence in the United States.
1
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DAMA
The DAMA Guide to the Data
Management Body of Knowledge"
(DAMA-DMBOK Guide), under the
guidance of a new DAMA-DMBOK
Editorial Board. This publication is
available from April 5th, 2009.
1
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Data recovery - Physical damage
A wide variety of failures can cause
physical damage to storage media. CDROMs can have their metallic substrate or
dye layer scratched off; hard disks can
suffer any of several mechanical failures,
such as head crashes and failed motors;
tapes can simply break. Physical damage
always causes at least some data loss,
and in many cases the logical structures
of the file system are damaged as well.
Any logical damage must be dealt with
before files can be salvaged from the
failed media.
1
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Data recovery - Physical damage
1
For example, opening a hard disk drive in
a normal environment can allow airborne
dust to settle on the platter and become
caught between the platter and the
read/write head, causing new head
crashes that further damage the platter
and thus compromise the recovery
process
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Data recovery - Logical damage
1
The term "logical damage" refers to
situations in which the error is not a
problem in the hardware and requires
software-level solutions.
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Antivirus software - Damaged files
Files which have been damaged by
computer viruses are normally damaged
beyond recovery. Anti-virus software
removes the virus code from the file
during disinfection, but this does not
always restore the file to its undamaged
state. In such circumstances, damaged
files can only be restored from existing
backups; installed software that is
damaged requires re-installation
(however, see System File Checker).
1
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Internet in Egypt - 2008 marine cable damage
1
On 30 January 2008 the Internet service in
Egypt and the Middle East was affected by
a breakage of the two marine cables
FLAG & SMW4 connecting Egypt to the
world.
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Internet in Egypt - 2008 marine cable damage
TE Data users were not totally
disconnected from the Internet, as the
company had a third international gateway
to the Internet, SMW3. However, they
suffered from reduced bandwidth until the
issue was resolved.
1
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Internet in Egypt - 2008 marine cable damage
1
The local National Telecom Authority
has issued a decision for all ISPs to
offer a free of charge month to all
clients as a compensation for the
reduced quality of service during the
outage.
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CVSS - Collateral Damage Potential
1
The collateral damage potential (CDP)
metric measures the potential loss or
impact on either physical assets such
as equipment (and lives), or the
financial impact upon the affected
organisation if the vulnerability is
exploited.
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CVSS - Collateral Damage Potential
1
Value Description Score
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CVSS - Collateral Damage Potential
1
None (N) No potential for loss of
property, revenue or productivity 0
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CVSS - Collateral Damage Potential
1
Low (L) Slight damage to assets, or minor loss
of revenue or productivity 0.1
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CVSS - Collateral Damage Potential
1
Low-Medium (LM) Moderate
damage or loss 0.3
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CVSS - Collateral Damage Potential
1
Medium-High (MH)
Significant damage
or loss0.4
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2010 Chile earthquake - Damage and casualties
1
People were found dead after the
earthquake struck, mostly under
buildings and inside cars. Many
people were also seriously injured.
Most injuries were reported in
Santiago and Maule.
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2010 Chile earthquake - Damage and casualties
1
Santiago's International Airport seemed to
have been damaged and the airport
authority closed off all flight operations for
24 hours from around 12:00 UTC
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2010 Chile earthquake - Damage and casualties
1
Santiago's national Fine Arts Museum was
badly damaged and did not reopen until 9
March 2010. An apartment building's twostory parking lot collapsed, wrecking 68
cars. According to one health official, three
hospitals in Santiago collapsed, and a
dozen more south of the capital also
suffered significant damage.
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2010 Chile earthquake - Damage and casualties
1
House uprooted to
the streets of
Pelluhue after the
tsunami.
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2010 Chile earthquake - Damage and casualties
1
A severely damaged building in
Maipú, Santiago.
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2010 Chile earthquake - Damage and casualties
1
Collapsed Vespucio Norte
Express Highway in
Santiago.
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2010 Chile earthquake - Damage and casualties
1
In Valparaíso, a tsunami wave of 1.29
m was reported. The port of Valparaíso
was ordered to be closed due to the
damage caused by the earthquake.
The port started to resume limited
operations on 28 February. In Viña del
Mar, a touristic city and part of
Greater Valparaíso, several buildings
were structurally damaged,
principally in the district Plan de
Viña.
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2010 Chile earthquake - Damage and casualties
1
Many cities in Maule
region were seriously
affected by the
earthquake
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2010 Chile earthquake - Damage and casualties
1
In the fishing town of Dichato, which
has 7,000 residents, it was the third
tsunami wave that ended up being the
most damaging.
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2010 Chile earthquake - Damage and casualties
1
Dilapidated buildings could be seen on the
streets of Temuco, about 400 km (250 mi)
from the epicenter. The adobe of some
buildings fell. Façades fell in pieces and
crushed cars. Two people were reported
dead because of not having been able to
escape from a nightclub. On 27 February,
it was reported that "to find an open
business is almost impossible" ("Encontrar
un negocio abierto es casi imposible").
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2010 Chile earthquake - Damage and casualties
1
In Chile, 370,000 homes were damaged.
The final death toll of 525 victims and 25
people missing was announced by
authorities in January 2011. This is down
from early reports on 3 March of 802
people dead.
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2010 Chile earthquake - Damage and casualties
1
The Chilean National Emergency Office
(Oficina Nacional de Emergencia)
estimated that the intensity of the
earthquake was 9 on the Mercalli scale in
the Biobío Region and 8 in Santiago.
USGS put the intensity in Talcahuano at
MM VIII, in Santiago and Concepción at
MM VII and in Valparaíso at MM VI.
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2010 Chile earthquake - Damage and casualties
On 10 March, Swiss Reinsurance Co.
estimated that the Chilean quake would
cost the insurance industry between 4 and
7 billion dollars. And this is the same
estimate made by the rival German-based
Munich Re AG.
1
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2010 Chile earthquake - Damage and casualties
1
Hernán Henríquez Hospital of Temuco had to be
evacuated after the earthquake.
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2010 Chile earthquake - Damage and casualties
1
A car crushed by the rubble
of a collapsed building in
Temuco.
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2010 Chile earthquake - Population with destroyed or severely damaged
homes
1
The table below shows the percentage of
the population whose homes were
destroyed or were severely damaged by
the earthquake and tsunami in the six
most affected regions. The data was
collected in May and June 2010.
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2010 Chile earthquake - Population with destroyed or severely damaged
homes
1
Source: Casen PostEarthquake Survey,
Ministry of Planning.
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Quantum gate - Hadamard gate
1
The Hadamard gate acts on a single qubit.
It maps the basis state to and to and
represents a rotation of about the axis . It
is represented by the Hadamard matrix:
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Embryonic stem cell - Repair of DNA damages
Differentiated somatic cells and ES
cells use different strategies for
dealing with DNA damage. For
instance, human foreskin fibroblasts,
one type of somatic cell, use nonhomologous end joining (NHEJ), an
error prone DNA repair process, as the
primary pathway for repairing
double-strand breaks (DSBs) during
all cell cycle stages. Because of its
1
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Embryonic stem cell - Repair of DNA damages
Apoptosis can be used as a fail-safe
strategy to remove cells with un-repaired
DNA damages in order to avoid mutation
and progression to cancer
1
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Dualism (philosophy of mind) - Argument from brain damage
If the mind were a completely separate
substance from the brain, how could it be
possible that every single time the brain is
injured, the mind is also injured? Indeed, it
is very frequently the case that one can
even predict and explain the kind of
mental or psychological deterioration or
change that human beings will undergo
when specific parts of their brains are
damaged
1
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Dualism (philosophy of mind) - Argument from brain damage
1
Phineas Gage, who suffered destruction of
one or both frontal lobes by a projectile
iron rod, is often cited as an example
illustrating that the brain causes mind
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Dualism (philosophy of mind) - Argument from brain damage
1
in monkeys) and reliably obtaining the
same results in measures of mental
state and abilities, neuroscientists have
shown that the relation between
damage to the brain and mental
deterioration is likely causal
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Contract - Damages
1
*Compensatory damages, which are
given to the party which was
detrimented by the breach of contract.
With compensatory damages, there
are two heads of loss, consequential
damage and direct damage.
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Contract - Damages
Liquidated damages clauses may be
called penalty clauses in ordinary
language, but the law distinguishes
between liquidated damages (legitimate)
and penalties (invalid)
1
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Contract - Damages
1
*Nominal damages consist of a small
cash amount where the court
concludes that the defendant is in
breach but the plaintiff has suffered
no quantifiable pecuniary loss, and
may be sought to obtain a legal record
of who was at fault.
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Contract - Damages
Although vitiating factors (such as
misrepresentation, mistake, undue
influence and duress) relate to contracts,
they are not contractual actions, and so, in
a roundabout way, a claimant in contract
may be able to get exemplary damages
1
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Contract - Damages
1
Examples where reliance damages
have been awarded because profits
are too speculative include the
Australian case of McRae v
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Contract - Damages
1
Failure to mitigate means that damages
may be reduced or even denied
altogether.The UCC states, Consequential
damages..
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Contract - Damages
1
Consequential damages would be the lost
business if that person was unable to get
to the meeting, if both parties knew the
reason the party was renting the car
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Contract - Damages
1
In other words, is it foreseeable to the
objective bystander, and/or to the
contracting parties, who may have
special knowledge? On the facts of
this case, where a miller lost
production because a carrier delayed
taking broken mill parts for repair, the
court held that no damages were
payable since the loss was foreseeable
neither by the reasonable man nor by
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Stem cell treatments - Brain damage
1
Stroke and traumatic brain injury lead to
cell death, characterized by a loss of
neurons and oligodendrocytes within the
brain
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Stem cell treatments - Brain damage
1
Stem cells may also be used to treat brain
degeneration, such as in Parkinson's
disease|Parkinson's and Alzheimer's
disease.[http://stemcells.nih.gov/info/basic
s/pages/basics6.aspx Cell Basics: What
are the potential uses of human stem cells
and the obstacles that must be overcome
before these potential uses will be
realized?]
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Stem cell treatments - Brain damage
Pharmacological activation of an
endogenous population of neural stem
cells / neural precursor cells by soluble
factors has been reported to induce
powerful neuroprotection and behavioral
recovery in adult rat models of
neurological disorder through a signal
transduction pathway involving the
phosphorylation of STAT3 on the serine
residue and subsequent Hes3 expression
1
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Stem cell treatments - Heart damage
1
The pioneering work by , has now been
discredited by the identification of
hundreds of factual contradictions
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Stem cell treatments - Heart damage
Stem cell therapy for treatment of
myocardial infarction usually makes use of
autologous bone marrow stem cells (a
specific type or all), however other types of
adult stem cells may be used, such as
adipose-derived stem cells.Paul, A.,
Srivastava, S., Chen, G., Shum-Tim, D
1
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Stem cell treatments - Heart damage
1
Possible mechanisms
of recovery include:
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Stem cell treatments - Heart damage
1
*Generation of heart
muscle cells
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Stem cell treatments - Heart damage
1
*Stimulation of growth of new blood vessels to
repopulate damaged heart tissue
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Stem cell treatments - Heart damage
1
It may be possible to have adult bone marrow cells
differentiate into heart muscle cells.
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Stem cell treatments - Heart damage
The first successful integration of
human embryonic stem cell derived
cardiomyocytes in guinea pigs (mouse
hearts beat too fast) was reported in
August 2012
1
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Stem cell treatments - Heart damage
1
In 2013 the pioneering reports of powerful
beneficial effects of autologous bone
marrow stem cells on ventricular function
were found to contain hundreds of
discrepancies
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Portable media player - Risk of hearing damage
1
Thus, it is fair to conclude that it would be
difficult to convince these users that the
risks of hearing damage outweigh the
benefits of freedom and escape that their
devices give them
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Emotions in decision making - Damasio's somatic marker hypothesis
1
Damasio, H
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Emotions in decision making - Damasio's somatic marker hypothesis
1
Emotions, as defined by Damasio, are
changes in both body and brain states
in response to different stimuli
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Emotions in decision making - Damasio's somatic marker hypothesis
When making decisions, these
physiological signals (or ‘somatic
markers’) and their evoked emotion are
consciously or unconsciously
associated with their past outcomes
and bias decision-making towards
certain behaviors while avoiding others
1
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Emotions in decision making - Damasio's somatic marker hypothesis
1
According to the SMH, two distinct pathways
reactivate somatic marker responses
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Emotions in decision making - Damasio's somatic marker hypothesis
According to Dunn, “the somatic
marker hypothesis proposes that
‘somatic marker’ biasing signals from
the body are represented and
regulated in the emotion circuitry of
the brain, particularly the
ventromedial prefrontal cortex
(VMPFC), to help regulate decisionmaking in situations of complexity
and uncertainty”
1
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Orbitofrontal cortex - Consequences of damage to the OFC
Destruction of the OFC through
acquired brain injury typically leads
to a pattern of disinhibited behaviour
1
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Phishing - Damage caused by phishing
1
The damage caused by phishing ranges
from denial of access to email to
substantial financial loss. It is estimated
that between May 2004 and May 2005,
approximately 1.2 million computer users
in the United States suffered losses
caused by phishing, totaling approximately
. United States businesses lose an
estimated per year as their clients
become victims.
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Phishing - Damage caused by phishing
1
In 2007, phishing attacks escalated. 3.6
million adults lost in the 12 months ending
in August 2007.
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Phishing - Damage caused by phishing
Microsoft claims these estimates are
grossly exaggerated and puts the annual
phishing loss in the US at .
1
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Phishing - Damage caused by phishing
1
In the United Kingdom losses from web
banking fraud—mostly from phishing—
almost doubled to in 2005, from in 2004,
while 1 in 20 computer users claimed to
have lost out to phishing in 2005.
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Phishing - Damage caused by phishing
1
The stance adopted by the UK banking
body APACS is that customers must
also take sensible precautions ... so
that they are not vulnerable to the
criminal. Similarly, when the first
spate of phishing attacks hit the Irish
Republic's banking sector in
September 2006, the Bank of Ireland
initially refused to cover losses
suffered by its customers (and it still
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Mollusc shell - Damage to shells in collections
As a structure made primarily of
calcium carbonate, mollusc shells are
vulnerable to attack by acidic fumes.
This can become a problem when
shells are in storage or on display and
are in the proximity of non-archival
materials, see Byne's disease.
1
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Neurodegeneration - Membrane damage
1
Damage to the membranes of organelles
by monomeric or oligomeric proteins could
also contribute to these diseases. Alphasynuclein can damage membranes by
inducing membrane curvature, and
extensive tubulation and vesiculation were
observed when these proteins were
incubated with artificial phospholipid
vesicles.
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KC (patient) - Accident and neurological damage
1
In October 1981, K.C
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KC (patient) - Accident and neurological damage
Upon arrival at a
rehabilitation facility, K.C
1
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Effects of nuclear explosions - Blast damage
The high temperatures and radiation
cause gas to move outward radially in a
thin, dense shell called the hydrodynamic
front
1
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Effects of nuclear explosions - Blast damage
For air bursts at or near sea-level,
between 50-60% of the explosion's
energy goes into the blast wave,
depending on the size and the Nuclear
weapon yield|yield of the bomb. As a
general rule, the blast fraction is
higher for low yield weapons.
Furthermore, it decreases at high
altitudes because there is less air
mass to absorb radiation energy and
1
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Effects of nuclear explosions - Blast damage
The effects of a moderate rain storm
during an Operation Castle nuclear
explosion was found to dampen, or
reduce, peak pressure levels by
approximately 15% at all
ranges.[http://archive.org/details/MilitaryEff
ectsStudiesonOperationCastle1954
Effects of Operation Castle (1954) 30:00
to 31:00]
1
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Effects of nuclear explosions - Blast damage
Much of the destruction caused by a
nuclear explosion is due to blast effects.
