Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry, July 2011, 2(3)
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Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry, July 2011, 2(3)
ISSN 1309-6591
Editor-in-Chief
Abdullah Kuzu,
Anadolu University, Turkey
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Cindy G. Jardine
University of Alberta, Canada
Işıl Kabakçı
Anadolu University, Turkey
Franz Breuer
Westfälische Wilhems-Universität Münster, Germany
Jean McNiff
York St John University, United Kingdom
Ken Zeichner
University of Washington, USA
Lynne Schrum
George Mason University, USA
Wolff-Michael Roth
University of Victoria, Canada
Yavuz Akbulut
Anadolu University, Turkey
Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry, July 2011, 2(3)
Advisory Board
Abdullah Kuzu, Anadolu University, Turkey
Adile Aşkım Kurt, Anadolu University, Turkey
Ahmet Saban, Selçuk University, Turkey
Ali Rıza Akdeniz, Rize University, Turkey
Ali Yıldırım, Middle East Technical University, Turkey
Angela Creese, University of Birmingham, United Kingdom
Angela K. Salmon, Florida International University, USA
Antoinette McCallin, Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand
Arif Altun, Hacettepe University, Turkey
Asker Kartarı, Hacettepe University, Turkey
Aytekin İşman, Sakarya University, Turkey
Benedicte Brøgger, The Norwegian School of Management BI, Norway
Bronwyn Davies, University of Melbourne, Australia
Buket Akkoyunlu, Hacettepe University, Turkey
Cem Çuhadar, Trakya University, Turkey
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Cindy G. Jardine, University of Alberta, Canada
Claudia Figueiredo, Institute for Learning Innovation, USA
Durmuş Ekiz, Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey
Elif Kuş Saillard, Ankara University, Turkey
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Franz Breuer, Westfälische Wilhems-Universität Münster, Germany
Gina Higginbottom, University of Alberta, Canada
Gönül Kırcaali İftar, Professor Emerita, Turkey
Hafize Keser, Ankara University, Turkey
Halil İbrahim Yalın, Gazi University, Turkey
Hasan Şimşek, Middle East Technical University, Turkey
Işıl Kabakçı, Anadolu University, Turkey
İlknur Kelçeoğlu, Indiana University & Purdue University, USA
Jacinta Agbarachi Opara, Federal College of Education, Nigeria
Jean McNiff, York St John University, United Kingdom
José Fernando Galindo, Universidad Mayor de San Simón, Bolivia
Ken Zeichner, University of Washington, USA
Lynne Schrum, George Mason University, USA
Mustafa Caner, Akdeniz University, Turkey
Mustafa Yunus Eryaman, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Turkey
Nedim Alev, Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey
Nigel Fielding, University of Surrey, United Kingdom
Nihat Gürel Kahveci, Istanbul University, Turkey
Petek Aşkar, Hacettepe University, Turkey
Pranee Liamputtong, La Trobe University, Australia
Richard Kretschmer, University of Cincinnati, USA
Roberta Truax, Professor Emerita, USA
Selma Vonderwell, Cleveland State University, USA
Servet Bayram, Marmara University, Turkey
Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry, July 2011, 2(3)
Sevgi Küçüker, Pamukkale University, Turkey
Shalva Weil, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel
Soner Yıldırım, Middle East Technical University, Turkey
Udo Kelle, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Germany
Ümit Girgin, Anadolu University, Turkey
Wolff-Michael Roth, University of Victoria, Canada
Yang Changyong, Sauthwest China Normal University, China
Yavuz Akbulut, Anadolu University, Turkey
Yavuz Akpınar, Boğaziçi University, Turkey
Zehra Altınay Gazi, Near East University, TRNC
Review Board
Abdullah Adıgüzel, Harran University, Turkey
Abdullah Kuzu, Anadolu University, Turkey
Adeviye Tuba Tuncer, Gazi University, Turkey
Adile Aşkım Kurt, Anadolu University, Turkey
Ahmet Naci Çoklar, Selçuk University, Turkey
Ahmet Saban, Selçuk University, Turkey
Ali Rıza Akdeniz, Rize University, Turkey
Ali Yıldırım, Middle East Technical University, Turkey
Angela Creese, University of Birmingham, United Kingdom
Angela K. Salmon, Florida International University, USA
Antoinette McCallin, Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand
Arif Altun, Hacettepe University, Turkey
Asker Kartarı, Hacettepe University, Turkey
Aytekin İşman, Sakarya University, Turkey
Aytaç Kurtuluş, Osmangazi University, Turkey
Bahadır Erişti, Anadolu University, Turkey
Belgin Aydın, Anadolu University, Turkey
Benedicte Brøgger, The Norwegian School of Management BI, Norway
Bronwyn Davies, University of Melbourne, Australia
Buket Akkoyunlu, Hacettepe University, Turkey
Cem Çuhadar, Trakya University, Turkey
Cemalettin İpek, Rize University, Turkey
Cesar Antonio Cisneros Puebla, Universidad Autonoma Metropolitana Iztapalapa, Mexico
Cindy G. Jardine, University of Alberta, Canada
Claudia Figueiredo, Institute for Learning Innovation, USA
Dilek Tanışlı, Anadolu University, Turkey
Durmuş Ekiz, Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey
Elif Kuş Saillard, Ankara University, Turkey
Eren Kesim, Anadolu University, Turkey
Esra Şişman, Osmangazi University, Turkey
Fahriye Altınay Aksal, Near East University, TRNC
Fawn Winterwood, The Ohio State University, USA
Ferhan Odabaşı, Anadolu University, Turkey
Figen Ünal, Anadolu University, Turkey
Figen Uysal, Bilecik University, Turkey
Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry, July 2011, 2(3)
Franz Breuer, Westfälische Wilhems-Universität Münster, Germany
Gina Higginbottom, University of Alberta, Canada
Gönül Kırcaali İftar, Professor Emerita, Turkey
Gülsün Kurubacak, Anadolu University, Turkey
Hafize Keser, Ankara University, Turkey
Halil İbrahim Yalın, Gazi University, Turkey
Handan Deveci, Anadolu University, Turkey
Hasan Şimşek, Middle East Technical University, Turkey
Işıl Kabakçı, Anadolu University, Turkey
İlknur Kelçeoğlu, Indiana University & Purdue University, USA
Jacinta Agbarachi Opara, Federal College of Education, Nigeria
Jale Balaban, Anadolu University, Turkey
Jean McNiff, York St John University, United Kingdom
José Fernando Galindo, Universidad Mayor de San Simón, Bolivia
Ken Zeichner, University of Washington, USA
Lynne Schrum, George Mason University, USA
Mehmet Can Şahin, Çukurova University, Turkey
Meltem Huri Baturay, Gazi University, Turkey
Meral Ören Çevikalp, Anadolu University, Turkey
Mine Dikdere, Anadolu University, Turkey
Mustafa Caner, Akdeniz University, Turkey
Mustafa Nuri Ural, Afyon Kocatepe University, Turkey
Mustafa Yunus Eryaman, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Turkey
Müyesser Ceylan, Anadolu University, Turkey
Nedim Alev, Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey
Nigel Fielding, University of Surrey, United Kingdom
Nihat Gürel Kahveci, Istanbul University, Turkey
Nilüfer Köse, Anadolu University, Turkey
Osman Dülger, Bingöl University, Turkey
Pelin Yalçınoğlu, Anadolu University, Turkey
Petek Aşkar, Hacettepe University, Turkey
Pranee Liamputtong, La Trobe University, Australia
Richard Kretschmer, University of Cincinnati, USA
Roberta Truax, Professor Emerita, USA
Selma Vonderwell, Cleveland State University, USA
Sema Ünlüer, Anadolu University, Turkey
Semahat Işıl Açıkalın, Anadolu University, Turkey
Serap Cavkaytar, Anadolu University, Turkey
Servet Bayram, Marmara University, Turkey
Servet Çelik, Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey
Sevgi Küçüker, Pamukkale University, Turkey
Sezgin Vuran, Anadolu University, Turkey
Shalva Weil, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel
Soner Yıldırım, Middle East Technical University, Turkey
Şemseddin Gündüz, Selçuk University, Turkey
Tuba Yüzügüllü Ada, Anadolu University, Turkey
Udo Kelle, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Germany
Ümit Girgin, Anadolu University, Turkey
Wolff-Michael Roth, University of Victoria, Canada
Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry, July 2011, 2(3)
Yang Changyong, Sauthwest China Normal University, China
Yavuz Akbulut, Anadolu University, Turkey
Yavuz Akpınar, Boğaziçi University, Turkey
Zehra Altınay Gazi, Near East University, TRNC
Language Reviewers
Mehmet Duranlıoğlu, Anadolu University, Turkey
Mustafa Caner, Akdeniz University, Turkey
Administrative & Technical Staff
Elif Buğra Kuzu, Anadolu University, Turkey
Serkan Çankaya, Anadolu University, Turkey
The Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry (TOJQI) (ISSN 1309-6591) is published quarterly
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Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry, July 2011, 2(3)
Table of Contents
Clarification of the Blurred Boundaries between Grounded Theory and
Ethnography: Differences and Similarities
Khaldoun Aldiabat
Carol-Lynne Le Navenec
Three Women’s Educational Doctoral Program Experiences: A Case Study of
Performances and Journeys
Sarah Selmer
Meadow Graham
Sue-san Ghahremani Ghajar
26
Masoumeh Kafshgarsouteh
Television Advertisements: A Reception Study
40
Yeşim Çelik
Reflections of Preservice Information Technology Teachers Regarding
Cyberbullying
Yavuz Akbulut
14
Erin Goodykoontz
Recovering the Power Inside: A Qualitative Study of Critical Reading in an Iranian
University
Figen Ebren
1
Cem Çuhadar
67
Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry, July 2011, 2(3)
Clarification of the Blurred Boundaries between Grounded
Theory and Ethnography: Differences and Similarities
Khaldoun Aldiabat
Carol-Lynne Le Navenec
University of Northern British Columbia,
Canada
aldiabat@unbc.ca
University of Calgary, Canada
cllenave@ucalgary.ca
Abstract
There is confusion among graduate students about how to select the qualitative methodology that
best fits their research question. Often this confusion arises in regard to making a choice between a
grounded theory methodology and an ethnographic methodology. This difficulty may stem from the
fact that these students do not have a clear understanding of the principles upon which to select a
particular methodology and / or have limited experience in conducting qualitative research.
Addressed in this paper are three questions that will help students make an informed decision
about the choice of method. The answers to these questions constitute key elements in the
decision-making process about whether to use a grounded theory or an ethnographic methodology.
Keywords: Ethnography; Grounded Theory; Qualitative Methodology; comparison; nursing
A Clarification of the Blurred Boundaries between Traditional Grounded Theory and
Ethnography
For many graduate students in nursing, the selection of which qualitative methodology to employ to
answer their chosen research question is a challenging one (McCaslin & Scott, 2003; Starks &
Trinidad, 2007). The primary reason for this challenge is that graduate students may not have a clear
understanding of the principles upon which to select a particular methodology (Morse & Niehaus,
2009; Thorne, Kirkham, & MacDonald-Emes, 1997) and / or have limited experience in conducting
qualitative research (Cobb & Hoffart, 1999; McCaslin & Scott, 2003).
In this paper we present a comparison of two commonly used methodologies in qualitative research
among graduate students in nursing: ethnography and traditional grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss,
1967; Thorne, Kirkham, & MacDonald-Emes, 1997). The intent is to help novice qualitative
researchers in graduate programs so that they can identify which of these two methodologies is more
appropriate for their study. This will be done by addressing three questions:
1. What are the goals / phenomena of interest for researchers who use these two
methodologies?
2. What are the philosophical underpinnings of these methodologies?
3. Are there salient differences and similarities between these methodologies in the
remaining steps of the research process?
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Prior to answering these three questions, it is important to provide an overview of qualitative
methodologies so that a context is laid for answering them.
An Overview of Qualitative Methodologies
Qualitative researchers share a similar goal in that they desire a methodology that allows them to
arrive at an understanding of a particular phenomenon from the perspective of those experiencing it
(Woodgate, 2000). Boyd (2001) worded this goal more precisely when he wrote that the salient
shared purposes of qualitative studies are “instrumentation, illustration, sensitization, and
conceptualization” (p. 68). To achieve the goal of instrumentation, qualitative researchers collect indepth descriptive data about a particular topic that could be subsequently used in a quantitative study
for instrument development. To achieve the second purpose of qualitative research indicated by Boyd,
that of illustration, the researcher may use one or more qualitative data collection approaches (e.g.,
in-depth interviews, field notes, and observation) to provide greater understanding of the
phenomenon under study. For qualitative researchers, sensitization is achieved when the data
obtained from the participants helps the researcher to understand participants’ experiences and
subsequently assist them to identify appropriate interventions. Boyd’s fourth purpose, that of
providing a fuller conceptualization of a phenomenon, is illustrated in the richness of theory afforded
by the thick description that is evident in studies using a grounded theory methodology.
Although there are numerous qualitative methodologies (e.g., phenomenology, grounded theory,
ethnography, case study, historical, participatory action, and interpretive description (LoBiondo-Wood,
Haber,Cameron, & Singh, 2005; Thorne, Kirkham, & MacDonald-Emes, 1997), we have chosen to
focus on two specific methodologies, ethnography and grounded theory in this article. The reason for
this choice is based on our experience over the past 4 years noticing that many graduate students
appear to have difficulty in determining the salient similarities and differences between these two
research methodologies, and ultimately, deciding which one would be better to use for a particular
study. For example, many graduate students asked the first author why he did not consider doing an
ethnographic study given that his research question pertained to understanding smoking behavior
among Jordanian psychiatric nurses. His response to their question was stimulus for this paper.
What are the Goals/Phenomena of Interest for Researchers who use these Two
Methodologies?
The principal goal of grounded theorists and ethnographic researchers is to conduct an in-depth study
about the phenomenon as it occurs normally in real life (Streubert & Carpenter, 1999). Traditional
grounded theorists and ethnographic researchers have a broad scope in that their aim is to
understand events, behaviors, and the cultural meanings human beings in a specific culture use to
interpret their experiences (Parse, Coyne, & Smith, 1985). In other words, the ethnographer aims to
collect data that describe the meanings, organization, and interpretations of culture (Streubert &
Carpenter, 1999). For example, Pirner (2006) used an ethnographic methodology to gain insight into
the pattern of cultural beliefs, values, attitudes, and meanings among holocaust survivors who
voluntarily decided to enter a retirement home. As Morse (2001a) has implied, one can use aspects of
an ethnographic method in a grounded theory study. For example, Morse discussed a grounded
theory study that she did with another researcher to investigate how older Chinese immigrants go
about seeking health care. She subsequently developed a research design to make the findings a
culturally-sensitive grounded theory.
Despite the similarities between these two research methodologies, there are some primary
differences. Whereas the grounded theorist aims to generate theory that describes basic psychosocial
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phenomena and to understand how human beings use social interaction to define their reality (Chenitz
& Swanson, 1986; Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Hutchinson, 1986), the ethnographers’ primary goal is to
provide a thick description of the cultural phenomenon under study (see subsequent section). The
following sections contain an overview of several studies that illustrate salient differences between
these two methodologies beginning with the grounded theory methodology.