Most buildings, except reinforced or blastresistant structures, will suffer moderate
damage when subjected to overpressures
of only 35.5 Pascal (unit)|kilopascals (kPa)
(5.15 pounds-force per square inch or 0.35
atm).
1
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Effects of nuclear explosions - Blast damage
1
Data obtained from the Japanese surveys
found that was sufficient to destroy all
wooden and brick residential structures.
This can reasonably be defined as the
pressure capable of producing severe
damage.[http://archive.org/details/MilitaryE
ffectsStudiesonOperationCastle1954
Effects of Operation Castle (1954) 31:00
to 32:00]
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Effects of nuclear explosions - Blast damage
1
The blast wind at sea level may exceed
one thousand km/h, or ~300m/s,
approaching the speed of sound in air
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Effects of nuclear explosions - Blast damage
1
https://www.fas.org/nuk
e/intro/nuke/blast.htm
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Effects of nuclear explosions - Blast damage
1
[http://www.atomicarchive.com/Movies/ma
chstem.shtml] video of the mach 'Y' stem,
note that it is not a phenomenon unique to
nuclear explosions, conventional
explosions also produce it. This
constructive interference is the
phenomenon responsible for the bumps or
'knees' in the above overpressure range
graph.
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Effects of nuclear explosions - Blast damage
1
In a typical air burst, where the blast range
is maximized to produce the greatest
range of severe damage, i.e
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Effects of nuclear explosions - Blast damage
1
Two distinct, simultaneous phenomena are
associated with the blast wave in air:
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Effects of nuclear explosions - Blast damage
*'Static overpressure', i.e., the sharp
increase in pressure exerted by the shock
wave. The overpressure at any given point
is directly proportional to the density of the
air in the wave.
1
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Effects of nuclear explosions - Blast damage
1
*'Dynamic pressures', i.e., drag exerted by
the blast winds required to form the blast
wave. These winds push, tumble and tear
objects.
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Effects of nuclear explosions - Blast damage
1
Most of the material
damage caused by a
nuclear air burst is
caused by a
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Effects of nuclear explosions - Blast damage
combination of the high static
overpressures and the blast winds. The
long compression of the blast wave
weakens structures, which are then torn
apart by the blast winds. The
compression, vacuum and drag phases
together may last several seconds or
longer, and exert forces many times
greater than the strongest hurricane.
1
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Effects of nuclear explosions - Blast damage
The overpressure
estimated to damage
lungs is about 70 kPa
1
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Effects of nuclear explosions - Blast damage
1
'Blast Winds': The drag energies of the
blast winds are proportional to the
cubes of their velocities multiplied by
the durations. These winds may reach
several hundred kilometers per hour.
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Antonio Damasio
1
As a leading neuroscientist, Damasio
has dared to speculate on
neurobiological data, and has offered
a theory about the relationship
between human emotions, human
rationality, and the underlying
biology.Ole Kuhl, Musical Semantics
(2008) p
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Antonio Damasio
1
Prior to joining USC in 2005, Damasio was
M.W. Van Allen Professor and Head of
Neurology at the University of Iowa
Hospitals and Clinics.
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Antonio Damasio - Life and work
Damasio studied medicine at the
University of Lisbon Medical School,
where he also did his neurological
residency and completed his
doctorate. For part of his studies he
researched behavioral neurology
under the supervision of the Norman
Geschwind of the Aphasia Research
Center in Boston.
1
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Antonio Damasio - Life and work
Damasio's main field is neurobiology,
especially neural systems which subserve
emotion, decision-making, memory,
language and consciousness. Damasio
believes that emotions play a critical role
in high-level cognition—an idea counter to
dominant 20th-century views in
psychology, neuroscience and philosophy.
1
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Antonio Damasio - Life and work
Damasio provides a contemporary
scientific validation of the linkage
between feelings and the body by
highlighting the connection between
mind and nerve cells...this personalized
embodiment of mind.Lara Trout, The
Politics of Survival (2010) p
1
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Antonio Damasio - Life and work
The somatic marker hypothesis has
inspired many neuroscience experiments
carried out in laboratories in the U.S. and
Europe, and has had a major impact in
contemporary science and philosophy.
Damasio has been named by the Institute
for Scientific Information as one of the
most highly cited researchers in the past
decade). Current work on the biology of
morality|moral decisions, neuro1
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Antonio Damasio - Life and work
Persistence of feelings and
sentience after bilateral damage
of the insula
1
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Antonio Damasio - Life and work
1
He has continued to investigate the neural
basis of feelings and demonstrated that
although the insular cortex is a major
substrate for this process it is not
exclusive, suggesting that brain stem
nuclei are critical platforms as
well.Damasio A, Damasio H, and Tranel,
Cerebral Cortex, 2012 He regards feelings
as the necessary foundation of sentience.
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Antonio Damasio - Life and work
1
This architecture is applicable to the
understanding of memory processes
and of aspects of consciousness
related to the access of mental
contents.Damasio AR
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Antonio Damasio - Life and work
1
In The Feeling of What Happens, Damasio
laid the foundations of the enchainment of
precedences: “the nonconscious neural
Signal transduction|signaling of an
individual organism begets the protoself
which permits core self and core
consciousness, which allow for an
autobiographical self, which permits
extended consciousness. At the end of the
chain, extended consciousness permits
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Antonio Damasio - Life and work
1
The experimental neuroanatomy work
with Van Hoesen and Bradley Hyman
led to the discovery of the
disconnection of the hippocampus
caused by neurofibrillary tangles in
the entophinal cortex of patients with
Alzheimer’s disease.Hyman B, Van
Hoesen GW, Damasio A, Barnes C
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Antonio Damasio - Life and work
1
As a clinician, he and his collaborators
have studied and treated disorders of
behaviour and cognition, and movement
disorders.
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Antonio Damasio - Life and work
1
In it Damasio suggests that the self is the
key to conscious minds and that feelings,
from the kind he designates as primordial
to the well-known feelings of emotion, are
the basic elements in the construction of
the protoself and core self
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Antonio Damasio - Life and work
1
Damasio is a member of the American
Academy of Arts and Sciences, the
United States National Academy of
Sciences|National Academy of
Sciences' Institute of Medicine, and the
European Academy of Sciences and
Arts
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Antonio Damasio - Life and work
He says he writes in the belief that
scientific knowledge can be a pillar to help
humans endure and prevail.Antonio R.
Damasio, Descartes' Error (New York
1994) p. 252
1
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Antonio Damasio - Life and work
He is married to Hanna
Damasio, a collaborator and
frequent co-author.
1
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Antonio Damasio - Books
1
*Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason, and
the Human Brain, Putnam, 1994; revised
Penguin edition, 2005
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Antonio Damasio - Books
1
*The Feeling of What Happens: Body and Emotion
in the Making of Consciousness, Harcourt, 1999
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Antonio Damasio - Books
1
*Looking for Spinoza: Joy, Sorrow,
and the Feeling Brain, Harcourt,
2003
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Antonio Damasio - Books
1
*Self Comes to Mind:
Constructing the
Conscious Brain,
Pantheon, 2010
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Antonio Damasio - Selected articles
1
*[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/238
40023e%20in%20the%20mammalian%20
cerebral%20cortex:%20from%20experime
ntal%20neuroanatomy%20to%20functiona
l%20neuroimaging%20.%20Journal%20of
%20Comparative%20Neurology,%2028%
20OCT%202013%20|%20DOI:%2010.100
2/cne.23408 Man K, Kaplan J.T., Damasio
H, Damasio A. Neural convergence and
divergence in the mammalian cerebral
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Antonio Damasio - Selected articles
1
*Araujo H P, Kaplan JT, Damasio A,
Cortical midline structures and
autobiographical-self processes: an
activation-likelihood estimation (ALE)
meta-analysis Frontiers in Human
Neuroscience, Published online 2013
September 4. doi:
10.3389/fnhum.2013.00548
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Neuroplasticity - Treatment of brain damage
A surprising consequence of
neuroplasticity is that the brain
activity associated with a given
function can move to a different
location; this can result from normal
experience and also occurs in the
process of recovery from brain injury
1
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Neuroplasticity - Treatment of brain damage
The adult brain is not
entirely hard-wired with
fixed neuronal circuits
1
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Neuroplasticity - Treatment of brain damage
In the rest of the brain,
neurons can die, but they
cannot be created
1
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Neuroplasticity - Treatment of brain damage
2008 In working with a patient whose
vestibular system had been damaged he
developed BrainPort, a machine that
replaces her vestibular apparatus and [will]
send balance signals to her brain from her
tongue
1
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Neuroplasticity - Treatment of brain damage
Because her vestibular system was
disorganized and sending random
rather than coherent signals, the
apparatus found new pathways around
the damaged or blocked neural
pathways, helping to reinforce the
signals that were sent by remaining
healthy tissues
1
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Neuroplasticity - Treatment of brain damage
1
Understanding of interaction between
the damaged and undamaged areas
provides a basis for better treatment
plans in stroke patients
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Neuroplasticity - Treatment of brain damage
1
Neuroplasticity is gaining popularity
as a theory that, at least in part,
explains improvements in functional
outcomes with physical therapy post
stroke
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Neuroplasticity - Treatment of brain damage
Usually when people damage the
somatosensory cortex, impairment of
the body perceptions are experienced
1
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Neuroplasticity - Treatment of brain damage
1
One of the most recent applications of
neuroplasticity involves work done by
a team of doctors and researchers at
Emory University, specifically Dr
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Neuroplasticity - Treatment of brain damage
1
They developed a treatment that includes
increased levels of progesterone injections
to give to brain injured patients
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Neuroplasticity - Treatment of brain damage
1
Stein has done some studies in which
beneficial effects have been seen to be
similar in aged rats to those seen in
youthful rats
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Chemotherapy - Organ damage
Cardiotoxicity (heart damage) is
especially prominent with the use of
anthracycline drugs (doxorubicin,
epirubicin, idarubicin, and liposomal
doxorubicin). The cause of this is most
likely due to the production of free
radicals in the cell and subsequent
DNA damage. Other chemotherapeutic
agents that cause cardiotoxicity, but at
a lower incidence, are
1
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Chemotherapy - Organ damage
Hepatotoxicity (liver damage) can be
caused by many cytotoxic drugs. The
susceptibility of an individual to liver
damage can be altered by other factors
such as the cancer itself, viral hepatitis,
immunosuppression and nutritional
deficiency. The liver damage can consist
of damage to liver cells, Hepatic venoocclusive disease|hepatic sinusoidal
syndrome (obstruction of the veins in the
1
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Chemotherapy - Organ damage
1
Nephrotoxicity (kidney damage) can
be caused by tumor lysis syndrome
and also due direct effects of drug
clearance by the kidneys. Different
drugs will affect different parts of the
kidney and the toxicity may be
asymptomatic (only seen on blood or
urine tests) or may cause acute renal
failure.
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Chemotherapy - Organ damage
1
Ototoxicity (damage to the inner ear) is
a common side effect of platinum
based drugs that can produce
symptoms such as dizziness and
Vertigo (medical)|vertigo.
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Vestibulocochlear nerve - Symptoms of damage
Damage to the
vestibulocochlear nerve
may cause the following
symptoms:
1
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Vestibulocochlear nerve - Symptoms of damage
1
*loss of equilibrium (in dark
places)
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Vestibulocochlear nerve - Symptoms of damage
1
*gaze-evoked
tinnitus.
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BP - Colombian farmland damages claim
1
In 2006, a group of Colombian farmers
reached a multimillion dollar out-of-court
settlement with BP for alleged
environmental damage caused by the
Ocensa pipeline
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BP - Colombian farmland damages claim
Most of the land traversed by the
pipeline was owned by peasant
farmers who were illiterate and
unable to read the environmental
impact assessment conducted by BP
prior to construction, which
acknowledged significant and
widespread risks of damage to the
land.
1
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Senescence - Chemical damage
1
One of the earliest aging theories was the
Rate of Living Hypothesis described by
Raymond Pearl in 1928 (based on earlier
work by Max Rubner), which states that
fast basal metabolic rate corresponds to
short maximum life span.
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Senescence - Chemical damage
1
While there may be some validity to the
idea that for various types of specific
damage detailed below that are byproducts of metabolism, all other things
being equal, a fast metabolism may
reduce lifespan, in general this theory
does not adequately explain the
differences in lifespan either within, or
between, species
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Senescence - Chemical damage
With respect to specific types of
chemical damage caused by
metabolism, it is suggested that
damage to long-lived biopolymers,
such as structural proteins or DNA,
caused by ubiquitous chemical agents
in the body such as oxygen and
sugars, are in part responsible for
aging. The damage can include
breakage of biopolymer chains, cross1
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Senescence - Chemical damage
Under normal wikt:aerobic|aerobic
conditions, approximately 4% of the
oxygen metabolized by mitochondria is
converted to superoxide ion, which can
subsequently be converted to hydrogen
peroxide, hydroxyl radical
(chemistry)|radical and eventually other
reactive species including other peroxides
and singlet oxygen, which can, in turn,
generate radical (chemistry)|free radicals
1
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Senescence - Chemical damage
1
There is evidence that sugar damage is
linked to oxidant damage in a process
termed Advanced glycation
endproduct|glycoxidation.
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Senescence - Chemical damage
1
Damage to enzymes reduces
cellular functionality
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Senescence - Chemical damage
1
It is believed that the impact of alcohol
on aging can be partly explained by
alcohol's activation of the HPA axis,
which stimulates glucocorticoid
secretion, long-term exposure to which
produces symptoms of aging.
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Senescence - DNA damage theory
1
In: New Research on DNA Damages
(Editors: Honoka Kimura and Aoi
Suzuki) Nova Science Publishers, Inc.,
New York, Chapter 1, pp
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Machine perfusion - 1E. Toxic damage from the perfusate
1
There was necrosis of capillary loops,
occlusion of Bowman's spaces,
basement membrane thickening and
endothelial cell damage.
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SV40 - p53 Damage and carcinogenicity
SV40 is believed to suppress the
transcriptional properties of the tumorsuppressing p53 in humans through the
SV40 Large T-antigen and SV40 Small Tantigen. p53 is responsible for initiating
regulated cell death (apoptosis), or cell
cycle arrest when a cell is damaged. A
mutated p53 gene may contribute to
uncontrolled cellular proliferation, leading
to a tumor.
1
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SV40 - p53 Damage and carcinogenicity
1
SV40 may act as a co-carcinogen with
crocidolite asbestos to cause both
peritoneal mesothelioma|Peritoneal
and Pleural|Pleural Mesothelioma
(review
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SV40 - p53 Damage and carcinogenicity
1
When SV40 infects nonpermissive cells, such
as 3T3 mouse cells, the dsDNA of SV40
becomes covalently integrated. In
nonpermissive cells only the early gene
expression occurs and this leads to
transformation, or oncogenesis. The
nonpermissive host needs the Large Tantigen and the Small t-antigen in order to
function. The Small T-antigen interacts with
and integrates with the cellular phosphatase
pp2A. This causes the cell to lose the ability
to initiate transcription.
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Johor Sultanate - Sultan tries to repair the damage
1
The Sultan saw the damage that was
done to the Palace in his father's reign
and decided to reemphasis and restore
adatIbid, page 67 as a rule governing
personal behavior and the politics
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Johor Sultanate - Sultan tries to repair the damage
In 1841, Bendahara Ali appoint
Temenggung Ibrahim Ibid, page 70 to
replace his father who died in 1825
1
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Johor Sultanate - Sultan tries to repair the damage
After waiting since 1835 for the
'appointment' as a Sultan, in 1852
Tengku Ali decided to 'return Johor'
Ibid, page 75 to the Johor Empire by
paying homage to Sultan Mahmud
Muzaffar in Lingga. For three years
Johor Empire was one again except
Singapore. Worried by the current state
of affairs, the British called Tengku Ali
back to Singapore on the threat of
1
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Tumor - DNA damage
1
Some sources of DNA damage are indicated in the
boxes at the top of the figure in this section.
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Tumor - DNA damage
Individuals with a germ line mutation
causing deficiency in any of 34 DNA repair
genes (see article DNA repair-deficiency
disorder) are at increased risk of cancer.
Some germ line mutations in DNA repair
genes cause up to 100% lifetime chance
of cancer (e.g. p53 mutations). These
germ line mutations are indicated in a box
at the left of the figure with an arrow
indicating their contribution to DNA repair
1
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Tumor - DNA damage
1
In addition, faulty repair of these accumulated
DNA damages may give rise to epimutations
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Gerontology - The DNA Damage Theory of Aging
1
DNA damage has been one of the many
causes in diseases related to aging. The
stability of the genome is defined by the
cells machinery of repair, damage
tolerance, and checkpoint pathways that
counteracts DNA damage. One hypothesis
proposed by Gioacchino Failla in 1958 is
that damage accumulation to the DNA
causes aging. The hypothesis was
developed soon by physicist Leó Szilárd.
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Gerontology - The DNA Damage Theory of Aging
1
The importance of DNA damage and
the genome maintenance in relation to
aging can be investigated further
more for treatment.
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Episodic memory - Damage
* Based on a review of behavioral
studies, it is suggested that there may
be selective damage to the limbicprefrontal episodic memory system in
some people with autism. Another
study points to evidence of autistic
deficits in the episodic or selfconscious memory of personally
experienced events
([http://www.bu.edu/anatneuro/dcn/
1
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Episodic memory - Damage
* Alzheimer's disease tends to damage the
hippocampus before other Human brain|brain areas.
1
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Episodic memory - Damage
* A rare type of shellfish poisoning
called amnesic shellfish poisoning or
ASP quite effectively and irreversibly
damages the hippocampus, rendering
one amnesic.
1
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Episodic memory - Damage
* Korsakoff's syndrome is caused by
thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency, a form of
malnutrition which can be precipitated by
overconsumption of alcoholic beverages
compared to other foods.
1
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Episodic memory - Damage
1
* An acute cortisol level (by injection) has
been found to significantly inhibit the
Recall (memory)|recall of autobiographical
memory|autobiographical memories which
may contribute to memory deficits found in
major depressive disorder|depression.
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Episodic memory - Damage
1
* The use of some illicit drugs such as
MDMA (Ecstasy) has been associated
with persistent deficits in episodic
memory.
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Japanese patent law - Damages
Since a patent right is also a kind of
property right, an act of infringement of
a patent right constitutes a tort, and a
patentee who sustains damages as a
result of an act of infringement may
demand damages from the infringer in
tort (Article 709 of the Civil Code)
1
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Calorie restriction - Reduced DNA damage
Calorie restriction reduces production of
reactive oxygen species (ROS).Gredilla R,
Sanz A, Lopez-Torres M, Barja G. (2001).
Caloric restriction decreases mitochondrial
free radical generation at complex I and
lowers oxidative damage to mitochondrial
DNA in the rat heart FASEB J 15(9) 15891591. PMID 11427495 ROS cause several
types of DNA damage including 8-hydroxy-2’deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG). The level of 8OHdG is often used as an indicator of the
general level of oxidative damage in DNA.
1
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Calorie restriction - Reduced DNA damage
1
Peripheral lymphocyte 8-OHdG levels
correlate with age-associated increase
of tissue oxidative DNA damage in
Sprague-Dawley rats
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Calorie restriction - Reduced DNA damage
In: New Research on DNA Damages
(Editors: Honoka Kimura and Aoi Suzuki)
Nova Science Publishers, Inc., New York,
Chapter 1, pp
1
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Antioxidant - Potential of antioxidant supplements to damage health
1
Some antioxidant supplements may promote
disease and increase mortality in humans
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Aubrey de Grey - The Seven Types of Aging Damage Proposed by de Grey
(The Seven Deadly Things)
1
#Mutations - in Chromosomes causing cancer due
to nuclear mutations/epimutations:
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Aubrey de Grey - The Seven Types of Aging Damage Proposed by de Grey
(The Seven Deadly Things)
1
#:These are changes to the nuclear DNA
(nDNA), the molecule that contains our
genetic information, or to proteins which
bind to the nDNA. Certain mutations can
lead to cancer, and, according to de Grey,
non-cancerous mutations and
Epigenetics|epimutations do not contribute
to aging within a normal lifespan, so
cancer is the only endpoint of these types
of damage that must be addressed.
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Aubrey de Grey - The Seven Types of Aging Damage Proposed by de Grey
(The Seven Deadly Things)
1
#:Mitochondria are components in our cell
(biology)|cells that are important for
energy production. They contain their own
genetic material, and mutations to their
DNA can affect a cell’s ability to function
properly. Indirectly, these mutations may
accelerate many aspects of aging.
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Aubrey de Grey - The Seven Types of Aging Damage Proposed by de Grey
(The Seven Deadly Things)
1
#Junk - inside of cells,
aka intracellular
aggregates:
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Aubrey de Grey - The Seven Types of Aging Damage Proposed by de Grey
(The Seven Deadly Things)
#:Our cells are constantly breaking
down proteins and other molecules that
are no longer useful or which can be
harmful. Those molecules which can’t
be digested simply accumulate as junk
inside our cells. Atherosclerosis,
macular degeneration and all kinds of
neurodegenerative diseases (such as
Alzheimer's disease) are associated
with this problem.
1
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Aubrey de Grey - The Seven Types of Aging Damage Proposed by de Grey
(The Seven Deadly Things)
1
#Junk - outside of cells,
aka extracellular
aggregates:
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Aubrey de Grey - The Seven Types of Aging Damage Proposed by de Grey
(The Seven Deadly Things)
#:Harmful junk protein can also
accumulate outside of our cells. The
amyloid senile plaque seen in the brains of
Alzheimer's disease|Alzheimer’s patients
is one example.
1
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Aubrey de Grey - The Seven Types of Aging Damage Proposed by de Grey
(The Seven Deadly Things)
#:Some of the cells in our bodies
cannot be replaced, or can only be
replaced very slowly - more slowly than
they die. This decrease in cell number
causes the heart to become weaker
with age, and it also causes
Parkinson's disease and impairs the
immune system.
1
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Aubrey de Grey - The Seven Types of Aging Damage Proposed by de Grey (The Seven
Deadly Things)
1
#:This is a phenomenon where the cells
are no longer able to cell division|divide,
but also do not die and let others divide.
They may also do other things that they’re
not supposed to, like secreting proteins
that could be harmful. Cell senescence
has been proposed as cause or
consequence of diabetes mellitus type
2|type 2 diabetes. Immune senescence is
also caused by this.
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Aubrey de Grey - The Seven Types of Aging Damage Proposed by de Grey
(The Seven Deadly Things)
1
#Extracellular protein
crosslinks:
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Aubrey de Grey - The Seven Types of Aging Damage Proposed by de Grey (The Seven
Deadly Things)
1
#:Cells are held together by special
linking proteins. When too many
cross-links form between cells in a
Biological tissue|tissue, the tissue
can lose its elasticity and cause
problems including arteriosclerosis
and
presbyopia.[http://www.livescience.c
om/6967-hang-25-year-waitimmortality.html Hang in There: The
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DNA repair - DNA damage
1
DNA damage, due to environmental
factors and normal
metabolism|metabolic processes
inside the cell, occurs at a rate of
1,000 to 1,000,000 molecular lesions
per cell per day. While this constitutes
only 0.000165% of the human
genome's approximately 6 billion
bases (3 billion base pairs),
unrepaired lesions in critical genes
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DNA repair - DNA damage
1
DNA is, however, supercoiled and wound
around packaging proteins called histones
(in eukaryotes), and both superstructures
are vulnerable to the effects of DNA
damage.
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DNA repair - Sources of damage
DNA damage can be
subdivided into two main
types:
1
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DNA repair - Sources of damage
1
# endogenous damage such as attack
by reactive oxygen species produced
from normal metabolic byproducts
(spontaneous mutation), especially
the process of oxidative deamination
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DNA repair - Sources of damage
## also includes DNA
error|replication errors
1
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DNA repair - Sources of damage
1
## ultraviolet [UV 200-400
nanometre|nm] radiation
from the sun
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DNA repair - Sources of damage
## other radiation
frequencies, including xrays and gamma rays
1
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DNA repair - Sources of damage
1
## hydrolysis or thermal
disruption
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DNA repair - Sources of damage
1
## human-made mutagen|mutagenic
chemicals, especially aromatic
compounds that act as DNA
intercalation
(chemistry)|intercalating agents
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DNA repair - Sources of damage
1
The replication of damaged DNA before
cell division can lead to the incorporation
of wrong bases opposite damaged ones.
Daughter cells that inherit these wrong
bases carry mutations from which the
original DNA sequence is unrecoverable
(except in the rare case of a back
mutation, for example, through gene
conversion).
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DNA repair - Types of damage
1
There are five main types of damage to DNA due to
endogenous cellular processes:
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DNA repair - Types of damage
1
# DNA oxidation|oxidation of bases [e.g. 8oxo-7,8-dihydroguanine (8-oxoG)] and
generation of DNA strand interruptions
from reactive oxygen species,
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DNA repair - Types of damage
1
# alkylation of bases (usually methylation),
such as formation of 7-methylguanine, 1methyladenine, 6-O-Methylguanine
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DNA repair - Types of damage
1
# hydrolysis of bases, such as deamination,
depurination, and depyrimidination.
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DNA repair - Types of damage
1
# bulky adduct formation (i.e., benzo[a]pyrene
diol epoxide-dG adduct, aristolactam I-dA
adduct)
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DNA repair - Types of damage
1
# mismatch of bases, due to errors in
DNA replication, in which the wrong
DNA base is stitched into place in a
newly forming DNA strand, or a DNA
base is skipped over or mistakenly
inserted.
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DNA repair - Types of damage
1
# Monoadduct damage
cause by change in
single nitrogenous
base of DNA
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DNA repair - Types of damage
1
Damage caused by
exogenous agents
comes in many
forms. Some
examples are:
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DNA repair - Types of damage
# UV light|UV-B light causes
crosslinking between adjacent
cytosine and thymine bases creating
pyrimidine dimers. This is called
direct DNA damage.
1
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DNA repair - Types of damage
1
# UV light|UV-A light creates mostly
free radicals. The damage caused by
free radicals is called indirect DNA
damage.
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DNA repair - Types of damage
of Pathology, University of Wisconsin,
Madison.Acharya, PV Narasimh;
Irreparable DNA-Damage by Industrial
Pollutants in Pre-mature Aging, Chemical
Carcinogenesis and Cardiac Hypertrophy:
Experiments and Theory; 1st International
Meeting of Heads of Clinical Biochemistry
Laboratories, Jerusalem, Israel
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DNA repair - Types of damage
# Thermal disruption at elevated
temperature increases the rate of
depurination (loss of purine bases
from the DNA backbone) and singlestrand breaks. For example,
hydrolytic depurination is seen in the
thermophilic bacteria, which grow in
hot springs at 40-80 °C. The rate of
depurination (300 purine residues per
genome per generation) is too high in
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DNA repair - Types of damage
# Industrial chemicals such as vinyl
chloride and hydrogen peroxide, and
environmental chemicals such as
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons found in
smoke, soot and tar create a huge
diversity of DNA adducts- ethenobases,
oxidized bases, alkylated phosphotriesters
and Crosslinking of DNA just to name a
few.
1
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DNA repair - Types of damage
1
UV damage, alkylation/methylation,
X-ray damage and oxidative damage
are examples of induced damage.
Spontaneous damage can include the
loss of a base, deamination, sugar
ring puckering and tautomeric
shift.DNA Lesions That Require
Repair:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/
bv.fcgi?highlight=lesionrid=mcb.tabl
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DNA repair - Nuclear versus mitochondrial DNA damage
1
Inside mitochondria, reactive oxygen
species (ROS), or radical
(chemistry)|free radicals, byproducts of
the constant production of adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) via oxidative
phosphorylation, create a highly
oxidative environment that is known to
damage mtDNA
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DNA repair - DNA damage and mutation
If a cell retains DNA damage,
transcription of a gene can be
prevented, and, thus, translation into
a protein will also be blocked
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DNA repair - DNA damage and mutation
1
Although distinctly different from each
other, DNA damages and mutations are
related because DNA damages often
cause errors of DNA synthesis during
replication or repair; these errors are a
major source of mutation.
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DNA repair - DNA damage and mutation
1
In contrast, DNA damages in infrequently
dividing cells are likely a prominent cause of
aging.
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DNA repair - Single-strand damage
1
When only one of the two strands of a
double helix has a defect, the other
strand can be used as a template to
guide the correction of the damaged
strand. In order to repair damage to
one of the two paired molecules of
DNA, there exist a number of excision
repair mechanisms that remove the
damaged nucleotide and replace it
with an undamaged nucleotide
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DNA repair - Single-strand damage
#Base excision repair (BER), which
repairs damage to a single base caused
by oxidation, alkylation, hydrolysis, or
deamination. The damaged base is
removed by a DNA glycosylase. The
missing tooth is then recognized by an
enzyme called AP endonuclease, which
cuts the phosphodiester bond. The
missing part is then resynthesized by a
DNA polymerase, and a DNA ligase
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DNA repair - Single-strand damage
1
#Nucleotide excision repair (NER),
which recognizes bulky, helixdistorting lesions such as pyrimidine
dimers and 6,4 photoproducts. A
specialized form of NER known as
transcription-coupled repair deploys
NER enzymes to genes that are being
actively transcription
(genetics)|transcribed.
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DNA repair - Single-strand damage
1
#Mismatch repair (MMR), which corrects
errors of DNA replication and genetic
recombination|recombination that result in
mispaired (but undamaged) nucleotides.
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DNA repair - Global response to DNA damage
1
The global response to damage is an act
directed toward the cells' own preservation
and triggers multiple pathways of
macromolecular repair, lesion bypass,
tolerance, or apoptosis
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DNA repair - DNA damage checkpoints
DNA damage checkpoints occur at the G1
phase|G1/S phase|S and G2 phase|G2/mitosis|M
boundaries
1
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DNA repair - DNA damage checkpoints
An important downstream target of
ATM and ATR is p53, as it is required
for inducing apoptosis following DNA
damage. The cyclin-dependent kinase
inhibitor p21 is induced by both p53dependent and p53-independent
mechanisms and can arrest the cell
cycle at the G1/S and G2/M
checkpoints by deactivating
cyclin/cyclin-dependent kinase
1
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DNA repair - Eukaryotic transcriptional responses to DNA damage
1
Genome-wide responses to
DNA-damaging agents
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DNA repair - Eukaryotic transcriptional responses to DNA damage
1
Yeast Rev1 and human polymerase η are
members of [Y family translesion DNA
polymerases present during global
response to DNA damage and are
responsible for enhanced mutagenesis
during a global response to DNA damage
in eukaryotes.