Grounded Theory Methodology
The product of traditional grounded theory methodology is an abstract, substantive, mid-range theory
that focuses on process, and has a core category that connects the stages of theory together (Glaser,
1978; Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Strauss & Corbin, 1990). For example, Thannhauser (2009) used a
grounded theory methodology to gain an understanding of the psychosocial experiences of
adolescents who were diagnosed with multiple sclerosis. She found that the experience involved grief
and relationship dynamics. More specifically, Thannhauser concluded that peer relationships “play
both direct and indirect roles in the grief experience and subsequent psychosocial development” (p.
770) of adolescents with multiple sclerosis.
A second example of grounded theory methodology was provided by Walsh and Horenczyk (2001)
who used this methodology to investigate the process of immigration of young immigrants to Israel
from English-speaking countries. These researchers reported that the core category (the basic social
process) that made a successful immigration process was “the self need”. That is, immigrants need to
re-establish their career and financial competency in the new society and to feel that they are
accepted and belong to the new place. A third example of how this methodology has been used was
provided by Kim (2004) who wanted to build a grounded theory about the adaptation process of
Korean immigrants in the United States. Kim found that immigrants adapted to Western culture after
they engaged themselves “in the process of negotiating social, cultural, and generational boundaries”
(p. 517).
In summary, the traditional methodology of grounded theory helps the researcher to understand
participants’ behavior, regardless of their cultural background, from a social interaction perspective. In
other words, this methodology is suited to address research questions not only about “change within
social groups [which is the focus ethnographers], but [also] understanding the core processes central
to that change” (Morse et al., 2009, p. 13).
Ethnography Methodology
For ethnographic researchers, the end products of their studies are dependent upon the purpose of
their investigation. We believe that there are three reasons for choosing to do an ethnographic study.
First, it helps the researchers to document, understand, and describe alternative realities from the
participants’ points-of-view, which are salient to understanding the range of events and behaviors of
people in a particular culture. Second, it allows these researchers to subsequently to build a
substantive grounded theory, should they so desire, “that advances the description and interpretation
of cultural observations to a level that yields a description of the basic social-psychological process”
(Streubert & Carpenter, 1999, p. 151). In addition to grounded theories based on the empirical data
of cultural description, some ethnographers may develop cultural hypotheses that can be tested
through quantitative research designs (Germain, 1986). Some ethnographers have been criticized
because they leaped from description to abstraction; therefore, they have been advised to focus only
on description, compared to analysis or interpretation (Stewart, 1998). In a similar manner, Charmaz
and Mitchell (2001) insisted that the methodology of ethnography involves only the development of a
thick description about how people in a certain culture live their lives.
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Third, ethnographers believe that ethnographic studies are ideally suited to understand complex
cultures. In other words, ethnography helps us understand the participants’ behaviors from a cultural
perspective, that is, the shared patterns of beliefs, values, and behaviors of a particular group
(Edleman & Mandle, 2002). Understanding the participants’ behaviors in a certain culture assists
nurses to identify and to meet their needs (Liamputtong & Ezzy, 2005). It is often used to study
immigrants behavior in their new host society..
What are the Philosophical Underpinnings of these Methodologies?
According to Speziale and Carpenter (2007), it is essential for researchers to understand the
philosophical underpinning of each methodology. This knowledge affords insights into what factors to
consider when deciding upon the best methodology to answer a research question. Munhall (2001)
encouraged qualitative researchers to understand the philosophical underpinnings of their research
tradition before using the methodologies that arise from this tradition. The philosophical stance of the
qualitative paradigm with its ontological and epistemological beliefs will influence the researcher’s
understanding regarding the nature of reality, or what can be known and how it can be known (Guba
& Lincoln, 1994; Mills, Bonner, & Francis, 2006). For example, if a student is finding it difficult to
decide between whether to select a grounded theory or an ethnographic methodology to study
socialization among older people living in a nursing home, the researcher needs to understand the
philosophical underpinnings of both methodologiess so that an informed choice can be made.
The philosophical orientation of grounded theory and ethnography is symbolic interactionism (SI)
(Chenitz & Swanson, 1986; Glaser, 1992; Prus, 1996; Strauss & Corbin, 1990; Wuest, 2007). It was
not until the beginning of the 1990s that Glaser (1992) provided a very clear account about one
central assumption of grounded theory methodology: that symbolic interactionism directs human
beings to shape the world they live in. However, Glaser (2004) argues that although symbolic
interactionism is part of grounded theory methodology, it is not part of the substantive theory that is
generated by this methodology. That is, Glaser did not deny that symbolic interactionism is the
underpinning philosophy of grounded theory methodology (emphasis added), but he emphasized that
symbolic interactionism is not a principal theoretical code to direct analysis (Wuest, 2007). Accepting
SI as a belief, the researcher can use grounded theory methodology as a approach to identify what
data must be collected and where to find it “to derive theories that illuminate human behaviour and
the social world” (Chenitz & Swanson, 1986, p. 7).
Another way that grounded theory methodology has been influenced by symbolic interactionism is in
terms of showing the relationship between human beings and their society (Milliken & Schreiber,
2001). According to Milliken and Schreiber, the grounded theorist’s task is to gain knowledge about
the socially-shared meaning that forms the behaviors and the reality of the participants being studied.
For example, a substantive theory of the meaning of drug use among a homeless population would
involve understanding the experiences of other homeless people, with whom they interact, how they
interpret drug use, and their subsequent behavior based on this meaning of drug use.
Prus (1996) added to the discussion of the relationship between symbolic interactionism and
ethnography. He provided a concise and precise overview of four shared assumptions between
ethnography and symbolic interactionism. First, the researcher values the actual meaning and the
inter-subjective nature of human behavior. Second, the researcher must develop knowledge and
awareness with the phenomenon being studied, including the participants’ perspectives and
interpretations regarding themselves, other objects, and the situation. Third, the researcher needs to
use sensitizing concepts, which have been described by Blumer (1954) as initial ways of focusing on
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and organizing data. He contended that this approach facilitates the subsequent identification of a
definitive concept, which refers to “…what is common to the class of object by the aid of clear
definition in terms of attribute or fixed bench marks” (p. 7). Fourth, familiarity with the phenomenon
cannot be achieved without understanding the process of communication; thus, the researcher must
know the social relationships among the participants and the sequences of interaction. In conclusion,
the same philosophical underpinning for both methodologies explains the similarities between their
ontological and epistemological assumptions, which are discussed next.
Grounded theory and ethnography can be understood through the ontological beliefs regarding what
reality is, the epistemological beliefs regarding how the grounded theorists and ethnographers come
to know about the world, and the beliefs about the methodological processes of both methods. Guba
and Lincoln (1994) provided a definition regarding the nature of the world through answering
questions such as “What is the form and nature of reality?” and “What is the relationship between the
knower and what can be known?” and “What strategies need to be used to discover what there is to
be known?” (p. 108). The ontological and epistemological assumptions underlying both
methodologies, as well as the philosophical orientations guiding them are discussed in the next
sections, whereas the methodological aspects are discussed later in this paper.
Ontological Beliefs of Grounded Theory and Ethnography
The philosophical roots of grounded theory and ethnography derive from the Chicago School of
symbolic interactionism and pragmatism (Charmaz & Mitchell, 2001). Annells (1996) argued that
grounded theory is based on a symbolic interactionist’s and pragmatist’s ontological belief regarding
the nature of reality. That is, followers of this belief agree that the social and natural worlds have
different realities that “are probabilistically apprehensible, albeit imperfectly” (p. 385). Glaser (1978)
has taken this belief under consideration and assumed that the world is a subject that can be studied
and understood if the researchers go there and look for the reality. For elaboration, grounded theorist
adopted the pragmatic view that is the empirical truth of reality can be emerged only by visiting the
research field, observe the participants, and analyze their actual meanings in the real setting (Glaser,
1992).
In the same manner, ethnographers have an ontological belief that there are multi-truths and
alternative realities in a particular culture that must be described in terms of the people studied (Mills,
Bonner & Francis, 2006; Streubert & Carpenter, 1999). For ethnographers, a description of multirealities was derived from the Chicago School of philosophy to “gain an understanding of meanings a
culture group attaches to symbols in organizing and interpreting their life experiences” (Parse, 2001,
p. 127). Therefore, ethnographers tend to conduct their research in the natural setting (Speziale &
Carpenter, 2007), and generally spend long periods of time in this setting to develop an in-depth
understanding of the cultural group(s) being studied (Morse & Field, 1996). For example, studying
drug use among the homeless population from a classical/traditional grounded theorist’s perspective
and/or from an ethnographer’s viewpoint compels the researcher to go to the natural field where the
phenomenon of drug use takes place to capture and understand the multiple realities that are
associated with this phenomenon.
In summary, both grounded theory and ethnography researchers believe that various realities are
salient to create meaning of events (Boyd, 2001; Lincoln & Guba, 1985). They have similar ontological
beliefs regarding the nature of reality because both of them are derived from symbolic interactionism.
However, this similarity of ontological belief requires researchers to study in-depth the epistemological
beliefs of both methodologies before they decide which one better addresses their research question.
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Epistemological Beliefs of Grounded Theory and Ethnography
According to Annells (1996), following the clarification of ontological thoughts as discussed above,
nursing researchers must clarify their epistemological beliefs as a final step in choosing their research
tradition. Epistemological beliefs consist of different assumptions regarding the nature of knowing, of
what can be known, and who can be the knower (Milliken & Schreiber, 2001). Following Glaser and
Strauss (1967), Annells (1996) described the central assumption of the traditional grounded theory as
involving a need for an objectivist, post-positivist epistemology, and that the grounded theory
methodology “is independent of the researcher and has a separate existence” (p. 386). In other
words, an objectivist epistemological view determines the nature of the relationship between the
knower and what can be known. For example, the nature of traditional grounded theory procedure
directs the researcher toward this level of objectivity (Glaser, 1978).
The above point merits elaboration. Because grounded theory is based on symbolic interactionism, it
is used to understand the inner (emic) aspects of human behaviors; in other words their subjective
reality. To study such aspects, grounded theorists often use data collection methods that involve
interviews and thick descriptions in their field notes about how human beings interact with each other,
their patterns of interaction, their definition of the shared meanings, and related contextual
circumstances (Chenitz & Swanson, 1986).
In ethnography, the key epistemological assumption involves knowing and understanding human
behavior within the cultural context in which it occurs (Omery, 1988). They are “focusing on the
exploration of symbols, rituals, and customs of a cultural group” (Parse, 2001, p. 128). In other
words, ethnographers are committed to understanding the meaning of actions and events of people in
that culture (Streubert & Carpenter, 1999). To achieve this commitment, they immerse themselves in
the culture being studied often for long periods of time (Speziale & Carpenter, 2007).
In regard to the extensive field work implied immersion into a culture, the “struggle for objectivity in
collecting and analyzing data while being so intimately involved with the group is a unique challenge
for Ethnographers” (Streubert & Carpenter, 1999, p.150). This struggle is caused by the divergence
between the two epistemological assumptions related to the “ emic” and “etic” views (Omery, 1988).
The emic view is the insider’s view, meaning that interpretations, beliefs, and experiences come from
the participant’s description of the phenomenon under study (Parse et al., 1985; Speziale & Carpenter,
2007). The ethnographer believes that participants know best their own inner state and that
knowledge regarding reality can be accomplished only when the participants express their own
perceptions and interpretations about the reality (Omery, 1988).
In contrast, the etic view is an outsider’s interpretation of the culture (Streubert & Carpenter, 1999).
Adherents of an etic view believe that ethnographers are the most appropriate researchers to
interpret, understand, and describe the reality of the phenomenon (Omery, 1988). However,
according to Omery, using only one view leads to loss of data that affects understanding the reality.
Parse (2001) encouraged ethnographers to integrate both etic and emic epistemological views to gain
knowledge and understanding of a cultural group’s language, beliefs, and experiences.
In summary, grounded theory shares the ontological and some epistemological assumptions with
ethnography. Grounded theorists and ethnographic researchers need to investigate the phenomenon
subjectively; that is from the emic (participants’) perspectives. To illustrate, grounded theorists and
ethnographic researchers agree to view and portray realities that are salient to participants, not to the
researchers (Speziale & Carpenter, 2007). This view helps the researchers to both access the lived
reality of and to understand clients’ internal constructions of their worldviews. For example,
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investigating drug use from the perspective of the homeless population is fundamental to the
researcher who wishes to explore the contextual influences that may influence the behaviors of this
group.
An example of the importance of an emic view was provided by Cutcliffe, Stevenson, Jackson, and
Smith (2006). They insisted that investigating the phenomenon subjectively from the participants’
perspective is a necessary claim for qualitative researchers. In their grounded theory study, the
researchers aimed to determine how primary mental health nurses in the United Kingdom care for
persons who are suicidal. They interviewed 20 participants who had made suicidal attempts. The
grounded theory generated from collecting and analyzing the emic view of the participants was
‘‘reconnecting the person with humanity’’ (p. 796). Throughout this theory, nurses revealed that
suicide among suicidal persons can be prevented if the nurse understands their suicidal beliefs and
builds a therapeutic relationship with them.
Are there Salient Differences and Similarities between these Methodologies in the
Remaining Steps of the Research Process?
The third question to address pertains to a discussion of the salient differences and similarities in the
remaining steps of the research process (i.e., sample selection, data collection, data analysis, and
describing the findings). An answer to this question should further assist students, as novice
researchers, to make the decision as to which methodology would best answer the research question.
Salient Differences between Grounded Theory and Ethnography.
A salient characteristic that differentiates grounded theory from ethnography is that the latter entails a
realistic, very broad, and full description of a specific culture (Germain, 1986). For these reasons,
ethnographers focus their inquiry on only one part of reality, rather than the whole context (Charmaz
& Mitchell, 2001). For example, when ethnographers observe participants in a natural field they “may
focus on an aspect of the scene, rather than an entire setting, and may not entail the extent or depth
of involvement of an ethnography” (Charmaz & Mitchell, 2001, p. 161)
In contrast, grounded theorists try to explain the major concern (core category) and the surrounding
context of participants who engaged in the activity under the study by interweaving activities of
observing, listening, and asking to achieve a deep description of the entire reality (Davis, 1986).
A second difference between these two methods pertains to when the literature should be reviewed:
that is, prior to the data collection phase or following it. Glaser (1978) recommended that grounded
theorists not consult the literature before conducting fieldwork in order to avoid constrained coding
and memoing. He suggested that researchers read widely, but not in studies directly related to the
research topic. By contrast, ethnographers can consult the conceptual literature before conducting the
study in which the problem to be studied is presented (Germain, 1986).
The sample selection procedure constitutes a third difference between the two methods. The
grounded theory method has been distinguished by the theoretical sampling technique that aims
toward theory building (Glaser, 1978, 1992; Glaser & Strauss, 1967). The grounded theorist
concurrently collects, codes, and analyzes data and decides what data to collect next to facilitate the
emergence of the theory from the data (Glaser, 1978). Therefore, data collection and participants are
purposefully chosen as needed based on outcomes of emerging analysis (Morse & Field, 1996).