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Rosiglitazone - Eye damage
Both rosiglitazone and pioglitazone
have been suspected of causing
macular edema, which damages the
retina of the eye and causes partial
blindness. Blindness is also a possible
effect of diabetes, which rosiglitazone
is intended to treat. One report
documented several occurrences and
recommended discontinuation at the
first sign of vision problems.
1
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Brain damage
1
'Brain damage' or Brain Injury (BI) is the
destruction or degeneration of brain cells
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Brain damage - Signs and symptoms
1
Brain Injuries often create impairment or
disability which can vary greatly in severity
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Brain damage - Signs and symptoms
Mental fatigue is a common
debilitating experience and may not
be linked by the patient to the original
(minor) incident. Narcolepsy and
sleep disorders are common
misdiagnoses.
1
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Brain damage - Signs and symptoms
Brain injury whether from stroke,
alcohol abuse, traumatic brain injury,
or vitamin B deficiency can
sometimes result in Korsakoff's
Syndrome|Korsakoff's Psychosis,
where the individual engages in
confabulations. Confabulations
involve the inability to separate
daydream memory from real memory
and the filling in of memory lapses
1
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Brain damage - Causes
Common causes of Focal and diffuse
brain injury|focal or localized brain
damage are physical Physical
trauma|trauma (traumatic brain injury,
stroke, aneurysm, surgery, other
neurological disorder), and heavy metals
causing toxicity|poisoning including
mercury and its compounds of lead.
1
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Brain damage - Management
1
Various professions may be involved in the
medical care and physical
therapy|rehabilitation of someone who
suffers impairment after a brain injury
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Brain damage - Management
1
Physiotherapists also play a significant role in
rehabilitation after a brain injury
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Brain damage - Management
1
Other treatments for brain injury include
medication, psychotherapy, Rehabilitation
(neuropsychology)|neuropsychological
rehabilitation, snoezelen, surgery, or
physical implants such as deep brain
stimulation.
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Brain damage - Management
1
In the case of brain damage from traumatic brain
injury, dexamethasone and/or Mannitol may be
used.
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Brain damage - Prognosis
1
Prognosis, or the likely progress of a
disorder, depends on the nature,
location and cause of the brain
damage (see Traumatic brain injury).
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Brain damage - Prognosis
1
In general, neuroregeneration can occur in
the peripheral nervous system but is much
rarer and more difficult to assist in the
central nervous system (brain or spinal
cord). However, in neural development in
humans, areas of the brain can learn to
compensate for other damaged areas, and
may increase in size and complexity and
even change function, just as someone
who loses a sense may gain increased
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Brain damage - Prognosis
In the case of a child with Frontal
lobe|frontal brain injury, for example, the
impact of the damage may be
undetectable until that child fails to
develop normal executive functions in his
or her late teens and early twenties.
1
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Brain damage - Body's Response to Brain Injury
1
Cytokines are known to be
induced in response to BI
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Mutagenesis - The distinction between a mutation and a DNA damage
Mutations can ordinarily be avoided if
accurate DNA repair systems recognize
DNA damages and repair them prior to
completion of the next round of replication
1
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Mutagenesis - DNA damage and spontaneous mutation
1
Frequent occurrence of DNA damage
is likely a problem for all DNA
containing organisms, and the need to
cope with DNA damages and to
minimize their deleterious effects is
likely a fundamental problem for
life.Bernstein H and Bernstein C
(2013)
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Mutagenesis - DNA damage and spontaneous mutation
coli bacteria, in which 89% of
spontaneously occurring base
substitution mutations are caused by
reactive oxygen species (ROS)induced DNA damage.Sakai A,
Nakanishi M, Yoshiyama K, Maki H
1
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Mutagenesis - DNA damage and spontaneous mutation
An additional significant source of
mutations in eukaryotes is the inaccurate
DNA repair process non-homologous end
joining, that is often employed in repair of
double strand breaks.Huertas P. (2010).
DNA resection in eukaryotes: deciding
how to fix the break. Nat Struct Mol Biol
17(1): 11–16. doi: 10.1038/nsmb.1710
PMCID: PMC2850169
1
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Mutagenesis - DNA damage and spontaneous mutation
In general, it appears that the main
underlying cause of spontaneous
mutation is error prone trans-lesion
synthesis during DNA replication; and
that the error-prone non-homologous
end joining repair pathway may also be
an important contributor in eukaryotes.
1
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Mutagenesis - Backbone damage
1
Incorrect repair of other damages induced
by the highly reactive species can also
lead to mutations.
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Damascus steel
Kris Hirst
[http://archaeology.about.com/od/ancientweapons/a/
damascus_steel_2.htm Damascus Steel
1
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Damascus steel
The original method of producing
Damascus steel is not known. Because
of differences in raw materials and
manufacturing techniques, modern
attempts to duplicate the metal have
not been entirely successful. Despite
this, several individuals in modern
times have claimed that they have
rediscovered the methods in which the
original Damascus steel was produced.
1
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Damascus steel
1
Woody biomass and leaves are known to
have been used as carburizing additives
along with certain specific types of iron
(rich in microalloying elements) during the
smelting process to obtain Wootz steel
ingots which would be further forged and
worked into Damascus steel blades, and
research now shows that carbon
nanotubes can be derived from plant
fibers,Goodell, B, Xie, X., Qian, Y., Daniel,
G., Peterson, M., and J
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Damascus steel - Etymology
1
Several theories on the origins of the term
Damascus steel exist, but none of them
may be confirmed definitively. Damascus
may refer to:
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Damascus steel - Etymology
*The swords forged in Damascus. For
instance, al-Kindi refers to swords made in
Damascus as Damascene.
1
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Damascus steel - Etymology
1
*The swords sold in
Damascus.
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Damascus steel - Etymology
1
*The comparison of the patterns
found on the swords to Damask
fabrics woven in the Byzantine
empire.
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Damascus steel - History
The original damascus was likely
produced from ingots of wootz steel,
imported from India and Sri Lanka and
later Persia. From the 3rd century to the
17th century, India was shipping steel
ingots to the Middle East.
1
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Damascus steel - Loss of the technique
Production of these patterned swords
gradually declined, ceasing by around
1750, and the process was lost to
metalsmiths. Several modern theories
have ventured to explain this decline,
including the breakdown of trade routes to
supply the needed metals, the lack of
trace impurities in the metals, the possible
loss of knowledge on the crafting
techniques through secrecy and lack of
1
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Damascus steel - Loss of the technique
1
The technique for controlled thermal
cycling after the initial forging at a
specific temperature could also have
been lost, thereby preventing the final
damask pattern in the steel from
occurring.
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Damascus steel - Loss of the technique
1
The discovery of carbon nanotubes in
the Damascus steel's composition
supports this hypothesis, since the
precipitation of carbon nanotubes
probably resulted from a specific
process that may be difficult to
replicate should the production
technique or raw materials used be
significantly altered.
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Damascus steel - Reproduction
1
Recreating Damascus steel is a subfield of
experimental archaeology. Many have
attempted to discover or Reverse
engineering|reverse-engineer the process
by which it was made.
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Damascus steel - Moran: billet welding
1
In order to attain a Master Smith rating
with the American Bladesmith Society that
Moran founded, the smith must forge a
damascus blade with a minimum of 300
layers.
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Damascus steel - Verhoeven and Pendray: crucible
1
Verhoeven and Pendray had already
determined that the grains on the
surface of the steel were grains of iron
carbide—their goal was to reproduce
the iron carbide patterns they saw in
the Damascus blades from the grains
in the wootz.
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Damascus steel - Verhoeven and Pendray: crucible
However, Verhoeven and Pendray
discovered that in samples of true
Damascus steel, the Damascene pattern
could be recovered by aging at a
moderate temperature
1
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Damascus steel - Anosov, Wadsworth and Sherby: bulat
The exact origin or the manufacturing
process of bulat is unknown, but it was
likely imported to Russia via Persia and
Turkestan, and it was similar and possibly
the same as damascus steel
1
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Damascus steel - Additional research
A team of researchers based at the
Technische Universität
Dresden|Technical University of
Dresden that used x-rays and electron
microscopy to examine Damascus
steel discovered the presence of
cementite nanowires and carbon
nanotubes. Peter Paufler, a member of
the Dresden team, says that these
nanostructures are a result of the
1
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Damascus steel - Additional research
1
Sanderson proposes that the process
of forging and annealing accounts for
the nano-scale structures.
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Damascus steel - Damascus steel in gunmaking
Current gun manufacturers such as
Caspian Arms make slide assemblies and
small parts such as triggers and safeties
for Colt M1911 pistols from powdered
Swedish steel resulting in a swirling twotoned effect; these parts are often referred
to as Stainless Damascus.
1
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Damascus steel - Modern Damascus knives
1
As with the 19th century guns, the word
Damascus is used for its romantic image,
even though the processes are not related
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DNA damage theory of aging
1
Nuclear DNA damage can contribute to
aging either indirectly (by increasing
apoptosis or Hayflick limit|cellular
senescence) or directly (by increasing cell
dysfunction).
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DNA damage theory of aging
The accumulation of unrepaired DNA
damage is more prevalent in certain types
of cells, particularly in non-replicating or
slowly replicating cells, such as cells in the
brain, skeletal and cardiac muscle.
1
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DNA damage theory of aging - DNA damage and mutation
Descriptions of decrements in
function, characteristic of aging,
associated with accumulation of DNA
damages, are given later in this
article.
1
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DNA damage theory of aging - DNA damage and mutation
Although distinctly different from
each other, DNA damages and
mutations are related because DNA
damages often cause errors of DNA
synthesis during replication or repair
and these errors are a major source of
mutation.
1
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DNA damage theory of aging - DNA damage and mutation
In contrast, DNA damage (naturally
occurring)|DNA damages in G0
phase|infrequently dividing cells are likely
a prominent cause of aging.
1
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DNA damage theory of aging - DNA damage and mutation
By the early 1990s experimental
support for this idea was substantial,
and furthermore it had become
increasingly evident that oxidative DNA
damage, in particular, is a major cause
of aging (Bernstein Bernstein, 1991;
Ames Gold, 1991; Holmes et al., 1992;
Rao Loeb, 1992; Ames et al., 1993).
1
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DNA damage theory of aging - DNA damage and mutation
1
(PVN Acharya; PVN Acharya Bjorksten
et al.) Acharya's research also showed
how irreparable DNA damage is caused
by environmental pollutants, low dose
ionizing radiation and food additives,
particularly nitrites and nitrates and
such damage to the DNA is a causal
factor for pre-mature aging and cancer.
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DNA damage theory of aging - Age-associated accumulation of DNA damage and
decline in gene expression
In tissues composed of non- or
infrequently replicating cells, DNA damage
can accumulate with age and lead either
to loss of cells, or, in surviving cells, loss of
gene expression. Accumulated DNA
damage is usually measured directly.
Numerous studies of this type have
indicated that oxidative damage to DNA is
particularly important. The loss of
expression of specific genes can be
detected at both the mRNA level and
protein level.
1
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DNA damage theory of aging - Brain
1
(2005) also showed that the oxidative
DNA damage 8hydroxydeoxyguanosine|8-OHdG
accumulates in rat brain with age
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DNA damage theory of aging - Brain
(2004) concluded that DNA damage
may reduce the expression of
selectively vulnerable genes involved
in learning, memory and neuronal
survival, initiating a program of brain
aging that starts early in adult life.
1
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DNA damage theory of aging - Muscle
1
These findings suggest that mitochondria
are a significant source of the oxidative
damages contributing to aging.
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DNA damage theory of aging - Muscle
1
Protein synthesis and protein degradation
decline with age in skeletal and heart
muscle, as would be expected, since DNA
damage blocks gene transcription. In a
recent study (Piec et al., 2005) found
numerous changes in protein expression
in rat skeletal muscle with age, including
lower levels of several proteins related to
myosin and actin. Force is generated in
striated muscle by the interactions
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DNA damage theory of aging - Liver
1
At least 21 studies (Bernstein et al., in
press 2008) have reported an increase
in DNA damage with age in liver
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DNA damage theory of aging - Kidney
In kidney, changes with age include
reduction in both renal blood flow and
glomerular filtration rate, and impairment
in the ability to concentrate urine and to
conserve sodium and water. DNA
damages, particularly oxidative DNA
damages, increase with age (at least 8
studies)(Bernstein et al., in press 2008).
For instance Hashimoto et al. (2007)
showed that 8-OHdG accumulates in rat
1
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DNA damage theory of aging - Long-lived stem cells
DNA damage may trigger signalling
pathways, such as apoptosis, that
contribute to depletion of stem cell stocks
1
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DNA damage theory of aging - Mutation theories of aging
1
As discussed above, mutations tend to
arise in frequently replicating cells as a
result of errors of DNA synthesis when
template DNA is damaged, and can give
rise to cancer
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DNA damage theory of aging - Mutation theories of aging
1
One variation of the idea that mutation is
the basis of aging, that has received much
attention, is that mutations specifically in
mitochondrial DNA are the cause of aging
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DNA damage theory of aging - Dietary Restriction
Thus reduction of oxidative DNA
damage is associated with a slower
rate of aging and increased lifespan.
1
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DNA damage theory of aging - Inherited defects that cause premature aging
1
Cockayne Syndrome is due to a defect in
a protein necessary for the repair process,
transcription coupled nucleotide excision
repair, which can remove damages,
particularly oxidative DNA damages, that
block transcription (D’Errico et al., 2007)
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DNA damage theory of aging - Inherited defects that cause premature aging
1
In addition to human inherited syndromes,
experimental mouse models with genetic
defects in DNA repair show features of
premature aging and reduced lifespan
(e.g. Vogel et al., 1999; Niedernhoffer et
al., 2006; Mostoslavsky et al., 2006).
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DNA damage theory of aging - Lifespan in different mammalian species
1
The initial study of this type, by Hart
and Setlow (1974), showed that the
ability of skin fibroblasts of seven
mammalian species to perform DNA
repair after exposure to a DNA
damaging agent correlated with
lifespan of the species
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DNA damage theory of aging - Conclusions
The principal source of the DNA
damages leading to normal aging
appears to be reactive oxygen species,
produced as byproducts of normal
cellular metabolism.
1
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Zebrafish - Repairing retinal damage
1
Another notable characteristic of the
zebrafish is that it possesses four
types of cone cell, with ultravioletsensitive cells supplementing the red,
green and blue cone cell subtypes
found in humans
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Zebrafish - Repairing retinal damage
1
These could be injected into the eye to
treat diseases that damage retinal
neurons—nearly every disease of the
eye, including macular degeneration,
glaucoma, and diabetes-related
blindness
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Aging brain - DNA Damage
1
Young 4-day-old rats have about 3,000
single-strand breaks and 156 doublestrand breaks per neuron, whereas in
rats older than 2 years the level of
damage increases to about 7,400
single-strand breaks and 600 doublestrand breaks per neuron.
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Aging brain - DNA Damage
1
They concluded that DNA damage may
reduce the expression of selectively
vulnerable genes involved in learning,
memory and neuronal survival, initiating a
pattern of brain aging that starts early in
life.
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2008 Chinese milk scandal - On the damage caused
Joseph Sternberg of the Wall Street
Journal said that Beijing's failures of foodsafety act are much more pernicious, and
disgraceful, than at first it appears... [not
only has this] milk poisoned thousands of
infants with melamine, it also poisons the
society at large with fear.
1
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2008 Chinese milk scandal - On the damage caused
Lawyer Bill Marler, speaking at a food
safety conference in Beijing, said that this
food scare has harmed the made in China
brand abroad. He remarked: If this product
had gotten into the United States, it would
have been 'game over' for a lot of products
in China.