Theoretical sampling helps grounded theorists to saturate their categories; that is, saturation is
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reached when there are no new ideas or thoughts to add to the categories (Charmaz & Mitchell,
2001).
By contrast, ethnographic researchers aim not to generate theories, but to understand the cultural
meaning that human beings use to organize and interpret their experiences (Parse et al., 1985; see
also Charmaz & Mitchell, 2001). Hence, given their interest in a particular aspect of culture, they
often use a type of purposive sampling that Miles and Huberman (1994) refer to as multiple case
sampling, which involves focusing on “a range of similar and contrasting cases in order to understand
a single case finding” (p. 29).
A fourth difference between these methods pertains to the purpose of writing memos (analytic notes
by the researcher during the data collection and analysis phase). Memo-writing is salient in grounded
theory because it helps the researcher connect between coding data and writing the theory (Charmaz
& Mitchell, 2001). To rephrase, memoing is vital to raise the empirical data from the description state
to theoretical one (Hutchinson, 1986). By contrast, ethnographers use memoing to derive the
meaning of the actions in certain cultures and thereby enrich the level of thick description in their
discussion of the findings (Charmaz & Mitchell, 2001).
A fifth difference, albeit not a major one, between two these methods pertains to how to do data
analysis. Grounded theorists organize their data collection and analyses by using the constant
comparative strategy (Charmaz & Mitchell, 2001). In this strategy, the researcher compares one piece
of data to all other pieces of data. Because ethnography lacks this strategy, ethnographers may be
overwhelmed by huge quantities of disconnected data that often results in “thin” description or
perhaps lists of unrelated categories (Charmaz & Mitchell, 2001). This gap is closing as in recent years
ethnographers are increasingly using the constant comparative strategy in their studies.
A sixth difference between these two methods pertains to the process of transforming data into
findings. Whereas grounded theory researchers use the data to generate the findings, the
ethnographic researchers sometimes use predefined concepts (e.g., coping with chronic illness) or
develop a range of cross case displays such as matrixes and/or ideal type typologies ( Le Navenec,
1993).
The seventh difference between these research approaches pertains to the nature of discussion of
findings. According to Charmaz and Mitchell (2001), “Ethnographic writings vary, depending on
research objectives, reporting style, and potential audiences. Ethnographers can use description to tell
stories, form scenes, describe players and demonstrate actions” (p. 170). Conversely, grounded
theorists focus their final report primarily on discussion of the conceptual analysis and the substantive
theory that was generated from the data (Charmaz & Mitchell, 2001; Speziale & Carpenter, 2007).In
conclusion, whereas Ethnographers discuss their findings using fin primarily narratives, the grounded
theorist focuses instead on the theoretical framework that has emerged from the data.
Salient Similarities between Grounded Theory and Ethnography.
Five similarities regarding settings of the study, data collection and analysis approach, the researcher
role, and reporting the findings are discussed next. First, grounded theorists and ethnographers study
the phenomenon in the natural context without interrupting the natural settings. Human behavior can
be understood within the natural, everyday context in which the phenomenon occurs (Chenitz, 1986;
Omery, 1988). Therefore, both grounded theorists and ethnographers emphasize that beliefs, values,
and context afford a holistic approach to study the phenomenon (Speziale & Carpenter, 2007).
Although researchers from both these traditions share this similarity, they perceive these aspects from
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their own perspectives about the aim of the study. Grounded theorists focus more on the natural
social world (context) to understand the behavior of individuals engaging in the phenomena under
study; that is, the researcher must collect data about action and interaction between the individuals in
the context (Chenitz, 1986). On the other hand, ethnographers give more attention to understanding
behavior within natural functional, cultural, or social contexts to describe the cultural meaning that
individuals use to organize and interpret their experiences (Omery, 1988; Parse et al., 1985).
Grounded theorists and ethnographers believe that to discover the nature of the phenomenon as
experienced by those who live it, data collection should utilize a variety of approaches (e.g., focus
groups, in-depth interview, observation, field notes) (Speziale & Carpenter, 2007). Omery (1988)
emphasized that the general goal of grounded theory and ethnography is to understand the
phenomenon through providing a description with enough data to realize or perceive that
phenomenon. According to Calvin (2004), in interviews researchers gain personal perceptions and
beliefs regarding the phenomenon and through field notes researchers collect further data to
understand how participants live the phenomenon. For example, to understand the phenomenon of
drug use among the homeless population, the researcher may collect the data through triangulating
in-depth interviews with participants, non-participant observation, and compilation of field notes.
Using more than one data collection approach in grounded theory or ethnography is essential for
nursing science for two reasons (Mariano, 2001). First, triangulation of the data collection approaches
provides multiple interpretations and achieves fuller understanding of the same phenomenon from
different perspectives. Second, this technique of triangulating different sources of data helps to
achieve the methodological rigor (accuracy and credibility) of the study (Maggs-Rapport, 2000;
Mariano, 2001).
When the data collection occurs is the third difference between these two methods. Glaser and
Strauss (1967) distinguished the grounded theory method by its concurrent involvement in data
collection and analysis. Grounded theorists have the flexibility to collect data from the field and start
their analysis immediately, then go forward and backward between the data analysis and the field to
collect further data in order to develop their substantive theory (Speziale & Carpenter, 2007). By
contrast, Ethnographers lack this reciprocal relationship between data collection and analysis.
According to Charmaz and Mitchell (2001), “Ethnography suffered in the past from a rigid and artificial
separation of data collection and analysis” (p. 162).
Omery (1988) holds a different perspective than Charmaz and Mitchell (2001). She insisted on a cyclic
relationship between data collection and analysis in ethnographic studies until ethnographers reach a
thick description of the culture. In other words, using a spiral technique of data collection and analysis
encourages new levels of understanding and new verifications of the findings (Parse et al., 1985).
Therefore, integrating data collection and analysis in grounded theory leads to more theoretical
abstraction, whereas in ethnography it leads to a more enriched description of the culture.
Fourth, qualitative nurse researchers using grounded theory and/or ethnographic methods adopt roles
as an observer, interviewer, and interpreter (Germain, 2001; Hutchinson & Wilson, 2001). Both
traditions involve the researcher-as-instrument to collect and analyze data from the participants in the
field (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000). According to Streubert and Carpenter (1999), the researcher-asinstrument in naturalistic research must have excellent communication and observational skills to help
participants share their insider perspectives and experiences. For example, to enter the inner world of
drug users who are homeless and to be close to and understand their subjective experiences, the
researcher has a responsibility to use the communication, observation, and interpretation skills that
one has already learned through use of the nursing process and qualitative research process.
Therefore, grounded theorists and ethnographers assume that the only way they can begin to access
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the inner world (emic view) of the participants is by applying researcher-as-instrument skills (Speziale
& Carpenter, 2007).
Fifth, regardless of the purposes and results of grounded theory and ethnography, researchers in both
traditions report the results from the perspective of the participants who have experienced the
phenomenon. Streubert and Carpenter (1999) argued for reporting the findings of both traditions in a
rich literary approach including “quotations, commentaries, and stories [that] add to the richness of
the report and to the understanding of the social interactions” (p.17). For example, regardless of the
qualitative method used to study drug use among the homeless population, reporting the results will
reflect the participants’ experiences by involving their quotations and stories to understand the
experiences and the context in which they occur.
Conclusion
The similarity of the characteristics of traditional grounded theory and ethnographic methodologies
has led many researchers to ask “but are they not the same?” (Stewart, 1998, p. 8). According to
Charmaz and Mitchell (2001), both methodologies share common criteria, ontological and
epistemological assumptions, and some similarities in their data collection and analysis. In other
words, both methodologies are used to investigate the phenomenona in naturalistic settings, both
have been derived from Symbolic Interactionism, participant emic view and observation are salient in
both of them, and researchers in both methodologies select their sample as data emerge through data
analysis (Pettigrew, 2000).
Differences in the approaches between these two traditions arise from the different purposes of each
one, which in turn, affects data collection and analysis procedures, and the end products. Whereas a
grounded theory researcher ends by reporting a substantive theory that explains the patterns of the
phenomenon under study, an ethnographic researcher ends by reporting a rich description of the
cultural meaning of the phenomenon in a particular culture.
The selection of either an ethnographic or grounded theory methodology is guided by addressing
three questions: What are the goals / phenomena of interest for these two methods?, What are the
philosophical underpinnings of these methodologiess?, Are there salient differences and similarities
between these methodologiess in the remaining steps of the research process? The answers to these
questions will clarify what some graduate students refer to as the blurred boundaries between
grounded theory and ethnography. The outcome of which will be informed student researchers who
select the qualitative method that best addressed the research question of interest.
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Three Women’s Educational Doctoral Program Experiences:
A Case Study of Performances and Journeys
Sarah Selmer
Meadow Graham
West Virginia University, USA
sarah.selmer@mail.wvu.edu
West Virginia University, USA
meadov.graham@mail.wvu.edu
Erin Goodykoontz
West Virginia University, USA
eniemiec@math.wvu.edu
Abstract
Three academic women joined to write this piece to explore individual doctoral program
experiences and to establish common understandings. They collectively analyzed their experiences
using the conceptual approach of doctoral program performances and journeys. This case study
shares their experiences within the conceptual approach through emerging themes. The common
understandings developed herein about doctoral education based on these themes are also shared.
The broader contributions of the three women’s work are two-fold. First, the entire case study
provides a way to view, discuss, and consider women’s doctoral education pluralistically. Secondly,
perhaps readers of this piece will recognize that individual and common understandings with others
are a way to develop professional knowledge as academics. Further, readers of this piece might be
able to relate more deeply to their own and others’ unique doctoral program experiences through
the lens of performances or journeys. Some of these connections might be based on the
overarching framework, while others might be specific to the shared women’s experiences.
Keywords: Case Study; doctoral experiences; program performances
Introduction
Three women embarking on the world of academia at different points in their lives happened to cross
paths at a common institution. Working in a College of Education, they decided to form a group to
discuss doctoral education. As beginning academics, they focused on their recent common
experiences as doctoral students, their experiences as professional women, and presented questions
related to working with their own doctoral students. Initial conversations explored typical doctoral
educational experiences, such as coursework completion, comprehensive exams, conference
presentations, publications, and dissertation defenses. As these women’s conversations and
relationships deepened, discussing these typical doctoral program components did not allow the
women to truly understand each other’s unique individual experiences (Grover, 2007). For instance,
two of the women took a qualitative research course from the same professor. For one of the women
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the course was not an influential class. Yet, for another of the women it was significant in her
program experiences. The reasons for these differences were difficult to discuss and understand
without delving further into their individual experiences. For this reason, they conducted a study
exploring their individual experiences in doctoral education. The following case study account of this
work holds broader contributions for the women involved as well as for their colleagues, doctoral
students, and administrators working within doctoral education. The authors hope that after reading
this piece readers will be able to relate more deeply to their own and others’ unique doctoral program
experiences. These relational understandings should enhance academics, doctoral students, and
administrators present and future work in doctoral education.
Context
The professional interests of the group lie in mathematics and literacy education; however, all of the
members hold a common curriculum and instruction doctorate foundation. Presently, the three
participating women work at a large land-grant research university located in an Appalachian state.
Throughout this piece the use of the names Stella, Elise, and Madelyn provide anonymity to the
shared personal experiences. Stella and Elise completed their 2008 doctoral work in mathematics
education at a common university, while Madelyn completed her work in literacy education at a
different institution during the same timeframe. All three women work as beginning academics in their
respective areas of interest; however, they have recently begun having difficulty understanding how
to provide high quality doctoral experiences for their students. Each realizes that their own doctoral
experiences were unique, but they want to search for common experiences in order to better
understand their own present and future students’ experiences.
This study uses a single case study of a cohort of the three women. The study is subjective in nature
because the participants are also the researchers (Creswell, 1998).
Thus, their individual
perspectives, experiences, and meaning making (Kor-Ljungberg, Yendol-Hoppey, Smith, & Hayes,
2009) are heavily ingrained in the emerging themes and discussion. Within this piece doctoral
program experiences are referred to as program journeys or performances. Experiences that are
journeys refer to those that combine learning and teaching. However, if no learning or growth occurs,
then these experiences are simply referred to as performances.
Ultimately, the purpose of this work is for the women to find ways to express and discuss their
doctoral program experiences that provide depth and breadth to the importance of the individual in
doctoral programs. Additionally, the common understandings that were developed based on these
conversations provided a second purpose, which is further expressed through two guiding questions:
1. How are the authors’ shared experiences expressed as program performances, program
performances intertwined with journeys, and personal journeys?
2. What common understandings about doctoral education did the authors discover?
The sampling strategies are homogenous (Creswell, 1998) within one cohort of women, all of whom
work in academia. Although the women are in different programs and areas of emphasis, their
commonalities within the field of education make the group homogenous. The data sources are
observations, meeting notes, conversations, and written narratives from group meetings. Their
discussions both written and oral based on the described data sources advanced a small number of
themes that guide the analysis of the case study data and writing (Creswell, 1998).
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Influence of the Literature
Turning to the literature, two areas of doctoral education research influence this case study. The first
area of literature focuses on the broad aspects of institutions and programs that contribute to doctoral
students’ successes within and among universities and disciplines. Further, these broad aspects of
programs are often explored through discipline-specific doctoral program elements, such as
coursework, dissertations, and mentoring. The research also explores each of these elements by
looking at specific features, such as mentoring during the dissertation process. The second area of
doctoral education research focuses on the individual nature of doctoral students’ experiences.
Broad aspects of institutions and programs
The PhD Completion Project, by the Council of Graduate Schools identifies key influential aspects of
institutions and programs that influence students completion of doctoral programs. Aspects include
the student selection process, student mentoring programs, financial support, program environment,
and program processes and procedures (The Council of Graduate Schools, 2008; Golde, 2000; Golde,
1998; Herzig, 2002). Ultimately the research shows that these various aspects of institutions and
programs affect doctoral students’ successful program completion (The Council of Graduate Schools,
2008; Golde, 2000; Herzig, 2002).
Specific doctoral program elements
Specific doctoral program elements also influence students’ successful graduation rates. For instance,
studies have shown that the level of guidance programs provide to aid students in navigating program
elements, such as course work, qualifying examinations, candidacy, and the dissertation process (EarlNovell, 2006; Erdem & Ozen, 2003; Grover, 2007; Ray, 2007) affects overall student attrition rates
(Grover, 2007). Further, the Carnegie studies reported in the book, The Formation of Scholars, the
results of a five-year study done by the Carnegie Foundation looking at doctoral education in six fields
(chemistry, education, English, history, mathematics, and neuroscience). Similar to other research the
results offer a set of generalizations for successful program elements across disciplines including;
purposeful curriculum design; recognizing the special role of students’ learning communities; and
concerted approaches to mentoring, advising, and faculty role modeling (Walker, Golde, Jones,
Conklin-Bueschel, & Hutchings, 2008).