1
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2008 Chinese milk scandal - On the damage caused
1
The similarities between China today and New York
150 years ago shouldn't come as a great surprise
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2008 Chinese milk scandal - On the damage caused
1
Bee Wilson, The New York TimesAn op-ed
in the New York Times compared this to
the swill milk scandal in New York in the
1850s in which 8,000 children reportedly
died from milk from cows fed swill which
was then whitened with plaster of Paris,
thickened with starch, eggs and hued with
molasses.
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2008 Chinese milk scandal - On the damage caused
An article published in the San
Francisco Chronicle likened the
regulatory failures of the milk
scandal to the distressed assets in the
subprime mortgage crisis, and
questioned whether regulators in
either case ever understood or truly
monitored the extent of the danger.
1
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2008 Chinese milk scandal - On the damage caused
Louis Klarevas, a professor at New
York University's Center for Global
Affairs, said of the products on the list
of potentially harmful products
reaching the US in recent years were
exclusive to China: Yet as more largescalelabormarkets compete for their
share of international trade, the
incentives to cut corners will increase
and the temptation to overlook
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2008 Chinese milk scandal - On the damage caused
On a more positive note Bill Durodié,
senior fellow at the S. Rajaratnam School
of International Studies in Singapore noted
in the 10 November 2008 issue of the
Today newspaper there, in response to a
question suggesting there may be more
such incidents in future due to the more
liberal trading relations with China, that:
exposing the Chinese to the world market
is probably the fastest way of addressing
1
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2008 Chinese milk scandal - On the damage caused
Ron Unz compares the Chinese
government and media reaction favorably
to the coverage of the Vioxx scandal in the
USA, saying that American journalists
seemed to focus more attention on a halfdozen fatalities in China than they did on
the premature deaths of as many as
500,000 of their fellow American citizens.
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Embryonic stem cells - Repair of DNA damage
1
Differentiated somatic cells and ES cells
use different strategies for dealing with
DNA damage. For instance, human
foreskin fibroblasts, one type of somatic
cell, use non-homologous end joining
(NHEJ), an error prone DNA repair
process, as the primary pathway for
repairing double-strand breaks (DSBs)
during all cell cycle stages. Because of
its error-prone nature, NHEJ tends to
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Embryonic stem cells - Repair of DNA damage
1
Apoptosis can be used as a fail-safe
strategy to remove cells with unrepaired DNA damages in order to
avoid mutation and progression to
cancer
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Competence (biology) - Hypothesis of repair of DNA damage
In addition, competence to undergo
transformation is often inducible by
known DNA damaging agents (reviewed
by Michod et al., 2008 and Bernstein et
al., 2012)
1
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Competence (biology) - Hypothesis of repair of DNA damage
1
A counter argument was made based
on the 1993 report of Redfield who
found that single-stranded and
double-stranded damage to
chromosomal DNA did not induce or
enhance competence or
transformation in B. subtilis or H.
influenzae, suggesting that selection
for repair has played little or no role in
the evolution of competence in these
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Competence (biology) - Hypothesis of repair of DNA damage
PMID 22517853 showed that a
substantial portion of their
bactericidal activity results from
release of the hydroxyl radical and
induction of DNA damages, including
double-strand breaks
1
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Competence (biology) - Hypothesis of repair of DNA damage
1
pneumophila and further suggested that
competence for transformation evolved as
a response to DNA damage.
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Glyphosate - Genetic damage
1
Several studies have not found
mutagen|mutagenic
effectsToxNet
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Electromagnetic radiation - Molecular damage from ultraviolet
These properties of high-frequency
EMR are due to quantum effects which
cause permanent damage to materials
and tissues at the single molecular
level.
1
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Electromagnetic radiation - Ionization and extreme types of molecular damage
from X-rays and gamma rays
At the higher end of the ultraviolet
range, the energy of photons becomes
large enough to impart enough energy
to electrons to cause them to be
liberated from the atom, in a process
called photoionisation
1
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Electromagnetic radiation - Ionization and extreme types of molecular damage
from X-rays and gamma rays
1
It is this type of damage which causes
these types of radiation to be
especially carefully monitored, due to
their hazard, even at comparatively
low-energies, to all living organisms.
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Damask
'Damask' () is a reversible figured
cloth|fabric of silk, wool, linen, cotton,
or synthetic fibres, with a pattern
formed by weaving. Damasks are
woven with one warp (weaving)|warp
yarn and one weft yarn, usually with the
pattern in warp-faced satin weave and
the ground in weft-faced or sateen
weave. 'Twill damasks' include a twillwoven ground or pattern.Kadolph 2007,
p. 251Monnas 2008, p. 295
1
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Damask - History
1
The production of damask used one of the
five basic weaving techniques of the
Byzantine silk|Byzantine and Islamic
weaving centres of the early Middle
Ages.The five weaves were damask, plain
weave|tabby, twill, lampas and tapestry.
See Jenkins 2003, p. 343. Damasks
derive their name from the city of
Damascus - in that period a large city
active both in trading (as part of the silk
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Damask - History
[
http://www.periodhomeandgarden.co.uk/fu
rnishings/fabric/id/1248/what-is-damaskfabric.aspx What is Damask Fabric, Period
Home and Garden]
1
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Damask - History
and in manufacture. Damasks became
scarce after the ninth century outside of AlAndalus|Islamic Spain, but were revived in
some places in the thirteenth century.
1
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Damask - History
1
The word damask first appeared in
records in a Western European
language in the mid-14th century in
French.
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Damask - History
1
Medieval damasks were usually woven in silk, but
weavers also produced wool and linen damasks.
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Damask - Modern uses
1
Damask weaves appear most commonly in table
linens and furnishing fabrics, but also in
clothing.
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Rechargeable battery - Damage from cell reversal
Subjecting a discharged cell to a
current in the direction which tends to
discharge it further, rather than charge
it, is called reverse charging.
1
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Rechargeable battery - Damage from cell reversal
1
Generally, pushing current through a
discharged cell in this way causes
undesirable and irreversible chemical
reactions to occur, resulting in
permanent damage to the cell.
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Rechargeable battery - Damage from cell reversal
1
Reverse charging can occur under a number of
circumstances, the two most common being:
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Rechargeable battery - Damage from cell reversal
1
* When a battery or cell is connected to a
charging circuit the wrong way around.
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Rechargeable battery - Damage from cell reversal
1
In the latter case, the problem occurs due
to the different cells in a battery having
slightly different capacities.
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Rechargeable battery - Damage from cell reversal
1
When one cell reaches discharge level
ahead of the rest, the remaining cells
will force the current through the
discharged cell.
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Rechargeable battery - Damage from cell reversal
1
Many battery-operated devices have a
low-voltage cutoff that prevents deep
discharges from occurring that might
cause cell reversal.
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Rechargeable battery - Damage from cell reversal
1
Cell reversal can occur to a weakly charged cell
even before it is fully discharged.
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Rechargeable battery - Damage from cell reversal
1
If the battery drain current is high enough,
the cell's internal resistance can create a
resistive voltage drop that is greater than
the cell's forward electromotive force|emf.
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Rechargeable battery - Damage from cell reversal
This results in the reversal of the cell's
polarity while the current is
flowing.[http://books.google.com/books?id
=wbzWOllJSewCprintsec=frontcoverdq=S
olid+state+batteries+By+C.+A.+C.+Sequei
ra,+North+Atlantic+Treaty+Organization.+
Scientific+Affairs+Divisionsource=blots=M
BrPmXQOw2sig=8zxsdC6UW0JJLbKuD8
ccouk0sh8hl=enei=BWDLTODcBMyWnwe
KvOjMDwsa=Xoi=book_resultct=resultres
1
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Rechargeable battery - Damage from cell reversal
1
The higher the required discharge rate of a
battery, the better matched the cells
should be, both in kind of cell and state of
charge, in order to reduce the chances of
cell reversal.
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Rechargeable battery - Damage from cell reversal
In some situations (such as when
correcting Ni-Cad batteries that have been
previously
overchargedhttp://www.repairfaq.org/ELE/
F_NiCd_Memory.html), it may be desirable
to fully discharge a battery.
1
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Rechargeable battery - Damage from cell reversal
each cell is individually discharged by
connecting a load clip across the terminals
of each cell, thereby avoiding cell reversal.
1
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Rechargeable battery - Damage during storage in fully discharged state
If a multi-cell battery is fully
discharged, it will often be damaged
due to the cell reversal effect
mentioned above.
1
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Rechargeable battery - Damage during storage in fully discharged state
1
It is possible however to fully discharge a
battery without causing cell reversal-either by discharging each cell separately,
or by allowing each cell's internal leakage
to dissipate its charge over time.
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Rechargeable battery - Damage during storage in fully discharged state
Even if a cell is brought to a fully
discharged state without reversal,
however, damage may occur over time
simply due to remaining in the discharged
state. An example of this is the Lead–
acid_battery#Sulfation_and_desulfation|su
lfation that occurs in lead-acid batteries
that are left sitting on a shelf for long
periods.
1
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Rechargeable battery - Damage during storage in fully discharged state
1
Since damage may also occur if the
battery is overcharged, the optimal
level of charge during storage is
typically around 30% to 70%.
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Damaged good
'Crippleware' has been
defined in realms of both
software and hardware
1
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Damaged good
1
In hackers' jargon, an 'antifeature' is
functionality that a technology
developer will charge users to not
include, for example copy-protection,
and Like blackmail, users can
sometimes pay technology providers
to not include an antifeature in their
technology.http://www.fsf.org/bulleti
n/2007/fall/antifeatures/
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Damaged good - Computer software
Deliberately limited programs are usually
freeware versions of software|computer
programs that lack the most advanced (or
even crucial) features of the original
computer program|program. Limited versions
are made available in order to increase the
popularity of the full program without giving it
away free. An example is a word processor
that cannot save or print. However,
crippleware programs can also differentiate
between tiers of paying software customers.
1
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Damaged good - Computer software
1
The term crippleware is sometimes used
to describe software products whose
functions have been limited (or
cripple|crippled) with the sole purpose of
encouraging or requiring the user to pay
for those functions (either by paying a onetime fee or an on-going subscription fee).
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Damaged good - Computer software
1
Try-before-you-buy applications are very
prevalent for mobile devices, with the
additional damaged good of ad-displays
as well as all of the other forms of
damaged-good applications.
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Damaged good - Computer software
1
From an Open Source software providers
perspective, there is the model of open
core which includes a feature-limited
version of the product and an open core
version. The feature-limited version can be
used widely like MySQL, Eucalyptus.
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Damaged good - Computer software
Several types of deliberately limited
programs exist. The vendor includes a
clause that features time limits to mar
functionality. For example, the freeware
version of Fraps has in-game video
recording time restricted to 30
seconds, and with a Fraps logo on the
video.
1
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Damaged good - Computer hardware
1
This product differentiation strategy has also
been used in hardware products:
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Damaged good - Computer hardware
1
* The Intel 486SX which was a 486DX with
the Floating point unit|FPU removed or in
early versions present but disabled.
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Damaged good - Computer hardware
*AMD disables defective cores on their
quad-core AMD Phenom|Phenom and
Phenom II X4 processor dies to make
cheaper triple-core Phenom and Phenom
II X3 and dual-core X2 models without the
expense of designing new chips
1
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Damaged good - Computer hardware
1
*Casio fx-82es scientific calculator has the
same Read-only memory|ROM as fx991es, but some functions are disabled.
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Damaged good - Computer hardware
1
*Apple announcing it would charge $4.99
in order to enable 802.11n functionality on
some devices in
2007http://www.engadget.com/2007/01/15
/apple-holds-802-11n-capabilitieshostage/[http://gigaom.com/2007/01/16/wa
nt_80211n_in_/ Want 802.11n in your Mac
to work? For you: only $4.99] (fee later
reduced to
$1.99)http://www.zdnet.com/blog/hardware
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Damaged good - Computer hardware
*the more recent Intel Upgrade Service
(2010-2011), which allowed select types of
processors to be upgraded via a software
activation code, has also been criticized in
such terms.
1
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Damaged good - Digital rights management
Digital rights management is another
example of this product differentiation
strategy. Digital files are inherently
capable of being copied perfectly in
unlimited quantities; digital rights
management aims to remove the (from the
producer's viewpoint) excess utility to the
user from this capability by using hardware
or cryptographic techniques to limit
copying or playback.
1
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Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change - Comparison with climate
damages
Arrow analysed the Stern Review's
conclusions by looking at the Review's
central estimate of GHG stabilisation
costs of 1% GNP, and high-end climate
damages of 20% GNP (Arrow, 2007a,
pp.4–5)
1
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Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change - Comparison with climate damages
To measure the benefit of Stern's
mitigation target, the residual climate
damages from mitigation would need
to be subtracted from Stern's
business-as-usual climate damages.
1
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Wind - Related damage
1
The Saffir-Simpson scale and Enhanced
Fujita scale were designed to help
estimate wind speed from the damage
caused by high winds related to tropical
cyclones and tornadoes, and vice versa.
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Wind - Related damage
Australia's Barrow Island (Western
Australia)|Barrow Island holds the record
for the strongest wind gust, reaching
408km/h (253mph) during tropical cyclone
Olivia on 10 April 1996, surpassing the
previous record of 372km/h (231mph) set
on Mount Washington (New Hampshire)
on the afternoon of 12 April 1934
1
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Wind - Related damage
Wildfire intensity
increases during daytime
hours
1
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Environmental damage
'Environmental degradation' is the
deterioration of the environment
(biophysical)|environment through
depletion of resources such as air, water
and soil; the destruction of ecosystems
and the extinction of wildlife
1
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Environmental damage
1
Environmental degradation is one of the
Ten Threats officially cautioned by the
High Level Threat Panel of the United
Nations
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Environmental damage - Water deterioration
One major component of
environmental degradation is the
depletion of the resource of fresh
water on Earth
1
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Environmental damage - Water deterioration
The current top three uses of fresh
water account for 95% of its
consumption; approximately 85% is
used for irrigation of farmland, golf
courses, and parks, 6% is used for
domestic purposes such as indoor
bathing uses and outdoor garden and
lawn use, and 4% is used for industrial
purposes such as processing,
washing, and cooling in
1
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Environmental damage - Climate change and precipitation
1
A rise in global temperatures is also
predicted to correlate with an
increase in global precipitation, but
because of increased runoff, floods,
increased rates of soil erosion, and
mass movement of land, a decline in
water quality is probable, while water
will carry more nutrients, it will also
carry more contaminants.
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Environmental damage - Climate change and precipitation
1
While most of the attention about climate
change is directed towards global warming
and greenhouse effect, some of the most
severe effects of climate change are likely
to be from changes in precipitation,
evapotranspiration, runoff, and soil
moisture. It is generally expected that, on
average, global precipitation will increase,
with some areas receiving increases and
some decreases.