Specific to purposeful curriculum design, the literature suggests that doctoral education curriculum
should focus more on practically preparing students for professional practice (Shulman, 2010). To
summarize this area of doctoral education research, doctoral students’ graduation success rates can
be affected by program elements being more purposefully designed to focus on the practices of
scholarship (problem framing, question development, research design), teaching (large, small, and
individual settings), supervision and mentoring (modeling and coaching), and service (Shulman,
2010). Doctoral students experiences with this purposefully designed curriculum will further be
affected by the previously mentioned institutional and program aspects, including, for example,
financial assistance and program processes and procedures.
Individual Influences
A second area of doctoral education research has a focus on the individual nature of doctoral program
experiences (Lee, 2009; Brailsford, 2010; Grover, 2007). Students’ individual experiences are affected
by different doctoral students’ motivations (Brailsford, 2010), life factors (Lee, 2009), and
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interpersonal relationships (Brailsford, 2010; Mainhard, van der Rigjst, & van Tartwijk, 2009). These
individual factors all shape students’ experiences and, ultimately, their successful program completion.
Motivation
Doctoral students often have career, personal, and inter-personal motivations for embarking on and
successfully completing doctoral education (Brailsford, 2010). In the area of career motivation,
individual aspirations and/or changes in career circumstances, such as the loss of a job, often inspire
people to enter into doctoral programs. Further, personal motivations, such as giving back to the
community through scholarship, provide the catalyst for some doctoral students’ success (Brailsford,
2010). The influence of friends, family, colleagues, and academics provides additional motivation for
doctoral students’ successes through support and advice (Brailsford, 2010). Ultimately, the research
shows that these individual motivations for pursuing doctoral education affect student success by
either inspiring or deterring individuals to successfully complete doctoral programs.
Individual factors and interpersonal relationships
Other research indicates that a doctoral student’s unique traits, such as self-discipline and positive
academic self-concept (Lee, 2009), also impact overall success. Also, interpersonal relationships,
particularly in the area of mentoring, enhance the benefits of individuals’ motivations and life factors
on students’ success. Researchers have found that some of the most successful doctoral students had
mentors who not only provided guidance but also the freedom and autonomy they needed to grow as
scholars (Ray, 2007).
Issue
Based on the literature above, the women began to discuss what was more influential in doctoral
students’ successful program completion. Successful program completion means not just graduating
but includes significant growth through learning. Was it the broad program and institutional aspects;
the program elements with designated features, such as a focused curriculum on professional
practices; or was it the individual students’ motivations, life factors, and interpersonal relationships?
Interestingly, the women’s conversations emphasized the importance of the individual experience
within doctoral education. However, rather than offering definitive answers, research in this area
often leaves readers to speculate about the motives, life factors, and interpersonal relationships that
lead to doctoral students’ success. Thus, this studies focus is on finding ways to further capture and
understand the individual nature of doctoral program experiences.
Conceptual Approach
The conceptual approach for this work draws from theoretical perspectives offered within the field of
education based on the work of Elliot Eisner (1994) and William Ayers (2001). In his book on school
programs, The Educational Imagination, Elliot Eisner speaks of teaching and learning in two ways.
First, Elliot Eisner views teaching as a “variety of acts performed by individuals” (p. 158) with the
intention of promoting learning. Similarly, William Ayer conceptualizes this view of teaching as
“mainly instruction, partly performing” (p. 4) in his book To Teach: The Journey of a Teacher. These
acts performed by teachers include lectures, demonstrations, discussions, advising, etc. (Eisner,1994).
Similarly, doctoral students’ experiences within programs can be considered as a “variety of acts
performed by individuals” (p. 158) with the intention of learning. Typically, doctoral students attend
classes, have discussions with professors and peers, conduct research, and have teaching experiences
within their educational doctorate programs. Within this piece, these acts performed by doctoral
students are considered doctoral program performances.
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The second way Eisner conceptualizes teaching and learning is radically different. This
conceptualization regards teaching as a form of achievement directly related to learning (Eisner,1994).
In other words, if a student does not learn anything, then no teaching has actually occurred. For
example, if a student attends a lecture and does not learn from that experience, then teaching has
not occurred. Ayers ties this notion of teaching with learning by defining teaching as being able to
“counsel, organize, assess, guide, goad, show, manage, model, coach, discipline, prod, preach,
persuade, proselytize, listen, interact, and inspire” (p. 4). Further, Ayers states the following:
“teaching is more than transmitting skills; it is a living act, and involves perseverance and value,
obligation and choice, trust and care, commitment and justification” (p. 4). All of these facets of
teaching define it directly in terms of students’ learning. Similarly, if doctoral students are going to be
successful in learning in their doctoral programs as they attend classes, work with professors and
peers, conduct research, and have teaching experiences, these actions must move beyond
performances and become experiences in which teaching and learning are connected. Within this
piece, these types of experiences (i.e., those that combine learning and teaching) are referred to as
journeys. However, if no learning or growth occurs, then these experiences are simply referred to as
performances.
Findings/Results
How are the authors’ shared experiences expressed through the conceptual approach of
program performances, program performance intertwined into journeys, and personal
journeys?
Program performances
For all three women, the process of completing a doctoral degree program involved a significant
number of performances. All three participants’ program experiences included performances organized
through three emerging themes: coursework completion, relationships with professors, and graduate
assistantships.
Performance coursework completion
All three women remember completing the necessary courses based on the requirements of their
doctoral programs. The course requirements were similar: a large number of course credits comprised
of research-methodology courses, theory courses, and courses in the area of their degree (i.e.
Curriculum & Instruction, Literacy, Mathematics Education). Importantly, the reasons for course
performances varied for each woman. For instance, timing caused Stella’s experience in a qualitative
research course to be a performance rather than a journey. She took the qualitative research course
early in her program and while she was eight months pregnant. The majority of the other students in
the class were at the end of the doctoral programs and writing dissertations. Stella recalls, “I was not
working on my dissertation and was tired of all the dissertation-specific questions.” Despite the fact
that Stella’s dissertation was qualitative, she notes:
The qualitative course I took in my doctoral program had limited impact on my
understandings of qualitative research. I didn’t get a broad philosophical view of
qualitative research because I wasn’t at the right point in my personal and professsional
life when I took the course. Honestly, my most vivid memory from the course was how
uncomfortable the chairs were considering I was eight months pregnant.
Thus, Stella’s performance was based on both personal and professional timing in her life.
Elise performed during a Curriculum Theory course in her doctoral program. She had never taken a
course in the education department and was not familiar with the typical foundational curriculum
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verbiage. She found herself lost in the language rather than engaged with the content, as her
mathematical background experiences had not prepared her for the academic vocabulary. Therefore
she focused on trying to sound like her classmates during discussions. Elise recalls,
Coming from a pure mathematics background, I found great difficulty adapting to my
first education classes…I was used to a mathematics world where I knew the lingo and
language in those classes. I was shocked at the new language that I didn’t understand
in these education classes. I was not yet prepared to perform the way my classmates
could, using the right lingo and knowing exactly what the professor wanted to hear.
Her experience became a performance that was “intimidating and stifling,” and she ended up
dropping the course.
Madelyn experienced a course performance that also had to do with a stifling classroom environment.
The stifling environment made her feel as if her ability to make meaningful contributions to the course
discussions was compromised. She remembers,
In one particular class, I remember how I felt that my voice was silenced. This was
difficult and made the class more of a performance to check off my list, as I felt that I
had no room for growth due to the fact that my ideas were not recognized or valued in
the class. This did not allow me to engage and learn from the exchange of ideas
present in a classroom, effectively forcing me into a performance rather than a journey.
For varying reasons, all three participants performed in doctoral program courses. Perhaps if there
were different time frames, instructors, students, or general conditions, these course experiences
would not have been performances but would have been transformed into journeys. Another
emerging program performance theme was the women’s development of relationships with professors
within their doctoral education programs.
Performance relationships with professors
Research has shown that relationships with professors can be incredibly valuable to doctoral
experiences (Lee, 2009). However, Elise and Stella established relationships with professors as
program performances. Elise recounted elements of necessity, location, and luck as catalysts for
establishing a relationship with her advisor:
Acquiring my advisor/major professor was a result of necessity, location, and luck.
When I started the Curriculum and Instruction degree program in the Education
Department, I was assigned an advisor specializing in math education. However, this
person left for another job after my first semester, and I was never officially reassigned
to another advisor. A mathematics education focused professor was never hired, so I
found it difficult to talk with anyone concerning my specific needs. A year passed, I was
considering taking a certain class. I wandered into a new professor’s office who
happened to be the instructor to ask him about the class. He asked about my advisor
and plan of study. Once I told him I had none, he said he would help me and be my
advisor. I had no idea what his specialization was, if our research interests were similar,
or even if our personalities would mesh well, but I felt as if I had no choice and
welcomed anyone interested in helping me.
The relationship never became a true mentoring relationship, primarily because her advisor did not
focus on mathematics education.
Similarly, Stella remembers her first meeting with an assigned advisor:
I can remember waiting nervously in a conference room to meet my assigned advisor. I
had visions of working together. Unfortunately, the first words out of the advisor’s
mouth were “welcome to literacy” to which I responded, “but I am a mathematics
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teacher.” She remained my advisor for the next year, but our areas of interest and
connection to a specific discipline were not present.
Madelyn experienced performances establishing relationships with professors early in her program as
she searched for any job that would grant her a tuition waiver. Madelyn noted,
I worked for an Educational Psychology professor for two years before I received an
assistantship in my own department. While we had a very positive relationship, my
work with her did not at all affect my doctoral studies, as it was quite outside my area.
It did not matter to me that my job had nothing to do with my actual interests; I simply
wanted the income, meager though it was, and a tuition waiver.
Often these established relationships with professors were associated with the third subtheme within
program performances, graduate assistantship performances.
Performance graduate assistantships
All three women were graduate assistants during their doctoral studies. Commonly, they helped in the
research and teaching process for professors in their respective areas. This included technical support,
creating posters, coding data, locating articles, searching for internet resources, and grading papers.
These tasks often felt like lengthy performances since they were not couched in each woman’s specific
research interests. Madelyn recalls planning a conference, completing travel forms, doing mass
mailings, running websites, completing literature reviews for other discipline areas, and performing
general administrative duties. Without hesitation, she refers to these activities as “distinct
performances for me. I learned valuable skills, but I did not engage with the information in any
meaningful way.”
Similarly Stella remembers,
My graduate assistantship consisted of working with a Science educator on research
that was meant to integrate mathematics and science. Unfortunately, my knowledge
and abilities in mathematics education were not at a good point for trying to integrate
science and mathematics through research. The work was made up of frustrating and
time consuming projects focused on Science education.
Madelyn’s initial work on her dissertation research felt like a performance. She recalls,
Because my husband completed his PhD a year before me, we moved for his new job,
and I conducted my dissertation research in our new location. This made for a difficult
dissertation process, as I was removed from my graduate school support network and
lived 15 hours away from my advisor, committee, and friends. Completing my
dissertation was, thus, a very lonely and difficult process. In many ways, it felt like a
performance, as I went through the motions alone to finish the project.
All three of the participants’ doctoral program experiences resulted in program performances. Yet, as
the group’s conversations deepened, they realized that many of the performances became something
more influential, ultimately intertwining with elements of journeys.
Program performance to journeys
The intertwining of classroom experiences, relationships with professors, and graduate assistantship
performances frequently became elements of the women’s personal journeys. During their doctoral
program experiences, the three women were affected in their personal and professional lives as they
completed program performances in the areas of coursework completion, relationships with
professors, and graduate assistantships. Each woman experienced personal defining moments that
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changed them, within their performances, which then became part of their individual personal
journeys.
Madelyn’s silence in the classroom setting resulted in classroom performances. However, this
performance ultimately turned into an educational journey. Madelyn recalled this first sociology class
morphing into a significant journey:
Battling insecurities, I challenged myself not only with new ideas but by engaging in
material and with scholars outside of my field. This was extremely difficult as I
struggled to learn new vocabulary and concepts and to engage with them at an
acceptable doctoral level. This experience not only expanded my knowledge but also
my confidence as a scholar. I went on to take numerous other sociology courses and
was able to feel like an equal participant.
Ultimately, Stella’s relationship with her second and final advisor—initially formed as a necessary
program performance—turned into one of the most significant and valuable relationships established
in her doctoral program. She remembers,
There was one point in the dissertation process at which my advisor came into my
office and said to just send what I had—without worrying about it being perfect.
Feeling comfortable enough to send what I had already completed for feedback without
worrying about it determining his respect or lack of for me but rather simply becoming
a part of the process was life changing. Continuously throughout my life, I have defined
and redefined myself based on others’ opinions of my work. Often these opinions were
expressed through grades. My advisor is probably one of the first and only people who
didn’t feel judgmental within my doctoral program. There was a sense of respect that
permeated our interactions. This relationship was an essential element in my personal
growth and journey within my doctoral program.
Similarly, Madelyn’s performance through isolated dissertation research ultimately resulted in a
journey for her. She states,
Once I was finished, it felt more like a journey, as I realized that I was uniquely
prepared for academic life as my dissertation was solely my work…virtually no one else
influenced it at all. I ended up being very proud of my work and myself for completing
my dissertation alone even though the process was very difficult.
Considering the entire doctoral education process, all three participants started their doctoral studies
as performances, which ultimately became personal journeys; however, none of them anticipated the
depth of change from journeying through a doctoral program.
Personal journeys
Ultimately all three participants changed professionally and/or personally based on personal doctoral
program journeys. Madelyn recalled many small journeys that moved her “outside her academic
comfort zone,” expanding her knowledge and confidence as a scholar, which, in turn, “added up to a
large change over time.” In another way, Stella experienced a transformative experience intertwining
her professional and personal experiences through the process of her dissertation. The dissertation
process under her advisor fundamentally altered her worldview in many ways, including her values
relating to education, politics, identity, and spirituality. ” Similarly, Elise said, “The classes I took
altered my view of educational systems in general but also changed the way I viewed mathematics
and how to best teach mathematical concepts. My research significantly transformed my view and
understanding of my students.”
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The women’s professional and personal dissertation experiences return us to the individual nature of
doctoral student experiences. Further, the individually based catalyst of journeys is exemplified
through Stella’s attempt to articulate the reason for her dissertation journey:
Why that happened is hard to exactly articulate. I know it had to do with the respect of
my advisor, the ability to choose my own dissertation and pathway, the confidence of
taking ownership of the dissertation process and really having a topic close to my heart,
the desire to be a better person that fundamentally intertwines with notions of
education, and a deep-rooted love for education.
For Elise, this growth is explicitly expressed through her professional experiences,
The classes I took altered my view of educational systems in general, but also changed
the way I viewed mathematics, and how to best teach mathematical concepts. My
research focused on student attitudes toward mathematics and significantly
transformed my view and understanding of my students. I understand students in a
completely different way after conducting interviews. I truly gained a deep
understanding of their points of view.
Similarly, Madelyn notes that,
Each of these (and other) small journeys greatly affected me though none of them
were individually earth shattering alone. Rather, together these experiences produced a
gradual change by the time I completed my dissertation process. Through my doctoral
program and specifically the dissertation process, I developed a great appreciation and
understanding of the many differences in people and viewpoints in the world. My
thoughts and viewpoints were broadened and softened as I experienced others lives
and developed as a scholar and researcher.
The women’s experiences within the conceptual approach of program performances, program
performance intertwined into journeys, and personal journeys through the emerging themes were
shared. Common understandings developed herein about doctoral education based on these themes
are now also shared.
What common understandings about doctoral education did the authors discover?
Common Understandings
Two common understandings develop through this project. The first relates to dualisms within
education. Dualisms allow the women to explain their doctoral education experiences in pluralistic
terms. More specifically, the women find that doctoral education experiences can be both
performances and journeys. The literature on doctoral education shows broad institutional and
program factors and elements and individual experiences affect student success. Rather than
questioning which is more influential individuals need to develop a pluralistic view of doctoral
experiences. In particular, a comment Stella made captures this notion well: “I feel like we all
understand that doctoral programs are not static and that the individual experience is so important.
At the same time, it is okay to talk about specific program components and the impact they have on
our future students’ experiences. These discussions capture for me the complex and multilayered
nature of doctoral education.” A pluralistic view allows deeper understandings of both individual and
common experiences, which allow the women to work at fostering supportive environments for their
present and future doctoral students.
The second common understanding relates to how the women develop these pluralistic perceptions of
doctoral education. As the women share experiences, they found commonalities within the utilized
conceptual framework and emerging themes. Additionally, each of the women share at least one
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program performance experience that later became a personal journey. Finally, each of the women
had the common experience of personal journeys throughout their doctoral experiences. These
commonalities were true even though each of the women had unique individual experiences. The
ability to understand both their individual experience and the common nature of their experiences
allow the women to build professional knowledge through shared understandings. The important
common understanding that the women learned is that these connections are built through the
thoughtful exploration of individual experiences and by connecting to colleagues, students, and
researchers. For the women in this piece it happened through using the conceptual framework of
program performances and journeys. Whether through this conceptualization or others, people need
to find ways to understand each other’s personal experiences to build professional knowledge in
relation to doctoral education. Ruth Behar speaks to the necessity of women understanding other
women through conversation and the sharing of experiences stating: “I believed that if every woman
could tell her life story and be heard, we could change the world, I still believe it. I still believe it
now” (Behar, 2003, p xix).
Practical Implications
The significance and broader contributions of this work are two-fold. First, the framework of program
performances and journeys captures the dual nature of doctoral education, both individual and
common performances and journeys. This offers pathways for both faculty and doctoral students to
develop a deeper awareness about the individual and common experiences of doctoral students. This
awareness is important because this dual nature of doctoral education is often difficult to articulate
and discuss. Typically, research will focus on one or the other rather than on both. In fact, the women
involved in this research started the project by focusing on the individual nature of doctoral education.
It was only through their common understandings that they discover the importance of looking at
doctoral education pluralistically. Potential conversations for future researchers can include those that
relate to broad institutional and program aspects, specific doctoral program elements, and features of
these program elements that contribute to doctoral students’ success. Additional questions relate to
the more personal aspects of doctoral education, perhaps influential individual experiences. Future
research could include an exploration of the impact of this framework on allowing understandings that
have deep, breadth and are pluralistic in nature.
Secondly, this piece highlights that professional knowledge based on this dualistic view of doctoral
education is built through understanding individual experiences, while also connecting experiences
with colleagues, students, and researchers (Cochran, Smith, & Lytle, 1999). The three women found
common understandings using this framework. Perhaps readers of this piece may also be able to
make connections with this framework. Perhaps readers’ individual experiences relate to the three
women’s experiences and the resulting common understandings within the framework. If this is the
case, a reader would be able to expand their own understandings as a result. On the other hand,
maybe readers of this piece do not relate to the women’s experiences but recognize that in order to
develop their own individual and common understandings about doctoral education they need to
connect and understand with others. Ultimately the point is that developing common understandings
with others is a way to develop professional knowledge as academics. Future research could explore
other pathways to understanding individual and common experiences in the development of
professional knowledge. Additionally, further exploration of what this professional knowledge is would
be of interest to the field. For example, researchers could explore the development of this professional
knowledge among both new and seasoned academics.
The women plan on continuing to meet as professionals. The group hopes to expand to include
doctoral students and colleagues from other universities. A mix of gender, age, years of experience,
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and locations will add depth and breadth to these conversations. It is through these continued
connections and understandings that the dual nature of doctoral programs and the importance of
understanding our own and others experiences will be explored. This is critical because the authors
feel these ideas are the root of improving doctoral program experiences.
Conclusions
Three academic women joined to write this piece to explore individual doctoral program experiences
and to establish common understandings. They collectively analyzed their experiences using the
conceptual approach of doctoral program performances and journeys. This case study shares the
women’s experiences within the conceptual approach through emerging themes. The common
understandings developed herein about doctoral education based on these themes are also shared.
The broader contributions of the three women’s work are three-fold. First, the entire case study
provides a way to view, discuss, and consider doctoral education pluralistically. Secondly, perhaps
readers of this piece will recognize that individual and common understandings with others are a way
to develop professional knowledge as academics. Further, readers of this piece might be able to relate
more deeply to their own and others’ unique doctoral program experiences through the lens of
performances or journeys. Some of these connections might be based on the overarching framework,
while others might be specific to the shared women’s experiences.
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Grover, V. (2007). Successfully navigating the stages of doctoral study. International Journal of
Doctoral Studies, 2, 9-21. Retrieved from http://www.ijds.org/Volume2/IJDSv2p009021Grover21.pdf
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Educational Studies in Mathematics, 50, 177-212.
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Mainhard, T., van der Rijst, R., van Tartwijk, J., & Wubbels, T. (2009). A model for the supervisordoctoral student relationship. Higher Education, 58, 359-373.
Ray, S. (2007). Selecting a Doctoral Dissertation Supervisor; Analytical Hierarchy Approach to the
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Recovering the Power Inside:
A Qualitative Study of Critical Reading in an Iranian University
Sue-san Ghahremani Ghajar
Masoumeh Kafshgarsouteh
Alzahra University, Iran
ghahremanighajar@yahoo.com
Alborz University, Iran
m_kafshgar@yahoo.com
Abstract
A fundamental goal of critical literacy approaches is to bring a change and empower students as
critical agents and subjects of decision making. Students are expected to do more than simply
accumulate information; they are encouraged to challenge their ‘taken for granted’ belief structures
and transform themselves as well as their immediate social environment. In this article, we present
a qualitative enquiry in a university reading course based on critical literacy. We explored how
learners reflected on their individual/community and word/world concerns through critical
understanding of texts and how they challenged and shattered their ‘taken for granted’ beliefs and
started to transform into critical agents of voice and position. The data consists of 400 concept
maps, called webs, and personal journals by fifty undergraduate English literature students at an
Iranian University, as well as oral and written interviews. The data was qualitatively analyzed in
search of themes that could illustrate students’ early thinking structures and their empowerment
and transformations into subjects of decisions. The study revealed that, through webbing
words/worlds and critically challenging texts, students took the opportunity to approach the
knowledge and information presented to them analytically and critically. On this basis, we discuss
how students were able to gain the power of critiquing, freeing their thoughts, finding and
expressing their voice and position, discovering personal meanings in texts and contexts,
cooperating and participating, and understanding learning for meaning through the critical act of
reading.
Keywords: Critical literacy; language learning; webbing; journal writing; qualitative research
When the class started something really strange happened to me… that
strange class… was a kind of sparkle in my mind, in my heart… at first I
didn’t understand what it meant… But when I thought about it
something…some… power, you know, was hidden in me, it completely
recovered, I recovered it, I feel it, I feel the power of myself, and that was
the changing point… (Atefeh)
Introduction
Critical literacy appeared as a reaction to the skill centered curriculum in which the students were not
exposed to the education of power and consequences (Freire & Macedo, 1987). It rejects the
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traditional education in which the know-all teacher transfers bits and pieces of information to students
and fills in their empty minds with information not necessarily related to their lives. Instead, critical
literacy welcomes a situation in which learners experience education as something they do (Fasheh,
2000). It affirms and empowers learners as subjects of decision making who question critically and
transform their worlds. The central idea of critical literacy approaches is active learning and student
construction of knowledge instead of acting passively with an empty mind supposed to be filled by
knowledge (Freire, 1972). In reading (and writing) courses, critical literacy aims at helping learners
gain critical understanding and making them conscious so that they can read the world and be able to
connect the world with the word (Freire, 1991). Reading word/world helps students to connect what
they decode on the printed page to an understanding of the world around them (Kincheloe, 2004).
Perceiving the relationship between the text and context, that will be called webbing in this article, is
essential in critical understanding.
It was such a perspective that triggered our decision to look for alternative methods which set
creativity and empowerment as major objective for the teachers and students uninspired by the
standard syllabus in our context. Our challenge was to help students experience education as
something they do, and as something related to their natural life experiences; something compatible
with their out of school and living literacy. We aimed at empowering students as subjects of decision
who abandon their ‘taken for granted’ beliefs, question critically, and transform their worlds. This
article reports our naturalistic research on the application of Freirian critical literacy approach (Friere,
1972, 1991; Freire & Macedo, 1987) and community literacy approaches (Heath, 1983; Street, 1984)
in university reading courses.
Theoretical Background
Critical literacy
Traditional views of literacy have been deeply ingrained in positivistic assumptions (Freire & Macedo,
1987). Based on such assumptions knowledge and theory are subordinated to technical mastery
(Giroux, 1983). In such an approach to literacy methodological issues are abstracted from their
ideological context and the relationship between social issues and literacy is ignored. This kind of
literacy is viewed simply as the development of skills aimed at acquiring the dominant language
(Macedo, 1991; McLaren & da Silva, 1993).
An alternative view of literacy is the view that not only considers mechanical skill learning but also,
and more importantly, a critical understanding of society (Giroux, 1987). It involves enabling people to
participate in the transformation of society (Walmsley, 1981). As a socially based phenomenon, it
serves to link the ideals to possibilities in struggle for a qualitatively better world (Giroux & McLaren,
1989; McLaren & da Silva, 1993). Critical literacy calls forth the critical reflection of learners and
educators and relates words to transforming the reality and world (Freire & Macedo, 1987;
Ghahremani-Ghajar & Mirhosseini, 2005; Masny & Ghahremani-Ghajar, 1999). In Freire’s view, literacy
is reading and writing both the word and the world. McLaren’s (1998) account of critical literacy is as
follows:
Those who argue for critical literacy maintain that an uncritical enthusiasm for making
individuals functionally literate, conceals the substantive issue of what it means to be
truly literate behind the imperatives of linguistic mastery… In this view, the value of
cultural and literary texts resides not in their collective currency as the heralded virtue of
the society… but in the manner in which they have been constructed… Critical literacy
focuses, therefore, on the interests and assumptions that inform the generation of
knowledge, itself. (p. 290)
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This is the view that rejects narrow definitions of literacy that reduce it to reading and writing skills at
an instrumental level or learning narrowly defined cultural codes (Giroux, 1992,). Critical literacy,
rather than treating literacy as a set of neutral psychologically based skills, treats it as “social and
political practice” (Siegel & Fernandez, 2000). The learners, based on a critical approach, rather than
being given the ability to encode and decode, are encouraged to understand ideologically loaded
nature of language (Lankshear, 1997) and to take a critical view of text (Scholes, 1995).
Based on a critical approach to literacy, the world is viewed as a text (Giroux, 1992) and learners
reflect on the nature of literacy as a social practice. When they recognize words in texts as
representations of social realities, they are more likely to take a powerful position towards them; to
reject them if necessary, to interpret them in a unique way of their own, and to reconstruct them in
ways more consistent with their own experiences (Cervetti, et al, 2001).
Webbing
There are different methods for achieving critical understanding of texts, including making ‘concept
maps’ (Novak, 1998). Concept mapping is a technique that allows learners to understand the
relationships between ideas in a text by creating a visual map of the connections. But beyond concept
mapping is designing webs or webbing (Kafshgarsouteh, 2006). Expanding the idea of concept
mapping of texts, webbing involves making relationships between concepts; relating them to one’s
own life experiences, knowledge, values, and attitudes; and taking a critical position towards the
words and the worlds. A concept map is the descriptive summary of a text that organizes the
information of the text and is based on, basically, the text author’s point of view (Novak, 1998; Novak
and Gowin, 1984).
Webbing, however, as we define it, is the act of meaning making as a process of construction – while
reading – and giving value to a text in the social and historical contexts of, power relation. In
webbing, readers and writers make an attempt to go beyond the text and try to find out how and why
knowledge and power are constructed (Kafshgarsouteh, 2006). Upon reading the words/worlds and
webbing the texts, readers try to change their attitudes, values, and worldviews and transform their
social environments as well.
In a critical literacy course, students do not read simply to find the facts and gain knowledge by
memorizing the statements within a text, but they try to recognize what a text says, how it is saying
it, what it wants to do, and what it means as a whole. Students try to relate the texts to their own life
experiences and to find themselves and their own values in the text. Based on a critical literacy,
readers are aware that no text is ideologically neutral (Freire & Macedo, 1987). So they take a stance
on the issue by trying to find out their own ideas and attitudes and having a position towards it.
Methodology
Research participants
In this study we explored how learners reflected on their individual/community and word/world
concerns through critical understanding of texts and how they challenged and shattered their ‘taken
for granted’ beliefs and transformed into critical/analytical readers and people of voice and position.
The participants in this study were the undergraduate English literature students registered in a
freshmen reading course (the class included 50 female students) in 2005-2006 at Alzahra University (a
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university exclusively for women students) situated in northern Tehran- with one of the researchers as
their teacher and the other researcher as a full-participant observer. Before taking this critical literacy
course, all students had passed a 4-Unit reading course in the first semester intended to improve their
reading abilities, with another instructor and a skill-based approach based on reading comprehension
strategies and different types of comprehension questions.
The students had a weekly schedule of one session per week, two hours a session for sixteen weeks
during the term. Throughout the term, three specific literacy events happened: critical reading of
several texts (some of them chosen by teacher and read by all the students and some individually
selected and read by students); designing webs about the text (as exemplified in the following
sections); discussion and dialogue initiated by both the teacher and students; and personal journal
writing (at home, the students spent time writing some personal journals responding to the texts; in
class, they had the option of sharing the journals with the teacher, or commenting on each other’s
journals).
The participants of our study have been raised in culturally and socially rich and community-oriented
families. They enjoyed a rich personal relationship with family members, friends, and community
members who talked to them in the language of poetry, respect, care, and responsibility. As reflected
in their class dialogues, when these young girls entered school and university, they discovered a
mismatch with what they had experienced in their informal communities and found an unexpected
gap between their out of school literacy and in school literacy. During years of authoritative schooling,
students developed a sense of loyalty towards their teachers and to a teacher oriented monologue
and to decisions made for them.