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Environmental damage - Climate change and precipitation
1
Climate models show that while some
regions should expect an increase in
precipitation, such as in the tropics and
higher latitudes, other areas are
expected to see a decrease, such as in
the subtropics; this will ultimately
cause a latitudinal variation in water
distribution
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Environmental damage - Climate change and precipitation
1
Changes in precipitation affect the
timing and magnitude of floods and
droughts, shift runoff processes, and
alter groundwater recharge rates
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Environmental damage - Population growth
1
The available fresh water being affected
by climate is also being stretched across
an ever-increasing global population
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Environmental damage - Population growth
An increased population means
increased withdrawals from the water
supply for domestic, agricultural, and
industrial uses, the largest of these
being agriculture,MacDonald, Glen
M
1
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Environmental damage - Population growth
Population increase over the last two
decades, at least in the United States, has
also been accompanied by a shift to an
increase in urban areas from rural
areas,Wallach, Bret
1
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Windshield - Repair of stone-chip and crack damage
According to the US National
Windshield Repair Association many
types of stone damage can be
successfully repaired. Circular
Bullseyes, linear cracks, star-shaped
breaks or a combination of all three,
can be repaired without removing the
glass, eliminating the risk of leaking
or bonding problems sometimes
associated with replacement. Repair
1
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Windshield - Repair of stone-chip and crack damage
In cracked windshield repair, air is
removed from the damaged area on
the windshield with a specified
vacuum injection pump. Then using
the injection pump, clear adhesive
resin is injected to replace the air in
the windshield crack. The resin is then
cured with an ultraviolet light. When
done properly, the damaged area’s
strength is restored, as is 90–95% of
1
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Anti-virus - Damaged files
Files which have been damaged by
computer viruses are normally damaged
beyond recovery. Anti-virus software
removes the virus code from the file during
disinfection, but this does not always
restore the file to its undamaged state. In
such circumstances, damaged files can
only be restored from existing backups;
installed software that is damaged
requires re-installation (however, see
System File Checker).
1
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Degauss - Irreversible damage to some media types
Many forms of generic magnetic
storage media can be reused after
degaussing, including audio reel-toreel tape, VHS videocassettes, and
floppy disks. These older media types
are simply a raw medium which are
overwritten with fresh new patterns,
created by fixed-alignment read/write
heads.
1
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Degauss - Irreversible damage to some media types
For certain forms of computer data
storage, however, such as modern
hard drives and some tape backup
drives, degaussing renders the
magnetic media completely unusable
and damages the storage system
1
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Degauss - Irreversible damage to some media types
1
The servo patterns are normally never
overwritten by the device for any
reason and are used to precisely
position the read/write heads over
data tracks on the media, to
compensate for sudden jarring device
movements, thermal expansion, or
changes in orientation
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Tortious interference - Damages
Typical legal damages for tortious
interference include economic losses,
if they can be proven with certainty,
and mental distress. Additionally
punitive damages may be awarded if
malice on the part of the wrongdoer
can be established.
1
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Tortious interference - Damages
Equitable remedies may include
injunctive relief in the form of a
negative injunction that would be used
to prevent the wrongdoer from
benefiting from any contractual
relationship that may arise out of the
interference, i.e., the performance of
a singer who was originally
contracted with the plaintiff to
perform at the same time.
1
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Damages
In law, 'damages' are an award,
typically of money, to be paid to a
person as compensation for loss or
injury.International principle:
[http://www.trans-lex.org/946000
Trans-Lex.org], Garner, p.416 The
rules for damages can and frequently
do vary based on the type of claim
which is presented (e.g., breach of
contract versus a tort claim) and the
1
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Damages
At common law, damages are
categorized into compensatory
damages and punitive damages.
Compensatory damages are further
categorized into special damages,
which are economic losses such as
loss of earnings, property damage and
medical expenses, and general
damages, which are noneconomic
damages such as pain and suffering
1
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Damages - Compensatory or expectation damages
1
Compensatory damages, called 'actual
damages', are paid to compensate the
claimant for loss, injury, or harm
suffered as a result of (see requirement
of causation in English law|causation)
another's breach of duty. (e.g., in a
negligence claim under tort law).
Expectation damages are used in
contract law.
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Damages - Breach of contract duty - (ex contractu)
On a breach of contract by a
defendant, a court generally awards
the sum that would restore the injured
party to the economic position they
expected from performance of the
promise or promises (known as an
Expectation damages|expectation
measure or benefit-of-the-bargain
measure of damages).
1
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Damages - Breach of contract duty - (ex contractu)
When it is either not possible or not
desirable to award the victim in that way, a
court may award money damages
designed to restore the injured party to the
economic position s/he occupied at the
time the contract was entered (known as
the Reliance damages (law)|reliance
measure), or designed to prevent the
breaching party from being unjustly
enriched (restitution) (see below).
1
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Damages - Breach of contract duty - (ex contractu)
1
Courts have ruled as excessive and
invalidated damages which the parties
contracted as liquidated, but which the
court nonetheless found to be penal.
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Damages - Breach of tort duty - (ex delicto)
1
Damages in tort are generally awarded to
place the claimant in the position that
would have been taken had the tort not
taken place. Damages in tort are
quantified under two headings: general
damages and special damages.
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Damages - Breach of tort duty - (ex delicto)
In non-personal injury claims, for
instance, a claim for professional
negligence against solicitors, the
measure of damages will be assessed
by the loss suffered by the client due
to the negligent act or omission by the
solicitor giving rise to the loss
1
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Damages - General damages
1
Judges in the United Kingdom base the award on
damages awarded in similar previous cases
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Damages - General damages
1
General damages are generally awarded
only in claims brought by individuals, when
they have suffered personal harm.
Examples would be personal injury
(following the tort of negligence by the
defendant), or the tort of defamation.
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Damages - Speculative damages
1
Speculative damages are damages that
have not yet occurred, but the plaintiff
expects them to. Typically, these damages
cannot be recovered unless the plaintiff
can prove that they are reasonably likely
to occur.
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Damages - Quantification of personal injury claims
1
The quantification of personal injury is
not an exact science. In English law
solicitors like to call personal injury
claims as “general damages” for pain
and suffering and loss of amenity
(PSLA). Solicitors quantify personal
injury claims by reference to previous
awards made by the courts which are
“similar” to the case in hand. The
guidance solicitors will take into
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Damages - Quantification of personal injury claims
The age of the client is important
especially when dealing with fatal accident
claims or permanent injuries. The younger
the injured victim with a permanent injury
the longer that person has to live with the
PSLA. As a consequence, the greater the
compensation payment. In fatal accident
claims, generally the younger deceased,
the greater the dependency claim by the
partner and children.
1
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Damages - Quantification of personal injury claims
'2The nature and
extent of the injuries
sustained.'
1
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Damages - Quantification of personal injury claims
1
Solicitors must be careful when looking at
older cases when quantifying a claim to
ensure that the award is brought up to
date and to take into account the court of
appeal case in Heil v Rankin Generally
speaking the greater the injury the greater
the damages awarded.
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Damages - Quantification of personal injury claims
A quick guide to assess personal injury
claims is by reference to the Judicial
Studies Board Guidelines for the
Assessment of General Damages in
Personal Injury Cases
[http://ukcatalogue.oup.com/product/97801
99595334.do]. Some case examples can
also be considered
[http://workaccidents.org.uk/compensation
-claims/]
1
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Damages - Quantification of personal injury claims
1
Generally speaking damages for personal injury
for males and females are the same
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Damages - Quantification of personal injury claims
1
'4 Personal attributes and
fortitude of the client'
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Damages - Quantification of personal injury claims
It is important to note here that
“psychological injuries” may also follow
from an accident which may increase the
quantum of damages.
1
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Damages - Quantification of personal injury claims
1
When a personal injury claim is settled
either in court or out of court, the most
common way the compensation
payment is made is by a lump sum
award in full and final settlement of the
claim. Once accepted there can be no
further award for compensation at a
later time unless the claim is settled by
provisional damages often found in
industrial injury claims such as
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Damages - Special damages
Special damages compensate the
claimant for the quantifiable monetary
losses suffered by the plaintiff. For
example, extra costs, repair or
replacement of damaged property, lost
earnings (both historically and in the
future), loss of irreplaceable items,
additional domestic costs, and so on. They
are seen in both personal and commercial
actions.
1
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Damages - Special damages
1
Special damages can include direct
losses (such as amounts the claimant
had to spend to try to migiration
(law)|mitigateThere is a duty to
mitigate losses [http://www.translex.org/949000 Trans-Lex.org]
problems) and consequential or
economic losses resulting from lost
profits in a business. Special damages
basically include the compensatory
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Damages - Special damages
1
Damages in tort are awarded generally
to place the claimant in the position in
which he would have been had the tort
not taken place. Damages for breach of
contract are generally awarded to place
the claimant in the position in which he
would have been had the contract not
been breached. This can often result in a
different measure of damages. In cases
where it is possible to frame a claim in
either contract or tort, it is necessary to
be aware of what gives the best outcome.
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Damages - Special damages
1
If the transaction was a good bargain contract
generally gives a better result for the claimant.
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Damages - Special damages
1
(However, she would have to return the watch, or
else her damages would be £50.)
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Damages - Special damages
If the transaction were a bad bargain, tort
gives a better result for the claimant. If in the
above example Mary had overpaid, paying
£750 for the watch, her damages in contract
would still be £450 (giving him the item he
contracted to buy), however in tort damages
are £700. This is because damages in tort
put her in the position she would have been
in had the tort not taken place, and are
calculated as her money back (£750) less the
value of what she actually got (£50).
1
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Damages - Incidental and consequential losses
1
Special damages are sometimes divided into
incidental damages, and consequential
damages.
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Damages - Incidental and consequential losses
1
Incidental losses include the costs needed
to remedy problems and put things right.
The largest element is likely to be the
reinstatement of property damage. Take
for example a factory which was burnt
down by the negligence of a contractor.
The claimant would be entitled to the
direct costs required to rebuild the factory
and replace the damaged machinery.
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Damages - Incidental and consequential losses
The claimant may also be entitled to
any consequential losses. These may
include the lost profits that the claimant
could have been expected to make in
the period whilst the factory was closed
and rebuilt.
1
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Damages - Proximate cause
1
Damages are likely to be limited to those
reasonably foreseeable by the defendant
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Damages - Proximate cause
This rule does not usually apply to
intentional torts (for example, deceit), and
also has stunted applicability to the
quantum in negligence where the maxim
Intended consequences are never too
remote applies'never' is inaccurate here
but resorts to unforeseeable direct and
natural consequences of an act.
1
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Damages - Quantifying losses in practiceexpert evidence
1
It may be useful for the lawyers for the
plaintiff and/or the defendant to
employ forensic accounting|forensic
accountants or forensic
economics|forensic economists to
give evidence on the value of the loss.
In this case, they may be called upon
to give opinion evidence as an expert
witness.
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Damages - History
1
Among the Anglo-Saxons|Saxons, a price
called Weregild was placed on every
human being and every piece of property
in the Salic Code. If property was stolen,
or someone was injured or killed, the guilty
person would have to pay weregild as
restitution to the victim's family or to the
owner of the property
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Medical malpractice - Damages
1
Punitive damages are only awarded in the event of
wanton and reckless conduct.
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Medical malpractice - Damages
Furthermore, damages are routinely
assessed based on losses which would
hypothetically accrue after the act of
suicide.AJ Giannini, MC Giannini, AE
Slaby
1
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Conversion (law) - Special damages
When the conversion occurs, the
injured party should receive full
compensation for actual losses.
Special damages may be recovered in
an action for conversion for any injury
proximately resulting from the
conversion. The Restatement (Second)
of Torts indicates these damages can
consist of:Restatement (Second) of
Torts § 927(2)
1
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Conversion (law) - Special damages
1
* the additional value of a chattel due to
additions or improvements made by the
converter not in good faith.
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Conversion (law) - Special damages
1
* the amount of any further pecuniary loss of
which the deprivation has been a legal cause.
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Conversion (law) - Special damages
1
* interest from the time at which the
value was fixed.
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Conversion (law) - Special damages
1
* compensation for the
loss of use not
otherwise
compensated.
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Conversion (law) - Special damages
It is a generally recognized rule that
interest lost from the conversion is
recoverable. Loss of rental value can be
considered as interest.36 A.L.R.2d 337 §§
23[1], 26[a]
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Hydrogen damage
1
'Hydrogen damage' is the generic name
given to a large number of metal
degradation processes due to interaction
with hydrogen.
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Hydrogen damage
1
This article consists of a classification
of hydrogen damage, brief description
of the various processes and their
mechanisms, and some guidelines for
the control of hydrogen damage.
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Hydrogen damage - Importance
1
Hydrogen Energy, 6 (1981), 223
Materials’ problems caused by
hydrogen damage could limit the
progress of such an economy.
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Hydrogen damage - Importance
1
Hydrogen may be picked up by metals
during melting, casting, shaping and
fabrication. They are also exposed to
hydrogen during their service life.
Materials susceptible to hydrogen
damage have ample opportunities to
be degraded during all these stages.
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Hydrogen damage - Classifications
1
Hydrogen damage may be of four types:
solid solution hardening, creation of
internal defects, hydride embrittlement,
and hydrogen embrittlement.T. K. G.
Namboodhiri, Trans. Indian Inst. Metals,
37(1984), 764 Each of these may further
be classified into the various damaging
processes.
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Hydrogen damage - Solid solution hardening
Metals like niobium and tantalum
dissolve hydrogen and experience
hardening and embrittlement at
concentrations much below their solid
solubility limit.B. A. Kolachev,
Hydrogen embrittlement of nonferrous metals, Translated from
Russian, Israel Program for scientific
translations, (1968) The hardening and
embrittlement are enhanced by
1
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Hydrogen damage - Hydride embrittlement
1
In hydride forming metals like titanium,
zirconium and vanadium, hydrogen
absorption causes severe embrittlement
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Hydrogen damage - Creation of internal defects
Hydrogen present in metals can
produce several kinds of internal
defects like blisters, shatter fracture,
flakes, fish-eyes and porosity. Carbon
steels exposed to hydrogen at high
temperatures experience hydrogen
attack which leads to internal
decarburization and weakening.G. A.
Nelson, in Hydrogen Damage, C. D.
Beachem (Ed.), American Society for
1
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Hydrogen damage - Blistering
1
Atomic hydrogen diffusing through metals
may collect at internal defects like
inclusions and laminations and form
molecular hydrogen. High pressures may
be built up at such locations due to
continued absorption of hydrogen leading
to blister formation, growth and eventual
bursting of the blister. Such hydrogen
induced blister cracking has been
observed in steels, aluminium alloys,
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Hydrogen damage - Shatter cracks, flakes, fish-eyes and micro perforations
1
Flakes and shatter cracks
are internal fissures seen
in large forgings
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Hydrogen damage - Porosity
1
In metals like iron, steel, aluminium, and
magnesium, whose hydrogen solubilities
increase with increasing temperature,
liberation of excess hydrogen during
cooling from the melt, (in ingots and
castings) produces hydrogen gas porosity.
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Hydrogen damage - Hydrogen embrittlement
1
By far, the most damaging effect of
hydrogen in structural materials is
hydrogen embrittlement. Materials
susceptible to this process exhibit a
marked decrease in their energy
absorption ability before fracture in
the presence of hydrogen. This
phenomenon is also known as
hydrogen-assisted cracking,
hydrogen-induced blister cracking.
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Hydrogen damage - Hydrogen stress cracking
1
Brittle delayed failure of normally ductile
materials when hydrogen is present within
is called hydrogen stress cracking or
internal hydrogen embrittlement. This
effect is seen in high strength structural
steels, titanium alloys and aluminium
alloys.
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Hydrogen damage - Hydrogen environment embrittlement
Embrittlement of materials when
tensile loaded in contact with gaseous
hydrogen is known as hydrogen
environment embrittlement or
external hydrogen embrittlement. It
has been observed in alloy steels and
alloys of nickel, titanium, uranium
and niobium.
1
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Hydrogen damage - Loss in tensile ductility
1
Hydrogen lowers tensile ductility in many
materials. In ductile materials, like
austenitic stainless steels and aluminium
alloys, no marked embrittlement may
occur, but may exhibit significant lowering
in tensile ductility (% elongation or %
reduction in area) in tensile tests.