Such a schooling abstracted education from the challenges of developing a critically conscious, socially
responsible and politically active student body and citizenry (Leistyna & Woodrum, 1996). As a result
the mindset and focus of students is shifted toward the final exam by which their educational fate and
destiny is supposedly decided by, so is the focus of educational syllabus designers and materials
developers. The best students work at memorizing subject matters and getting high marks, and the
more they work on and learn the tricks for taking multiple choice format tests, the more successful
they will be at surpassing their competitors.
Data collection and analysis
We studied and closely observed the students and all the literacy events happening in the classroom.
We took notes and monitored and collected all materials that students produced in and out of class for
a qualitative analysis. There were three kinds of documents which we were mainly concerned about:
Webbing: Each participant was required to design a web for each article, making relationships
between concepts and taking a critical position towards the words and the worlds of the text. In
webbing, student readers and writers made an attempt to go beyond the literacy texts. The texts with
various genres, lengths, and topics were selected by both the students and the teacher, based on the
relevance and importance of their contents to the participants, and were read both in class and
extensively outside the class.
Blogging: The students were required to comment on the articles regarding their agreement,
disagreement, and/or their position towards the ideas mentioned in articles, which we named blogging
as opposed to the conventional writing exercises.
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Journaling: The students were expected to write personal journals in and out of classroom as a form
of a written dialogue with their teacher.
The students started webbing, blogging, and journaling at the beginning of the course and continued
them through the course to the end, and filed them in the form of portfolios. A chronological overview
of each student’s portfolio could show the early thinking model and value structure and the changes
they went through during the course. We adopted a naturalistic interpretive qualitative research
method and we applied triangulation procedures by interviewing the students formally (predetermined
sessions exclusively for interviews) and informally (in the form of friendly dialogue) before, during,
and after the course to find out the changes they had in reading, understanding, critical thinking and
expressing their words/worlds, as well as the transformations they were trying to make through their
social, cultural and political webs. The formal oral interview was conducted and tape recorded at the
end of the semester to find out students’ understanding of the act of reading in this critical course.
We also did some informal oral interviews during the term with students to perceive their feelings and
thoughts during the process of critical literacy.
The bulk of data was analyzed according to the seven-step data analysis procedure offered by Cohen,
et al., (2000), which is based on definition of data analysis as “making sense of the data in terms of
the participants definition of the situation, noting patterns, themes, categories, and regularities” (p.
147). Different bodies of data were carefully read and reread in search of relevant themes. The results
of the data analysis process discussed below and the findings are then put together and considered as
a whole for the theory generation stage as a major stage in naturalistic research(Cohen, et al., 2000).
The names used in this article are the participants’ real first names and are brought here upon asking
their permission and considering the ethical issues.
Analysis and Discussion
In this critical literacy course, the students read articles chosen either by them or the teacher. Then
they had dialogic conversations regarding the problems posed by the teacher based on challenging
students’ thought about the social and critical implications of the issues reflected in texts. The
students tried to read the worlds behind the words of the article and relate them to their own
personal lives and experiences. Then based on their understanding and interpretation of and
connection to the article, they designed webs to show the critical understanding of the text as well as
their critical position towards it. Moreover, they showed their involvement with the texts by bloggings,
that is, they wrote their comments, agreements, disagreements, and life experiences; posed their
questions and voiced their concerns; found their personal meaning, values, and attitudes in the text;
and revealed their critical positions on the margins of the texts. The teacher at the beginning of the
course renamed reading as webbing and writing as blogging to create a new and different view
towards the traditional skills. What follows is an elaborate discussion exemplification of the five critical
literacy themes that emerged out of a triangulated qualitative analysis of the data:
Nothing is neutral
Sahar was one of those students who at first used to take everything for granted and accept the
things as they are, ‘because they were so’. But later she started to adopt a critical perspective about
the ideas and information presented. She talked about this change in her interview:
Sahar: I’ve learned how to look at something beyond the word, something in the middle
of the text, not the text itself… I’ve learned that when I want to write something, it
means something, it is intended to mean something. …At first I used to read a text, look
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at the words, and try to understand the meaning of the text itself without any critical
mind, without criticizing actually…
After reading an article in this critical course, Sahar designed a web (Figure 1) in which she used
colors and creative shape and tries to make relationships between the words and colors. The words
happiness and optical control are written in blue; the words think, human, and realistic are written in
green; fears, sadness, misery are black; challenge, power, angry are red. The word life is written with
two colors, red and black. The word human being is written in green and red. Even the hexagonal
shapes that she has drawn have two colors, red and green. But in an interview, she confesses that
the use of colors by her was an unconscious act. When the teacher sparked her attention, Sahar
perceived and considered the relationships between the colors and words she had used. In her idea,
webbing is discovering one’s hidden ideology, meanings, and values, and noticing them:
Sahar: I just drew these shapes unconsciously and I didn’t notice them at first. But
teacher said ‘look at this one and try to have a relationship between these colors and
these words’.
I noticed them and I saw that, for example, expressing, happiness, optical control, they
are all blue… And I had life in two colors, red and black, and fear is black, so a part of life
is black because we are always afraid of something…
First I did them unconsciously but Dr. Ghahremani said ‘look at it, it has a relationship in
itself’ and I noticed and then I found the relationship and teacher said ‘happy birthday,
you found yourself’.
Figure 1: Sahar’s web (1)
In her next web (Figure 2), Sahar drew a human’s head in the shape of a plant in a vase. Again, she
has used colors to convey her personal meaning. The words anger, love, and half of life are red.
Reading critically and gaining a different understanding of her world has changed Sahar to a
responsible decision maker who can reflect and transform her life. She talked about this web in her
interview:
Sahar: This one, I thought a human’s mind is like a jar, we can have lots of things. And
our thoughts are just like plants, they can grow. This color [the yellow one], I wanted to
say that our mind is bright. I wanted to relate the mind to heart, because although mind
is very important, logic is very important, heart is as important as this one. Because I
myself think that we can not be logical just, we have to think about our heart too. We
have to do lots of things in order to satisfy our hearts.
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Figure 2: Sahar’s web (2)
Before this course, Sahar used to read, see, and speak to her friends and comment superficially,
without deep thinking, without any type of critique or analysis. But, according to Sahar herself, in this
class she learned to explain the mundane, and what was taken for granted and she learned to be
critical in her reading and writing:
Sahar: …I’ve learned that nothing is neutral… everything has a meaning. I look at it very
deeply and try to understand it. For example, when I see something… I’ll think about it
and I’ll think about it and try and try to find something out of that subject…
Freeing thoughts
Naiemeh was afraid of making mistakes and breaking the rules, so she blocked herself from learning
how to free her thoughts. In this class, she learned to think and go beyond limiting rules, to use her
creativities, ant to express her feelings, and free her thoughts. In her final exam, which was obviously
different from the traditional kind of exams, Naiemeh read an article on literacy and illiterates and
blogged on it. While reading the text, she found opportunities to express her feelings toward the
statements of the text in words like ‘ a beautiful name’, ‘interesting’, ‘It’s great’, ‘BeautifulI’, ‘I like this
word’, and ‘It’s not a good judgment’.
She expressed herself in a way as if she was talking to the writer of the article while reading the text,
in phrases like ‘It’s a right choice, I think’, ‘yes, we know many of them’, ‘You’re right, it happens
many times’, and ‘She has changed you a lot’. Making relationships between concepts, reflecting on
them, commenting on them, and self-expressing provided Naiemeh with a way to discover her own
personal meaning and attitude towards the issues in the text. She questioned and challenged some
issues of the article about the concept of illiteracy:
Naiemeh: Why do we call people with names that hurt them? Such names break people
into parts! It’s not beautiful…Sometimes they know and feel much better than a literate
person
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She also reflected on the beliefs and information in the text and did a rewrite of some sections that is
indicative of her voice about knowledge, the world, respect, and labeling people. As she said in her
interview, the critical literacy activities she did in this class were different from her previous isolating
experiences and so helped her free her thoughts:
Naiemeh: Wisdom is not dependent to knowledge… Everybody has his own WORLD… A
different way of looking: a different way of perceiving… An illiterate person can be a
‘treasure’ too… An illiterate person is not isolated! But a literate one sometimes is…
This class was a new and enjoyable experience for Naiemeh. It helped her change her view towards
reading and learning. She became aware of the illusion of learning in the mainstream educational
system, as she says, they did some tasks in class but at the end, they did not learn much:
Naiemeh: Other classes were very boring, reading texts, learning words, answering
questions, but at the end we didn’t learn anything. But in this class everything changed…
and we learned how to free our ideas…
Underlying messages
Gelareh, another active participant in making creative webs in class, was quiet in class. She said that
previous to this course, she did look for meaning in the text, but did not have a critical understanding
of the context and did not think it was necessary to relate the text to her own personal experiences.
In the process of making webs and talking to the texts, she learned to go beyond the literal meaning
of the texts, and to find relevant ideas and values hidden in the words, and she found it important to
discover her personal meaning in the (con)text:
Gelareh: I learned how to take out meaning in a simple sentence. Sometimes you see a
simple sentence, but when you look at it, it has a lot of meaning inside it. I learned how
to understand the underlying messages of a text.
Gelareh read an article about the power of narrative and designed a web to show her critical
understanding of the text. She made a connection between the concepts of the text and her
understanding of the world and took a critical position to rewrite the text with her own new ideas
about how the past and future can make a story for every person’s life:
Gelareh: …But listen to what happened to me… Life is understood BACKWARDS but must
be lived forwards… My story about an incident in the past provides a platform on which I
can stand, and then step with greater confidence into the future. No story is a story
unless the main character wants something and wants it badly, and every story reflects
learning…
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Figure 3: Gelareh’s web
In her web (Figure 3), Gelareh placed a road in the letter ‘N’ of the word narrative. The colors of the
road are varied. In some parts, it is green, and in some other parts, it is brown. In the interview
Gelareh talked about this web:
Gelareh: I cut dawn some pieces to make this. About narration, it is life. Life is a
narrative kind of writing and you make it, you write it. This [the shape of the letter N] is
the path of life, from beginning to the end, which is not straight. These are some
problems or things that happen to us, good days, bad days, the colors change.
Life for her is a kind of writing, and writing is a kind of reshaping of life. Gelareh shows how she can
use her voice as the one who can make and shape her life by narrating personal life stories to others.
In the next article, she applied narrating her real life stories. She reflected and blogged on the text,
revealed her values, wrote her attitudes, took a critical position, and told her real life story:
Gelareh: So a little good change in each one of us would make the world WONDERFUL!
It’s obvious! Because it is us, people that make the society and communities… We just
see things in surface. We never bother go deeper in them, even for our own benefit. And
that’s what most of the time causes MISUNDERSTANDINGS…
In her next blogging she related a sentence to her own experiences and wrote her critical position
towards it and in another article, she related the text to her life experiences with her mother and how
she believed life demands sacrifices on both sides of parents and children. She also reacted to some
sentences of the article in the form of a dialogue with the author:
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Gelareh: I did the same thing for my mom… I knew she was always interested in
continuing her studies…but because of some problems she couldn’t go to university… and
one of the biggest problems was ME. Cause she’d always wanted me to be the best, so
she spent her entire time helping me find my talent in English, math, music…and
somehow I felt I owed her my success…so I helped her in the same thing. It was my
turn…
Through this kind of webbing and blogging, Gelareh showed her critical understanding of the texts.
She became involved with the texts, related them to her own life experiences, found her personal
meanings and ideas in them, and took a critical position.
The literacy of togetherness
Marjan learned the value of togetherness in this course. She learned to express herself, to share her
ideas, to relate with and help others, to socialize, and to live better:
Marjan: It was mostly in a group work… in our group we could web on an article… we
could cooperate. At first I didn’t know about that, but later… teacher came to us and
helped us …We had group works before… but in this class, the group work was
different. …We were supposed to cooperate, something we didn’t do before, not just with
friends, with other classmates as well. We had good cooperation…
This kind of togetherness and cooperation was different from the group work activities in other
classes. The togetherness here was a kind of living with each other and sharing living, working, and
learning. In this course, she read an article about capturing feeling on paper and blogged on it:
Marjan: Writing dialogues can help a lot. It’s a very helpful way of making you released
from bothering thoughts. When you consider others’ situations and don’t judge them
unfair you can understand them better and solve your communicative problems better.
For Marjan, writing dialogues is a way of helping people get rid of their troubling thoughts; a way of
healing their sufferings. Since dialogue requires at least two people, community is important, too. In
Marjan’s idea, the way people treat each other is of importance. She says that the way she treats and
judges others affects her relation and togetherness with them. She tried to show her understanding of
the previous article by webbing. In her webbing, she used drawings and words to show her ideas
about writing, togetherness, and sharing. Then she read the article on what people can learn from
failure and wrote a journal about it. In this journal Marjan took on a personal tone and wrote about
her own experiences, her feelings, the choices that she has made in life, and the reasons and
consequences of those choices in her life. The teacher commented on it, as Marjan mentioned in her
interview:
Marjan: I remember once I woke up at 9 in the morning and I felt I wanted to write
something, the old feeling that I had, because I really loved writing. Then I started to
write something; then I said I should give it to Dr. Ghahremani. I gave it to her and she
commented some nice things on it. She wrote: ‘you have already given me the energy to
feel happiness in my life.’ Actually teacher gave energy to us but with this I thought that
I was giving energy to her too.
The teacher’s comments made Marjan think that writing a journal and talking about one’s feeling is
not only a personal activity, but also a social and togetherness activity that makes both feel a need for
socialization, and it is a way for bringing people together.
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Recovering the power inside
Atefeh had been told that change was a negative point and unacceptable in society. She had accepted
this idea as a social norm. But in this critical course, she experienced a change in her thoughts, a
change that made her feel powerful unlike her previous idea about standing in the shadow. In this
course, when she read a text about getting old and blogged on it, she tried to connect the text to her
own life and to her knowledge of the world. Atefeh always expressed her religious interpretations
about life in class, and thus made use of those beliefs in her writings too. She connected one
sentence in the article to a verse from the Holy Quran and somewhere else she related a sentence to
a Hadith (saying) from Prophet Mohammad (s.a.w.):
Atefeh: There is an Aye [verse] in Holly [Holy] Quran that: ‘human being can reach to all
science and can do everything but he can’t do anything about life – death’
Atefeh: It reminds me this sentence: so promise me forever there will never be a never;
[This sentence reminds me of] ‘Surviving is different from living. Are they expert in living
too?’
This was the first time in her life that she started questioning and challenging the authority of a writer
in a text, because, as she said in her interview, she never used to even think about it; she did not feel
powerful enough or did not assume a right to do so because the writer used to be the sole authority
for her:
Atefeh: Before the class I thought that reading is looking at words. I thought that a
writer who writes these articles has an authority to write. I just read the words and
listened to what they said. Now when I compare myself with that time I see that at that
time the writer told me you don’t have any power, just listen to me, follow me, and just
read my words. But when Dr. Ghahremani said you have the power to write your words,
you can use different colors, you can say ‘I can’… I just said wow, how can I do things
that I’ve never known about them.
She felt powerful enough to apply the change in her point of view in her daily life. Education for her
did not mean detachment of school and home, anymore, but a process in which she could learn
something and use in her daily life. She had the power to question and challenge the ideas presented
in texts, she could connect the text to an understanding of her world, could express herself freely, and
could own the language.
Conclusion
At the beginning of the course the teacher had renamed reading as webbing and writing as blogging
to create a new and different view towards the traditional skills. This renaming was a kind of warning
for the students to break the routine and be able to experience diverse ways of reading, writing, and
webbing. The students were surprised with a different type of literacy practice, a different type of
community, and diverse ways of webbing. They perceived the value of learning and living with the
acts of reading and did not memorize or participate in exams to gain high scores. Facing a new world,
they started struggling and coming out of their protective and competitive worlds and started shaping
a community with the teacher in which everybody was both learning and teaching at the same time.
With the help of their teacher in their community, the students learned how to find their own self.
In this critical literacy course, the students read articles and unfolded the world behinds the words in
the texts and searched for personal meanings within rich discussions that reflected their concerns
about language, thought and critique. They made connections between the concepts of the texts and
their understanding of the worlds around them and took a critical position. Before this critical course,
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the students had some personal values and belief structures which they gained through their lives and
educational careers. They were even somehow unaware of the existence of some of these values and
belief structures. In this critical course, while doing critical literacy activities, the students became
aware and conscious of some changes in their values and belief structures. Through a close
examination of the data, a pattern of value changes emerged. Those that occurred in all events were
as follows:
Nothing is neutral: Before the start of the term, some students were used to taking textual
information for granted and accepting the things as they are. For them, reading was an unproblematic
process of grasping information that was directly available in the texts and gaining knowledge was an
unproblematic process of grasping information directly available in the world. But after the critical
course, they became conscious to think more deeply and critically about the ideas and information
presented to them. They learned that no text is neutral but intended to convey a special idea and
influence or silence other ideas and points of views.
Freeing thoughts: Some students were afraid of making mistakes and breaking the rules in
language learning and reading, so they could not use their personal meanings in freeing their
thoughts. In this class, they learned to think and go beyond limiting rules, use their creativities,
express their feelings, and free their thoughts.
Underlying messages: Some of the students used to look for meaning in the text without having
any critical understanding of the context and without relating the text to their own worlds. But in this
critical course, they learned to go beyond the literary meaning of the texts, relate the text to their
own worlds, find their own ideas and values in the texts, read the worlds behind the words, and
discover their personal meaning in the context.
The literacy of togetherness: Some of the students learned the value of togetherness in this
course. They learned how to express themselves through language, to share their ideas, to relate with
and help each other and be together to socialize, to learn better and to live better with a community
oriented language.
Recovering the power inside: Some of the students started to feel a change in their entire social
and cultural beliefs and attitudes. The changes that they experienced in this course were realized in all
aspects of their lives. They became aware that they are the makers and creators of their language
and lives, so they are responsible for making decisions.
In Critical literacy (Friere, 1991; Freire and Macedo, 1987) no genuine learning can occur unless
students are actively involved, through praxis (the combination of both reflection and action) in
controlling their own education. In this course, the students experienced learning as the combination
of both reflection and action. Not only did they reflect on the lives they were leading and the values
they had, but also they had a desire to change their lives and values as well as their social
environments. Through the natural making of language as a creative process and performing literacy
practices, these students gradually experienced a shift from perceiving knowledge as something ‘out
there’ and ‘taken for granted’ to seeing it as something that they have the authority and power to
challenge and question and construct for themselves.
The literacy practices experienced in this community-based course can be useful in the design of
meaning based reading practices in various other contexts. This research can be offered as an
example of alternative teaching and research which has the potential to deal with the problem of the
mismatch between out of school and in school literacy. It may challenge teachers and educators to
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raise their consciousness about the importance of implementation of critical literacy principles in their
classrooms. We also hope that more students will become agents of power and change who will work
towards transforming themselves and their society.
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Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry, July 2011, 2(3)
Television Advertisements: A Reception Study
Figen Ebren
Yeşim Çelik
Akdeniz University, Turkey
ebrenfigen@gmail.com
Akdeniz University, Turkey
yesimcelik@akdeniz.edu.tr
Abstract
This paper focuses on an analysis of advertising reception and explores how audiences interpret
advertisements. The study attempted to answer how female and male participants interpret
advertisements with symbolic expressions and advertisements with direct messages. The main
purpose is to define differences in interpretation of advertisements based on gender. In this
process, a two-stage approach is employed in order to examine the audience reception in the
context of television advertising. In this study, we first identified the characteristic features of the
advertisements, later we intended to explore the reception of advertisements. The first stage of the
study evaluated the contribution of 21 participants in Antalya, Turkey determined by snowball
sample with male and female participants within the age range 21-55 years. The participants
articulated written reactions to two advertisements instantly displayed on computer screen.
Participants were subject to viewing those advertisements and responding ready-made questions
on paper. In the second stage, considering Höijer (1990)’s study, a focus group discussion was
conducted in order to reveal more detailed information as a second stage of the research. This
group consisted of 10 participants of the first stage. A semi-structured focus group discussion was
employed for our study which allowed group interaction. Our findings revealed a difference in
interpretation based on the gender of the participant. This reception study is one of the few
researches done in the field in Turkey. It is also expected to make a contribution to gender studies.
Keywords: Reception; television advertisements; gender
Introduction
This paper establishes a theoretical framework as well as a reception study made in Turkey. The
primary objective of reception studies, as a significant field in the qualitative research, is “to create,
expand and refine theory by observing and interacting with people in their natural environment to
discover rich explanations and unique instances” (Allen, Titsworth & Hunt 2009: 4). In this frame, “the
characteristics -logic of discovery and attention to the diverse forms and details of social life- are
shared by nearly all qualitative approaches which are interested in human understanding” (Lindlof and
Taylor, 2002: 19). Qualitative approaches concentrate upon “issues of how humans articulate and
interpret their social and personal interests” (Lindlof & Taylor, 2002: 19).
This paper focuses on an analysis of advertising reception and explores how audiences interpret
advertisements. The study attempted to answer how female and male participants interpret
advertisements with symbolic expressions and advertisements with direct messages. The main
purpose is to define differences in interpretation of advertisements based on gender. For this purpose,
we first identified the characteristic features of the advertisements, later we intended to explore the
reception of advertisements. In this process, a two-stage approach was employed in order to examine
the audience reception in the context of television advertising. In the first stage, the participants
articulated written reactions to two advertisements instantly displayed on computer screen. In the
second stage, a focus group discussion was conducted in order to reveal more detailed information.
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Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry, July 2011, 2(3)
This reception study is one of the few researches done in the field in Turkey. It is also expected to
make a contribution to gender studies.
Literature Review
There is a shift from measuring effects/effectiveness or “empiricist models” (Lindlof & Taylor, 2002:
24) to how audiences interpret messages in the audience research. In this frame, Curran (1990)
pointed out that
“A new revisionist movement has emerged that challenges the dominant radical
paradigms of the late 1970s and early 1980s. This has taken the form of contesting the
underlying models of society, the characterization of media organizations, the
representations of media content, the conception of the audience and the aesthetic
judgements that underpinned much ‘critical’ research. This revisionism is in part a
reversion to certain discredited conventional wisdoms of the past, a revivalism
masquerading as new and innovatory thought. However, part of the new critique can
be seen as a reformulation that could potentially strengthen the radical tradition of
communications research” (p. 135).
Reception theory proposed that “individuals actively shape the meaning of advertising”, and audiences
do not passively receive meaning (Plunkey, 2010: 54). In this context, Wharton (2005) underlined
social components in the reception process:
“Audience decoding of advertisements is a combination of producer intent and a
complexity of contributory factors brought to or found in the decoding process. This
includes a recognition of various ways of seeing associated with different media forms
and social and spatial circumstances and the presentation and reception of adverts as
part of a flow of advertising and of a wider social experience” (p. i).
There are a variety of studies examining the reception of advertisements in communication studies. In
the tradition of reception research, the studies focus on reception investigate how different socialcultural groups interpret the texts. A number of studies have been conducted to analyze audiences’
readings of advertisements in the literature. In this context, a research done by Yannopoulou and
Elliott (2008) examined the interpretation of print advertising by different audience groups, and
explores how audiences decode open-text vs closed-text advertisements. In this study, in-depth
interviews were conducted with male and female participants within the age range 20-60 years in the
United Kingdom. In the conclusion of the study, significant differences in interpretation based on the
social class and gender of the participants were revealed. The findings indicated that “male
participants approach the advertisement in a descriptive way, while females approach it in an
interpretive way” and “female readers would immediately attempt to interpret the advertisement, find
associations and search for inferred meanings” (Yannopoulou & Elliott, 2008: 29). This study had an
enlightening property for the current study by putting forward the differences between men and
women in reception of advertisements in detail. In Sandikci’s study (1999), the reading strategies
used by different groups of audiences in the process of reading of the postmodern advertisements
were examined. In this frame, Sandikci (1999) collected data about four advertisements from 20
participants and used only cultural capital to explore differences in reading strategies. The results of
the study revealed that there were meaningful differences between participants in terms of
advertisement interpretation. In this frame, participants with high levels of cultural capital tended to
interact with the advertisements to form an overall impression or attitude about the brand, while the
readings of participants with low levels of cultural capital were directed toward finding a product
attribute-related meaning conveyed in the advertisement (Sandikci, 1999: 235). As Sandikci (1999)
pointed out that
“The meaning of an advertisement lies neither in the ad nor within the viewer, but
emerges from the interaction of the two. Advertisements do not determine meaning,
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Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry, July 2011, 2(3)
but through the employment of various structural features, they shape the reading
experience. Cultural resources, previous experiences, and knowledge that viewers bring
into a reading interact with the structure of the ad, and help construct the meaning
from the advertisement” (p. 237).
This study had a guiding characteristic for the current study by providing a framework about the
reading strategies adopted by different groups of viewers when reading the advertisements.
Ayaşlıoğlu (2007) focused on the relationship between the reception and poverty, and focused on how
different social, cultural and economic components impact the reception of advertisements. For this
purpose, it was conducted three different focus group discussions with 20 participants in Turkey. In
the study, it was emphasized that reception of the messages may vary in relation with a number of
cultural, social and class related concerns. This study is significant for the current study by providing a
sample focus group study. Kaderka (2006) focused on an analysis of the reception of non-commercial
advertising among various social groups in Czech society using the focus group method. The results of
the study indicated that “in the analysis the respondents did in fact interpret non-commercial
advertisement as having dialogic relevance, given their deliberations on who was saying what to
whom and why” (Kaderka, 2006: 379). This study had a guiding trait for the current study by putting
forward the active role of the audience in meaning creation in detail. In another study, Plunkey (2010)
conducted a student-centered research of advertising rhetoric. In this qualitative study, to generate
new theoretical and practical approaches students’ writing about print advertising persuasion was
analyzed. For this purpose, the data was collected from 16 students - eight students were male, and
eight students were female in the United States. The findings of the study revealed that viewers stress
product interest and personal attributes through identifications, and age, gender, ethnicity and income
influence how advertisements persuade. As Plunkey (2010) pointed out, “advertisements persuade
when viewers have personal attributes that get them to identify with advertising content. Through
these identifications, viewers reinforce product interest and personal attributes” (p. 219). This study
had an illuminating property for the current study by providing a sample of written assessment
process of reception analysis. Raftopoulou (2007) conducted an investigation into the reception of
anti-smoking advertisements. For this purpose, in the first step, twelve individual interviews were
conducted with six male and six female respondents (ranging from 21 to 28 years of age) in London.
In the second step, five of these respondents were taken part in the individual follow-up interview.
The results pointed out that the advertisements were decoded within the wider media context, and
the social and personal characteristics of the audience in the reception analysis of advertisements.
This study is remarkable for the current study by putting forward the importance socio-cultural
context in the decoding process.
A number of studies have been also undertaken focused on gender in the reception studies.
Interpretation of advertisements based on gender differences have previously been studied by Mick
and Politi (1989). Mick and Politi (1989) examined consumers’ interpretations of advertising imagery,
and focused on students’ thoughts and feelings about a suggestive ad with a dominant visual content.
The results of the study demonstrated that male and female participants related to the portrayals with
different underlying needs and life experiences. This study had an enlightening characteristic for the
current study by putting forward the importance of gender in the reception analysis of
advertisements. As another example of this line, Barak’s study (2009) explored expressions of the
third-person effect based on a feminist reception study. In this frame, women’s reception of femininity
in television advertisements was examined. In this study, it was conducted personal in-depth
interviews with Israeli women in the context of different social and economic backgrounds. The results
revealed that socio-cultural context and the characteristics of media environment impacted gender
interpretations. This study is remarkable for the current study by putting forward gender as a
significant determinant in the reception process. Similarly, in Hogg and Garrow’s study (2003), the
relationship between gender, identity and the consumption of advertisements was examined. In the
study, it was conducted a small-scale exploratory study to analyze the effect of gender identity in
terms of consumers’ reception. In this context, in the first phase, 25 young audiences watched video
clips of two television advertisements, and in the second phase, it was conducted focus group
discussions to clarify the respondents’ gender schemas. The findings pointed out that the centrality of
gender identity to self-schemas played a significant role in the interpretation of the advertisements.
This study is noteworthy for the current study by putting forward the impact of gender on the
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Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry, July 2011, 2(3)
consumption of advertising. In another study, Sandikci (1998) explored the reception of the polysemic
advertising texts, and examined oppositional readings using focus group discussions. In this frame,
the author focused on reception analysis based understanding of images of women in advertisements.
The findings indicated that the same advertisements generated multiple readings including similar as
well as different ones. This study had a guiding characteristic by emphasizing the importance of the
interaction between the advertisement, the product, the audience and the context in reception
analysis.
Research Questions
The present study attempted to answer the following research questions to get the comprehension of
evaluations of participants:
 How female participants interpret ads with symbolic expressions and advertisements with
direct messages?
 How male participants interpret ads with symbolic expressions and advertisements with direct
messages?
Methodology
The main focus of this paper is the audiences’ evaluation about advertisements. In this context, a
two-stage approach was used to examine the audience reception in the context of television
advertising. In the first stage, the characteristics of the advertisements were specified and then the
reception of advertisements was examined in the paper. Considering Höijer (1990)’s study, a focus
group discussion was conducted as the second stage of the research. In this frame, in order to
produce processes on sampling, reliability, validity and credibility, the books and papers such as
Yıldırım and Şimşek, 2000; Denzin, 1970; Priest, 2010 were taken as primary sources.
Sample
In this study, snowball sampling was used. Snowball sampling “yields a study sample through referrals
made among people who share or know of others who possess some characteristics that are of
research interest” (Biernacki & Waldorf, 1981: 141). As Lindlof and Taylor (2002) pointed out “most
sampling decisions in qualitative inquiry are not based on procedures of random probability in which
every element of a population has an equal and independent chance of being selected” (p. 122). In
this respect, Lindlof and Taylor (2002) also stated that “qualitative research does not produce data
that can be subjected to statistical procedures that allow generalization to a population” (p. 122). In
this frame, it is important to note that “qualitative studies intend to focus on a limited population so
that the researcher can examine their experiences and perspectives within a specific context.