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Hydrogen damage - Degradation of other mechanical properties
1
Hydrogen may also affect the plastic flow
behaviour of metals. Increased or
decreased yield strengths, serrated
yielding, altered work hardening rates as
well as lowered fatigue and creep have
been reported.
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Hydrogen damage - Control of hydrogen damage
Control of the environment and
metallurgical control of the material
to decrease its susceptibility to
hydrogen are the two major
approaches to reduce hydrogen
damage.
1
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Hydrogen damage - Detection of hydrogen damage
1
There are various methods of adequately
identifying and monitoring hydrogen
damage, including ultrasonic echo
attenuation method, amplitude-based
backscatter, velocity ratio, creeping
waves/time-of-flight measurement, pitchcatch mode shear wave velocity,
advanced ultrasonic backscatter
techniques (AUBT), Time of flight
diffraction ultrasonics|time of flight
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Negligence - Damages
1
Damages place a monetary value on
the harm done, following the principle
of restitutio in integrum (Latin for
restoration to the original condition).
Thus, for most purposes connected
with the quantification of damages, the
degree of culpability in the breach of
the duty of care is irrelevant. Once the
breach of the duty is established, the
only requirement is to compensate the
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Negligence - Damages
1
The test is self-explanatory: would a
reasonable person (as determined by
a judge or jury) be damaged by the
breach of duty
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Negligence - Damages
1
Damages are compensatory in nature.
Compensatory damages addresses a
plaintiff/claimant's losses (in cases
involving physical or mental injury the
amount awarded also compensates for
pain and suffering). The award should
make the plaintiff whole, sufficient to put
the plaintiff back in the position he or she
was before Defendant's negligent act.
Anything more would unlawfully permit a
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Negligence - Damages
* Special damages - quantifiable dollar
losses suffered from the date of
defendant's negligent act (the tort) up to a
specified time (proven at trial). Special
damage examples include lost wages,
medical bills, and damage to property
such as one's car.
1
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Negligence - Damages
* General damages - these are
damages that are not quantified in
monetary terms (e.g., there's no
invoice or receipt as there would be to
prove special damages). A general
damage example is an amount for the
pain and suffering one experiences
from a car collision. Lastly, where the
plaintiff proves only minimal loss or
damage, or the court or jury is unable
1
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Negligence - Damages
1
* Punitive damages - Punitive damages
are to punish a defendant, rather than to
compensate plaintiffs, in negligence
cases. In most jurisdictions punitive
damages are recoverable in a negligence
action, but only if the plaintiff shows that
the defendant’s conduct was more than
ordinary negligence (i.e., wanton and
willful or reckless).
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Trover - Damaged chattel returned
1
No action could lay when a chattel was
returned, but in a damaged condition.
In 1478, Catesby said, And in the same
manner I deliver my robes to you to
keep for me and you wear them so that
they perish, I shall have an action of
detinue for in these cases the property
is not altered, and afterwards an
action on the case and recover
damages for the loss sustained by
your using the clothes.Year Book 18
Edward IV, H., f. 23, pl. 5
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Ion implantation - Crystallographic damage
Each individual ion produces many
crystallographic defect|point defects in
the target crystal on impact such as
vacancies and interstitials. Vacancies
are crystal lattice points unoccupied by
an atom: in this case the ion collides
with a target atom, resulting in transfer
of a significant amount of energy to the
target atom such that it leaves its
crystal site. This target atom then itself
1
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Ion implantation - Crystallographic damage
1
Interstitials result when such atoms (or the
original ion itself) come to rest in the solid,
but find no vacant space in the lattice to
reside. These point defects can migrate
and cluster with each other, resulting in
dislocation loops and other defects.
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Ion implantation - Damage recovery
Because ion implantation causes
damage to the crystal structure of the
target which is often unwanted, ion
implantation processing is often
followed by a thermal annealing. This
can be referred to as damage
recovery.
1
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Cyberbullying - Intimidation, Emotional Damage, Suicide
According to the Cyberbullying
Research Center, there have been
several high‐profile cases involving
teenagers taking their own lives in
part because of being harassed and
mistreated over the Internet, a
phenomenon we have termed
cyberbullicide – suicide indirectly or
directly influenced by experiences
with online aggression.
1
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Cyberbullying - Intimidation, Emotional Damage, Suicide
Cyberbullying is an intense form of
psychological abuse, whose victims are
more than twice as likely to suffer from
mental disorders compared to traditional
bullying.
1
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Cyberbullying - Intimidation, Emotional Damage, Suicide
The reluctance youth have in telling an
authority figure about instances of
cyberbullying has led to fatal outcomes. At
least three children between the ages of
12 and 13 have committed suicide due to
depression brought on by cyberbullying,
according to reports by USA Today and
the Baltimore Examiner. These would
include the suicide of Ryan Halligan and
the suicide of Megan Meier, the latter of
1
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Cyberbullying - Intimidation, Emotional Damage, Suicide
1
More recently, teenage suicides tied
to cyberbullying have become more
prevalent. The latest victim of
cyberbullying through the use of
mobile applications was Rebecca Ann
Sedwick, who committed suicide after
being terrorized through mobile
applications such as Ask.fm, Kik|Kik
Messenger and Voxer.
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2011 England riots - Property and business damage
1
At least 100 homes were destroyed in the
arson and
looting.[http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2011
/aug/11/families-homeless-riotscompensated Families made homeless by
riots will be compensated], The Guardian,
Thursday 11 August 2011 Shopkeepers
estimated the damages in their Tottenham
Hale and Tottenham branches at several
million pounds
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2011 England riots - Property and business damage
The Association of British Insurers
said they expect the industry to pay
out in excess of £200million.
Estimated losses in London were
indicated to be in the region of £100m.
1
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2011 England riots - Property and business damage
1
Initially, because millions of items of
stock were lost, including most of
PIAS's inventory, it was thought that
long-term damage to the British
independent music industry might
result
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2011 England riots - Property and business damage
1
The Financial Times reported that an
analysis showed that 48,000 local
businesses – shops, restaurants, pubs
and clubs – had suffered financial
losses as a result of the looting and
rioting in English streets.
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Speech perception - Brain Damage
1
Speech Perception with
Acquired Brain
Disabilities
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Speech perception - Brain Damage
The first ever hypothesis of speech
perception were used with patients
who acquired an auditory
comprehension deficit, also known as
Receptive aphasia | Receptive
Aphasia
1
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Speech perception - Brain Damage
In the early years, they were
more interested in the acoustics
of speech
1
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Speech perception - Brain Damage
1
Aphasia: There are two different kinds
of aphasic patients: Expressive
aphasia | Expressive Aphasia (also
known as Broca's Aphasia) and
Receptive aphasia | Receptive
Aphasia (also known as Wernicke’s
Aphasia). There are three distinctive
dimensions to phonetics: manner of
articulation, place of articulation, and
voicing.
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Speech perception - Brain Damage
1
Expressive aphasia: Patients who
suffer from this condition typically
have lesions on their left inferior
frontal cortex
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Speech perception - Brain Damage
1
Receptive Aphasia: The patients suffer
from lesions or damage located in the left
temproparietal lobe
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Speech perception - Brain Damage
1
This disease attacks the
brain and makes the
patients unable to stop
shaking
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Speech perception - Brain Damage
1
A group of psychologists conducted a
study to test the McGurk effect with
Aphasia patients and speech reading
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Speech perception - Brain Damage
1
There are quite a few drug therapies that are
possible for Parkinson’s disease (ex
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Saab Automobile - 2012 - $3 billion damages claim
1
On 6 August 2012, Spyker, represented by
the law firm Patton Boggs filed a lawsuit
against General Motors in the United
States District Court of the Eastern District
of Michigan claiming US$31000000000
(number)|billion in damages for the actions
GM took in the fall of 2011 to stop the
various proposed deals between Spyker
and Youngman concerning Saab
Automobile where Youngman claimed to
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Saab Automobile - 2012 - $3 billion damages claim
1
To solve this issue, Spyker and Youngman
came up with a deal where Youngman
would provide Saab with a loan of €200
million which would be converted into an
equity interest in Saab only after Saab
ceased using GM technology in its
vehicles. Despite this, GM maintained that
it would still refuse licensing of platforms
and technology needed for production of
Saab cars in Trollhättan and also
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Saab Automobile - 2012 - $3 billion damages claim
1
Consequently, the deal finally collapsed and
Saab was forced to file for bankruptcy
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September 11 Attacks - Damage
1
The two buildings of the World
Financial Center also suffered
damage.
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September 11 Attacks - Damage
World Financial Center buildings, One
Liberty Plaza, the Millenium Hilton, and 90
Church Street had moderate damage and
have since been restored.World Trade
Center Building Performance Study–
Peripheral Buildings, pp
1
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September 11 Attacks - Damage
1
The Pentagon was severely damaged
by the impact of American Airlines
Flight 77 and ensuing fires, causing
one section of the building to
collapse.The Pentagon Building
Performance Report, pp
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InterCity 125 - Damaged vehicles and accidents
In all cases, the damage was to the
leading power car - the trailing end
power cars at the other end of the HST
set suffered only limited or no damage,
and were returned to service
1
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Crisis management - Containment and damage control
1
Usually the most vivid stage, the goal
of crisis containment and damage
control is to limit the reputational,
financial, safety, and other threats to
firm survival. Crisis handlers work
diligently during this stage to bring
the crisis to an end as quickly as
possible to limit the negative publicity
to the organization, and move into the
business recovery phase.
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Steel - Wootz steel and Damascus steel
1
Evidence of the earliest production of
high carbon steel in the Indian
Subcontinent was found in
Samanalawewa area in Sri Lanka
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Steel - Wootz steel and Damascus steel
1
Along with their original methods of forging
steel, the Chinese had also adopted the
production methods of creating Wootz
steel, an idea imported into China from
India by the 5th century AD.Needham,
Volume 4, Part 1, p. 282. In Sri Lanka, this
early steel-making method employed a
unique wind furnace, driven by the
monsoon winds, capable of producing
high-carbon steel.
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Steel - Wootz steel and Damascus steel
1
Also known as Damascus steel, wootz is
famous for its durability and ability to hold
an Sharpening|edge
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Steel - Wootz steel and Damascus steel
1
Crucible steel, formed by slowly heating and
cooling pure iron and carbon (typically in the
form of charcoal) in a crucible, was produced
in Merv by the 9th to 10th century AD. In the
11th century, there is evidence of the
production of steel in Song Dynasty|Song
China using two techniques: a berganesque
method that produced inferior,
inhomogeneous steel and a precursor to the
modern Bessemer process that used partial
decarbonization via repeated forging under a
cold blast.
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Rad-hard - Major radiation damage sources
Typical sources of exposure of
electronics to ionizing radiation are the
Van Allen radiation belts for satellites,
nuclear reactors in power plants for
sensors and control circuits, particle
accelerators for control electronics
particularly particle detector devices,
residual radiation from isotopes in Soft
error#Alpha particles from package
decay|chip packaging materials,
1
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Rad-hard - Major radiation damage sources
1
* Cosmic rays come from all directions
and consist of approximately 85%
protons, 14% alpha particles, and 1%
heavy ions, together with x-ray and
gamma-ray radiation. Most effects are
caused by particles with energies
between 108 and 2*1010
electronvolt|eV. The atmosphere filters
most of these, so they are primarily a
concern for spacecraft and highhttps://store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html
Rad-hard - Major radiation damage sources
* Coronal mass ejection|Solar particle
events come from the direction of the sun
and consist of a large flux of high-energy
(several GeV) protons and heavy ions,
again accompanied by x-ray radiation.
1
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Rad-hard - Major radiation damage sources
1
* Van Allen radiation belts contain
electrons (up to about 10 MeV) and
protons (up to 100s MeV) trapped in
the geomagnetic field. The particle
flux in the regions farther from the
Earth can vary wildly depending on
the actual conditions of the sun and
the magnetosphere. Due to their
position they pose a concern for
satellites.
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Rad-hard - Major radiation damage sources
* Secondary particles result from
interaction of other kinds of radiation
with structures around the electronic
devices.
1
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Rad-hard - Major radiation damage sources
* Nuclear reactors produce gamma
radiation and neutron radiation which can
affect sensor and control circuits in nuclear
power plants.
1
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Rad-hard - Major radiation damage sources
1
* Particle accelerators produce high
energy protons and electrons, and the
secondary particles produced by their
interactions product significant
radiation damage on sensitive control
and particle detector components, of
the order of magnitude of 10
MRad[Si]/year for systems such as
the Large Hadron Collider.
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Rad-hard - Major radiation damage sources
1
* Nuclear explosions produce a short
and extremely intense surge through a
wide spectrum of electromagnetic
radiation, an Nuclear electromagnetic
pulse|electromagnetic pulse (EMP),
neutron radiation, and a flux of both
primary and secondary charged
particles. In case of a nuclear war they
pose a potential concern for all civilian
and military electronics.
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Rad-hard - Major radiation damage sources
* Soft
error#Alpha_particles_from_package_d
ecay|Chip packaging materials were an
insidious source of radiation that was
found to be causing soft errors in new
DRAM chips in the 1970s
1
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Rad-hard - Digital damage: SEE
Single-event effects (SEE), mostly
affecting only Digital data|digital devices,
were not studied extensively until relatively
recently
1
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Rad-hard - Digital damage: SEE
1
They do not cause lasting damage to the
device, but may cause lasting problems to
a system which cannot recover from such
an error
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Rad-hard - Digital damage: SEE
1
* 'Single-event latchup (SEL)' can occur in any
chip with a thyristor|parasitic PNPN structure
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Rad-hard - Digital damage: SEE
1
* 'Single-event transient (SET)' happens
when the charge collected from an
ionization event discharges in the form of
a spurious signal traveling through the
circuit. This is de facto the effect of an
electrostatic discharge.
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Rad-hard - Digital damage: SEE
1
* 'Single-event snapback', similar to SEL
but not requiring the PNPN structure, can
be induced in N-channel MOS transistors
switching large currents, when an ion hits
near the drain junction and causes
avalanche breakdown|avalanche
multiplication of the charge carriers. The
transistor then opens and stays opened.
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Rad-hard - Digital damage: SEE
1
* 'Single-event induced burnout (SEB)'
may occur in power MOSFETs when
the substrate right under the source
region gets forward-biased and the
drain-source voltage is higher than
the breakdown voltage of the parasitic
structures. The resulting high current
and local overheating then may
destroy the device.
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Rad-hard - Digital damage: SEE
1
* 'Single-event gate rupture (SEGR)' was
observed in power MOSFETs when a
heavy ion hits the gate region while a
high voltage is applied to the gate. A
local breakdown then happens in the
insulating layer of silicon dioxide,
causing local overheat and destruction
(looking like a microscopic explosion) of
the gate region. It can occur even in
EEPROM cells during write or erase,
when the cells are subjected to a
comparatively high voltage.
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Space Shuttle Atlantis - Window damage
Subsequent investigation of the
window damage discovered a
maximum defect depth of
approximately , less than the
reportable depth threshold of and not
serious enough to warrant the pane’s
replacement.
1
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Uncontacted peoples - Andaman Islands, India
1
Two tribes of the Andaman Islands, in India, have
sought to avoid contact with the outside world.
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Electrostatic discharge - Damage prevention in electronics
Prevention of ESD
bases on
Electrostatic
Protective Area (EPA)
1
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Electrostatic discharge - Damage prevention in electronics
ESD prevention within an EPA may
include using appropriate ESD-safe
packing material, the use of conductive
filaments on garments worn by assembly
workers, conducting wrist straps and footstraps to prevent high voltages from
accumulating on workers' bodies,
Antistatic mat|anti-static mats or
conductive flooring materials to conduct
harmful electric charges away from the
1
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Electrostatic discharge - Damage prevention in electronics
Ion generators are sometimes used to
inject ions into the ambient airstream.
Ionization systems help to neutralize
charged surface regions on insulative or
dielectric materials. Insulating materials
prone to triboelectric charging should be
kept away from sensitive devices to
prevent accidental charging of devices
through induction. On aircraft, static
dischargers are used on the trailing edges
1
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Electrostatic discharge - Damage prevention in electronics
Manufacturers and users of integrated
circuits must take precautions to avoid
ESD. ESD prevention can be part of the
device itself and include special design
techniques for device input and output
pins. External protection components can
also be used with circuit layout.
1
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Electrostatic discharge - Damage prevention in electronics
1
Due to dielectric nature of electronics
component and assemblies,
electrostatic charging can not be
completely prevented during handling
of devices
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Microvision - ESD damage
1
A major design problem involves the fact
that the microprocessor (which is inside
the top of each cartridge) lacks
Electrostatic discharge|ESD protection
and is directly connected to the copper
pins which normally connect the cartridge
to the Microvision unit
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DNA damage (naturally occurring)
1
PMID 15123782 Naturally occurring
DNA damages arise more than 60,000
times per day per mammalian cell, as
documented below
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DNA damage (naturally occurring)
1
DNA damage is distinctly different from
mutation, although both are types of
error in DNA. DNA damage is an
abnormal chemical structure in DNA,
while a mutation is a change in the
sequence of standard base pairs.
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DNA damage (naturally occurring)
1
PMID 21600302 (Also see DNA damage
theory of aging.) In replicating cells, such
as cells lining the colon, errors occur upon
replication of past damages in the DNA
replication|template strand of DNA or
during repair of DNA damages
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DNA damage (naturally occurring) - DNA damages are a major problem for life
1
PMID 23103864 Genes homologous to
RecA and to other central genes in the
SOS response pathway are found in
almost all the bacterial genomes
sequenced to date, covering a large
number of phyla, suggesting both an
ancient origin and a widespread
occurrence of recombinational repair of
DNA damage.Erill I, Campoy S, Barbé J
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DNA damage (naturally occurring) - DNA damages are a major problem for life
1
Another indication that DNA damages are a
major problem for life is that cells make large
investments in DNA repair processes. As
pointed out by Hoeijmakers, repairing just
one double-strand break could require more
than 10,000 ATP molecules, as used in
signaling the presence of the damage, the
generation of repair foci, and the formation (in
humans) of the RAD51 nucleofilament (an
intermediate in homologous recombinational
repair). (RAD51 is a homologue of bacterial
RecA.)
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DNA damage (naturally occurring) - Frequencies of endogenous DNA damages
1
The list below shows some frequencies
with which new naturally occurring DNA
damages arise per day, due to
endogenous cellular processes.
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DNA damage (naturally occurring) - Frequencies of endogenous DNA damages
PMID: 20589166 specific
damages 8-oxoGua, 8-oxodG
plus 5-HMUra
1
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DNA damage (naturally occurring) - Frequencies of endogenous DNA damages
***74,00086,000Fraga CG, Shigenaga
MK, Park JW, Degan P, Ames BN.
Oxidative damage to DNA during aging: 8hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine in rat organ
DNA and urine. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A
1990;87(12) 4533-4537. PMID
2352934100,000
1
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DNA damage (naturally occurring) - Frequencies of endogenous DNA damages
1
***34,000 specific damages 8-oxoGua,
8-oxodG plus 5-HMUra47,000Hamilton
ML, Guo Z, Fuller CD, Van Remmen
H, Ward WF, Austad SN, Troyer DA,
Thompson I, Richardson A. (2001). A
reliable assessment of 8-oxo-2deoxyguanosine levels in nuclear and
mitochondrial DNA using the sodium
iodide method to isolate DNA. Nucleic
Acids Res 29(10):2117-2126. PMID:
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DNA damage (naturally occurring) - Frequencies of endogenous DNA damages
1
*Depurinations
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DNA damage (naturally occurring) - Frequencies of endogenous DNA damages
***2,000 to 10,000Lindahl T, Nyberg B.
(1972) Rate of depurination of native
deoxyribonucleic acid. Biochemistry 11(19)
3610-3618. PMID 4626532Lindahl T.
(1993) Instability and decay of the primary
structure of DNA. Nature 362(6422) 709715. PMID:
1
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DNA damage (naturally occurring) - Frequencies of endogenous DNA damages
1
84692829,000Nakam
ura J, Walker VE,
Upton PB, Chiang SY,
Kow YW, Swenberg
JA
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DNA damage (naturally occurring) - Frequencies of endogenous DNA damages
***10Haber JE. (1999) DNA
recombination: the replication connection.
Trends Biochem Sci 24(7) 271-275. PMID
1039061650Vilenchik MM, Knudson AG.
(2003) Endogenous DNA double-strand
breaks: production, fidelity of repair, and
induction of cancer. Proc Natl Acad Sci U
S A 100(22) 12871-12876. PMID
14566050
1
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DNA damage (naturally occurring) - Frequencies of endogenous DNA damages
1
*O6-methylguanines
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DNA damage (naturally occurring) - Frequencies of endogenous DNA damages
PMID 9748537 This points out that
some DNA damages produced at a low
rate may be difficult to repair and
remain in DNA at a high steady-state
level
1
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DNA damage (naturally occurring) - Steady-state levels of DNA damages
1
DNA damage accumulation with age is further
described in DNA damage theory of aging.
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DNA damage (naturally occurring) - Steady-state levels of DNA damages
Swenberg et al.Swenberg JA, Lu K,
Moeller BC, Gao L, Upton PB,
Nakamura J, Starr TB. (2011)
Endogenous versus exogenous DNA
adducts: their role in carcinogenesis,
epidemiology, and risk assessment.
Toxicol Sci. 120 Suppl 1:S130-45. PMID
21163908 measured average amounts
of selected steady state endogenous
DNA damages in mammalian cells.
1
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DNA damage (naturally occurring) - Steady-state levels of DNA damages
1
Evaluating steady-state damages in
specific tissues of the rat, Nakamura
and SwenbergNakamura J, Swenberg
JA. (1999) Endogenous
apurinic/apyrimidinic sites in
genomic DNA of mammalian tissues.
Cancer Res. 59(11):2522-2526. PMID
10363965 indicated that the number of
abasic sites varied from about 50,000
per cell in liver, kidney and lung to
about 200,000 per cell in the brain.
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DNA damage (naturally occurring) - Consequences of naturally occurring DNA
damages
1
(2004) Single-stranded breaks in DNA but
not oxidative DNA base damages block
transcriptional elongation by RNA
polymerase II in HeLa cell nuclear extracts
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DNA damage (naturally occurring) - Consequences of naturally occurring DNA damages
1
(2010) Neurotoxic mechanisms of DNA damage:
focus on transcriptional inhibition
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DNA damage (naturally occurring) - Consequences of naturally occurring DNA damages
Another type of DNA damage, the double
strand break, was shown to cause cell death
(loss of cells) through apoptosis.Carnevale J,
Palander O, Seifried LA, Dick FA. (2012)
DNA damage signals through differentially
modified E2F1 molecules to induce
apoptosis. Mol Cell Biol. 32(5):900-912.
PMID 22184068 This type of DNA damage
would not accumulate with age, since once a
cell was lost through apoptosis, its double
strand damage would be lost with it.
1
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0 Series Shinkansen - 12-car H/K/N/R/S/T Kodama sets
A further 21 6th- to 9th-batch 12-car
sets were delivered between 1967 and
1969 with only one first-class car (type
16) for use on Kodama services. The T
sets were built by Tokyu Car
Corporation.
1
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0 Series Shinkansen - 16-car K Kodama sets
1
Between 1972 and 1973, the earlier 12-car
Kodama sets were lengthened to 16 cars
with the inclusion of new 13th- and 15thbatch cars, and were renumbered K1 to
K47.
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Dietary supplement - Liver damage
1
The number liver damages from dietary
supplements has trippled in a decade.
Most of the supplements were
bodybuilding supplements. Some of
the patients require liver transplants
and some die. In third of the
supplements involved contained
unlisted steroids.
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Bomb damage assessment
1
'Bomb', or 'battle damage assessment',
often referred to as 'BDA', is the practice
of assessing damage inflicted on a target
by an air campaign. It is part of the larger
discipline of combat assessment (CA).
Assessment is performed using many
techniques including footage from inweapon cameras, from gun cameras,
forces on the ground near the target, and
follow-up visits to the target.
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Bomb damage assessment - History of bomb damage assessment
1
It became necessary to send ground
forces to an area to determine whether
the damage was effective, or to overfly
the target again
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Bomb damage assessment - History of bomb damage assessment
In more recent conflicts, special
operations forces (SOF) have taken
part in BDA, both through physical
presence, and conducting overflies
with equipment such as the RQ-4
Global Hawk Unmanned aerial
vehicle|UAV.
[http://www.jfcom.mil/about/experi
ments/mc02/concepts/af_conc.htm]
1
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Bomb damage assessment - Modern times
1
Modern BDA, however, is more complex
than determining the status of the target.
More esoteric questions are asked of the
BDA, such as
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Bomb damage assessment - Modern times
1
* Was the mission
successful?
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Bomb damage assessment - Modern times
* Was the attack
effective enough to
merit a continued
campaign?
1
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Bomb damage assessment - Objectives of bomb damage analysis
1
The objectives of bomb damage analysis can be
broken into four main categories.
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Bomb damage assessment - Munitions Effectiveness Assessment (MEA)
1
The determination of the proper function of
the bomb or weapon. MEA asks/answers
the question of Did the munition function
properly/as designed?
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Bomb damage assessment - Physical Damage Assessment (PDA)
1
The estimate of the quantitative extent of
physical damage (through munitions blast,
fragmentation (weaponry)|fragmentation,
and/or fire damage effects) to a target
resulting from the application of military
force. This assessment is based upon
observed or interpreted damage. collateral
damage|Collateral and additional damage
is also assessed in this process.
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Bomb damage assessment - Functional Damage Assessment
1
The estimates of the effect of military
force to degrade/destroy the functional
or operational capability of the target to
perform its intended mission. It
includes the level of success of the
force applied relative to the operational
objective established against the
target. This assessment is inferred
based upon all source information and
includes an estimation of the time
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Bomb damage assessment - Target Systems Assessment
The broad assessment of the overall
impact and effectiveness of the full
spectrum of military force applied against
the operation of an enemy target system
or total combat effectiveness (including
significant subdivisions of the system)
relative to the operational objectives
established.
1
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Bomb damage assessment - The future of BDA
1
The Gulf War|1991 Gulf War is widely
regarded as having the most effective
and consistent BDA of any conflict to
date. After the end of hostilities, the
Battle Damage Assessment Working
Group (BDAWG) was formed at the
behest of MTIC, the Military
Targeting Intelligence Committee.
Largely, this group sought to create a
standard lexicon of terminology for
describing BDA, and to develop an
outlook for the future of BDA.
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Bomb damage assessment - The future of BDA
Possible future techniques involve
using lasers or particle beams in a
manner similar to side scan sonar to
map, in three dimensions, the
condition of a target. Boeing has
developed () a system whereby a BDA
sensor is towed a third of a kilometer
behind the munition. This system is
supposed to be capable of near realtime BDA by directly observing the
1
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Hadamard gate
The 'Hadamard transform' (also
known as the 'Walsh–Hadamard
transform', 'Hadamard–Rademacher–
Walsh transform', 'Walsh transform',
or 'Walsh–Fourier transform') is an
example of a generalized class of
Fourier transforms. It performs an
orthogonal matrix|orthogonal,
symmetric matrix|symmetric,
Involution
1
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Hadamard gate
The Hadamard transform can be
regarded as being built out of size-2
discrete Fourier transforms (DFTs),
and is in fact equivalent to a
multidimensional DFT of size
2\times2\times\cdots\times2\times2.
It decomposes an arbitrary input
vector into a superposition of Walsh
functions.
1
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Hadamard gate
The transform is named for the
France|French mathematician Jacques
Hadamard, the German-American
mathematician Hans Rademacher, and the
American mathematician Joseph L. Walsh.
1
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Hadamard gate - Definition
The Hadamard transform Hm is a
2mtimes;2m matrix, the Hadamard
matrix (scaled by a normalization
factor), that transforms 2m real
numbers xn into 2m real numbers Xk.
The Hadamard transform can be
defined in two ways: recursively, or by
using the binary numeral
system|binary (base
(exponentiation)|base-2)
1
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Hadamard gate - Definition
Recursively, we define the 1times;1
Hadamard transform H0 by the identity
matrix|identity H0 = 1, and then define Hm
for m 0 by:
1
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Hadamard gate - Definition
1
where the 1/√2 is a normalization that is
sometimes omitted. Thus, other than this
normalization factor, the Hadamard
matrices are made up entirely of 1 and
minus;1.
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Hadamard gate - Definition
This is exactly the multidimensional
\scriptstyle 2 \,\times\, 2 \,\times\, \cdots
\,\times\, 2 \,\times\, 2 DFT, normalized
to be unitary operator|unitary, if the
inputs and outputs are regarded as
multidimensional arrays indexed by the
nj and kj, respectively.
1
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Hadamard gate - Definition
1
(This H1 is precisely the size-2 DFT. It
can also be regarded as the Fourier
transform on the two-element additive
group of 'Z'/(2).)
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Hadamard gate - Definition
where i \cdot j is the bitwise dot
product of the binary representations
of the numbers i and j. For example, if
\scriptstyle n \geq 2 , then
\scriptstyle ()_ \;=\; (-1)^ \;=\; (-1)^
\;=\; (-1)^ \;=\; (-1)^1 \;=\; -1,
agreeing with the above (ignoring the
overall constant). Note that the first
row, first column of the matrix is
denoted by \scriptstyle ()_ .
1
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Hadamard gate - Definition
1
The rows of the Hadamard matrices
are the Walsh functions.
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Hadamard gate - Quantum computing applications
In quantum information processing the
Hadamard transformation, more often
called 'Hadamard gate' in this context (cf.
quantum gate), is a one-qubit rotation,
mapping the qubit-basis states |0 \rangle
and |1 \rangle to two superposition states
with equal weight of the computational
basis states |0 \rangle and |1 \rangle .
Usually the phases are chosen so that we
have
1
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Hadamard gate - Quantum computing applications
Many quantum algorithms use the
Hadamard transform as an initial step,
since it maps n qubits initialized with |0
\rangle to a superposition of all 2n
orthogonal states in the |0 \rangle , |1
\rangle basis with equal weight.
1
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Hadamard gate - Hadamard gate operations
1
However, if the Hadamard gate is applied
twice in succession (as is effectively being
done in the last two operations), then the
final state is always the same as the initial
state
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Hadamard gate - Computational complexity
The Hadamard transform can be
computed in nlogn operations (n=2m),
using the fast Hadamard transform
algorithm.
1
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Hadamard gate - Other applications
1
The Hadamard transform is also used
in data encryption, as well as many
signal processing and data
compression algorithms, such as
JPEG XR and H.264/MPEG-4
AVC|MPEG-4 AVC. In video
compression applications, it is
usually used in the form of the sum of
absolute transformed differences. It is
also a crucial part of Grover's
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