Therefore the implications of this study cannot be overly generalized, nor can be drawn definitive
conclusions” (Plunkey, 2010: 218-219). Following the above stated information, the results of our
study cannot be overly generalized. The demographic information about participants can be found in
Table 1.
Table 1. Details of the Demographic Profile of Participants
Participant
No.
Name
Age
Educational
Background
Working Position
Gender
1
Pınar
26
Graduate
administrative staff
Female
2
Nurgül
28
Graduate
administrative staff
Female
3
Ozan
32
Graduate
administrative staff
Male
4
Didem
25
Graduate
administrative staff
Female
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Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry, July 2011, 2(3)
Participant
No.
Name
Age
Educational
Background
Working Position
Gender
5
İnanç
26
Graduate
administrative staff
Male
6
Janset
24
Graduate
administrative staff
Female
7
Hüseyin
28
Graduate
administrative staff
Male
8
Nesim
43
associate degree
technician
Male
9
Sibel
33
Undergraduate
worker
Female
10
Semih
31
Graduate
civil engineer
Male
11
Muhammet
36
Graduate
civil engineer
Male
12
Fatma
46
secondary school
worker
Female
13
Gülden
38
MSc
civil engineer
Female
14
Özlem
21
high school
secretary
Female
15
Fatma
21
associate degree
worker
Female
16
Orçun
27
Graduate
lawyer
Male
17
Arif
24
Graduate
lawyer
Male
18
Burcu
37
associate degree
administrative staff
Female
19
Muzaffer
55
associate degree
teacher
Male
20
Nilgün
42
Graduate
teacher
Female
21
Nezahat
41
associate degree
secretary
Female
Reliability
Reliability is defined as “whether or not repeating the measurement or experiment can be expected to
yield the same or similar results” (Priest, 2010: 232). The following subjects were determined in order
to ensure the external reliability:
1) The researchers were in the position as observer in the interview and as moderators in focus
group study.
2) Information about the participants as data source was displayed in Table 1.
3) Data collection process:
First Stage
This audience reception research explored readings of two -one with symbolic expressions and one
involving direct message- television advertisements. The first stage of the study evaluates the
contribution of 21 participants in Antalya, Turkey determined by snowball sample with male and
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Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry, July 2011, 2(3)
female participants within the age range 21-55 years. During the process of research for the study,
the public university in the city of Antalya, a public institution, a law firm and a private elementary
school covered the social environment. The participants had different occupation and status. In this
stage, written evaluations of the participants were taken in their work place. The researchers visited
participants and allowed them to view two TV commercials on computer. TV commercials were played
out a few times at the request of the participants. Written comments from participants were taken
after they viewed each ad. In this frame, participants responded ready-made questions on paper. For
written evaluation, open-ended questions were created in the context of literature review. The
questions were adapted from the studies by Yannopoulou and Elliott (2008), Sandikci (1999), Mick
and Politi, 1989; Ayaşlıoğlu (2007) and Plunkey (2010). This study took place between the dates
February 23-25th, 2011.
Second Stage
Taking into account the methodological consideration of Höijer (1990)’s study, a focus group study
was employed in order to reveal a more detailed information as a second stage of the research. In
qualitative researches, one of the most commonly used methods is focus group discussions for
interpretation of advertisements (e.g. Mick & Politi, 1989; McQuarrie & Mick, 1992; Mick & Buhl, 1992;
Elliot et al., 1995). A semi-structured group discussion is employed for our study which allowed group
interaction. For the focus group study, 10 participants were selected from the participants of the first
stage. The study took place at Akdeniz University and focus group meeting was held on March 4,
2011. The meeting lasted in an hour. Researchers have participated as a moderator in this study.
Researchers have identified the title and subject matter to be discussed in the context, dominating the
new limit of discussion when it is exceeded. This process had been recorded with an audio recording
device. After the meeting, the recorded conversations had been deciphered by an undergraduate
student.
4) The conceptual framework was used to develop the research questions and to analyze the resulting
data. In reception studies, participants were asked to describe the ad in their own words, describe
their opinions and feelings about the ad, their thoughts about the advertiser was trying to
communicate with the ad, to give an interpretation based on the intended meaning by the advertiser,
to describe it as a picture, to state its figures and elements (e.g. Mick & Politi, 1989; Yannopoulou &
Elliott, 2008). In this study, the questions were designed based on these studies.
5) Data analysis methods: Written assessments were coded under the headings as audiences'
evaluations toward the commercial, product and brand the effect of commercial, identification with the
experience. In this study, these questions were asked to participants: Description of the
advertisement, the meaning of the message for the audiences, values expressed in the advertisement,
description of product/brand, striking visual– audial elements, information presented in the
advertisement, the situations that ads reminded to audiences when they viewed ads. The answers to
these questions were analyzed and evaluated under the title audiences' evaluations toward the
commercial, product and brand. Feelings about the advertisement, the feelings that the audience
would have if they experience the product were also asked and the answers to these questions were
analyzed under heading of the effect of the commercial. The answers to the questions any
relationship with the advertisement and the life philosophy of the audience were analyzed under the
heading of identification with the experience. Besides, the questions of first notice about the
advertisement, components caught attention of the audience were asked and the answers to these
questions were analyzed to reveal meaning creation.
The data obtained through focus group were coded under the heading of male and female audiences'
comments and interpretation about the components of the advertisement, product and brand, the
strategies and the format of the advertisements, and general assessments about advertisements. In
this process, as mentioned above, the recorded conversations had been deciphered after the meeting.
In this reception study, data was analyzed in a descriptive approach recommended by Wolcott (1994).
In this frame, the opinions of participants’ about the headings were given in quotation marks in the
original form. Later, these data were interpreted. In this approach, it is important to stick to the data
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Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry, July 2011, 2(3)
collected as much as possible in its original form and, if necessary, quoting directly what the
individuals are saying in a descriptive approach and the last step is to provide data to the reader
(Wolcott, 1994).
In order to ensure the internal reliability:
1. The collected data were presented in a descriptive approach.
2. The same study was carried out by two researchers.
3. After receiving the audience’s written evaluations, the ideas similar to the issues were asked
in a focus group setting. Here it is expected to confirm the findings of the written evaluations.
4. In the analysis section, the findings of other researchers who had found out similar
conclusions were included.
5. Data were analyzed in the axis of reception study by using similar techniques in sample
papers. Data and the results achieved in descriptive approach are very close to each other as
“narrative”. For example, longer borrowings from interviews could be possible and observation
notes close to its original state can be described (Wolcott, 1994).
In this regard, it is important to note that interviews are usually non repeatable because “each
informant is asked a particular set of questions only once, and in most types of interview research the
questions will vary across participants” (Lindlof & Taylor, 2002: 239). As Lindlof and Taylor (2002)
pointed out, “reliability is not so much of a consideration in qualitative research”, and “the question of
validity has to do with the truth value of observations: whether a research instrument is accurately
reporting the nature of the object of study and variations in its behaviour” (p. 239).
Validity
Validity is defined as “whether the researcher is measuring or observing what he or she thinks is being
measured or observed” (Priest, 2010: 236).
Internal validity
The findings of this study were obtained using four different data sources and two different data
collection methods were used. The findings were supported by the findings of similar studies in the
literature. On the basis of the findings of the studies, researchers tried to be consistent with data
obtained from the evaluations.
External validity
The sample of the research was described in detail allowing to make a comparison with other
samples. Research findings can be tested easily in similar environments. The reader can associate
their own experiences with the results of research. The research results can give answer to the
question of “how” and has emerged as a suitable form of the nature of the reception study. There are
necessary explanations so that the research findings can be tested in other studies.
Credibility
It can be explained as “using substantially different methods to study the same problem and
achieving parallel results with different methods vastly increases the researcher’s confidence in those
results” (Priest, 2010: 236). In this study, research data were obtained by using different methods
and the credibility of the findings has been realized in that way. In this frame, data from the audience
through the written reviews of this study was confirmed by data from focus group discussions. As
Denzin (1970) pointed out, to ensure the credibility, the data were collected in different ways from
different individuals and environments in our study.
Advertisements
Nescafé advertisement was preferred because everybody knows about the product, and the style
based on information. Honda advertisement was chosen because everybody knows about the product,
and the style based on symbolic expression.
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Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry, July 2011, 2(3)
The characteristic features of the advertisements were identified mainly based on the study by
Koudelova and Whitelock (2001: 92) in Table 2. Besides, the format and the other details were
determined by the studies of Wicks et al. (2009), and Alexander et al. (1998).
Table 2. Characteristic Features of the Advertisements
Characteristic
Features
Format
1st Advertisement
(Nescafé)
2nd Advertisement
(Honda)
Slice of life
Slice of life
Problem and solution
Relationship
Product
Music
Demonstration
product
Not major
of
Graphic display
Major
Humour
Yes
No
Pace
Moderate
High
Presenter/Production
Voice over / Realistic
Totally animated
(made up entirely of
a series of drawings
rather than real life
situations)
Characters
Celebrity
Graphic display
Ordinary people
Appeals
Product appeals
(taste/flavour/smell)
Emotional appeals
(fun, mood alteration,
health/well-being)
Product appeals
(speed)
Emotional appeals
(fun, nature, joy,
romantism)
Theme
Theme of the 1st Advertisement: Nescafé
In the Nescafé advertisement, a slice of life is presented. The spokesperson serves Nescafé in two
cups to serve to two people, one male and one female. The couple is about to go to work in the
morning- not very awake. The couple welcomes this offer and drinks it and smile. The slogan
suddenly appears: “Drink the pleasure” (“Keyfi Yudumla”) (Figure 1). Nescafé advertisement pointed
out the problem and solution. In this frame, the advertisement underlined that Nescafé is an essential
product to awake in the mornings. In Nescafé advertisement, the coffee as an alternative to tea is
offered. A different habit -drink coffee in the mornings- for Turkish consumers is proposed by the
global brand.
In Nescafé advertisement, the product is demonstrated in its package, humor is used as a component,
a celebrity and ordinary people take part, both product and emotional appeals are employed. Besides,
the moderate-paced Nescafé commercial include scenes from real life.
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Figure 1. The motto of Nescafé
Theme of the 2nd advertisement: Honda
In the Honda advertisement, a slice of life is presented. A heart beat is displayed in a sudden and it
continues till the end. Many different visual components -The Statue of Liberty, Eiffel Tower, a woman
and a man with a glass in their hands, a road, trees on the road, a gazelle, the car is passing fast,
skyscrapers are seen, the world which has blue seas and green nature is viewed from the space were used (Figure 2). In this frame, the longstanding label is underlined. Moreover, the life is
presented with the city lights within the frame of the globosity of the label which is emphasized in the
commercial. In Honda advertisement, the high-paced Honda commercial is totally animated, and
made up entirely of a series of graphics/drawings rather than real life situations.
Figure 2. Various Visual Components in Honda advertisement
Findings
This section of the study consists of two main parts. In the first part, the written analysis of
commercials that the audiences have watched is presented. The second part concentrates on the
findings of the focus group discussion. In this frame, male and female audiences’ comments and
interpretation about the commercials, product and brand, the strategies and format of Nescafé and
Honda advertisements, and general assessments about advertisements were presented. In this frame,
the analysis of Nescafé and Honda commercials are going to be mentioned respectively.
Study 1: The Written Analysis of Commercials That the Audience Have Watched
In this part of the study, three main topics come into prominence in the reception of the
advertisements. In this context, audiences’ evaluations towards the commercial, product and brand,
the effect of commercial, identification (e.g. own experience) are presented.
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Evaluations towards the Commercial, Product and Brand
The negative and positive features of evaluations towards the commercial, product and the company
constitute the most important phase of this part. Evaluating the written analysis of the audiences, it
was noticed that some participants mentioned the positive appraisal of the advertisements. In this
frame, a male audience’s comment is mentioned below about Nescafé commercial as an example of
positive assessment of the Nescafé advertisement:
“It is just a nice commercial.” (male)
Examples about the expressions towards the label and the product were also given in a positive
consideration:
“Nescafé is always in our lives.” (female)
“Coffee makes people happy and smile.” (male)
When the data given above is analyzed, it is seen that some viewers attribute the product and the
label. In this context, another male participant, who knows the company well, did not accept the
message, and evaluated the strategy of the advertisement, and made this analysis about the label
position:
“The image of three in one is more suitable.” (male)
On the contrary, comments of some viewers are mentioned as examples of negative assessments
towards the product. Some of the participants underlined the presentation of Nescafé as a
replacement of tea and Turkish coffee and they criticized this:
“The commercial does not have an effect on me. Tea is more suitable for me and my
culture.” (female)
“It is just repugnance because Nescafé is irrelevant in a culture of a person who speaks
in this local accent.” (female)
It is possible to find these examples like the below when we evaluate the participants’ comments in
the context of commercial effect on culture:
“This commercial is not familiar in terms of Nescafé or grain coffee. Turkish coffee is
the best.” (male)
“I found the commercial strange because a person from Black Sea region famous for
tea was introducing coffee.” (male)
Other examples which are about the label and the product can also be given in the context of
negative comments. Some male and female viewers were evaluating in a macro scale. They
interpreted Nescafe commercial as interference for establishing a cultural dominance:
“The target of the commercial is to dispose a different cultural feature.” (female)
“This commercial in which a person with a local accent from a country based on Turkish
coffee culture gives rise to thought to reach not only the people who drink this but also
much larger public.” (female)
More significantly, a male participant underlined the link or the similarity between cultural elements in
the commercial and the local culture:
“Getting up early is a tradition in Turkey especially in rural parts. People who wake up
late are called lazy and they are condemned. Generosity and hospitality are also
mentioned in the commercial.” (male)
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Figure 3. Demonstration and service of the product in the Nescafé advertisement
It was noticed that two male participants criticized the format and the strategy of the Nescafé
commercial in an implicit way:
“I do not think that any idea or value is mentioned in this commercial. Most probably, a
man from one of these television series is saying the motto of the campaign as he does
in his character.” (male)
“While watching the commercial, I had a little headache because of lots of irrelevant
information.” (male)
Similarly, when it was evaluated audiences’ written analysis of Honda advertisement, it was noticed
that some participants also mentioned the positive appraisal of the advertisement. Some viewers’
positive evaluations are mentioned as examples of Honda commercials in the below:
“The commercial makes people feel how much Honda is essential for life and
transport.” (male)
“The mystery that exists till the car’s shade appears is remarkable.” (female)
It is seen that a female viewer mentioned her admiration of the commercial strategy. However,
another female viewer did not find the expression in the commercial sufficient and interpreted the text
in a different way.
“Technology is emphasized but it is not enough for a car commercial which should have
the passion of speed or fast living.” (female)
Some participants’ positive comments about the product and label are mentioned as examples of
Honda commercials in the below:
“I thought that the brand of my car had to be renewed again.” (male)
“In our modern time, cars have become an essential part of our lives. Honda is well
matched with my ideas about the nature, social activities and travelling.” (male)
“Honda appeals to all ages and renew itself even if time goes on rapidly.” (female)
“Honda tells that countries, cities and nature live within people.” (female)
“They describe Honda as a company which makes a move all the time.” (female)
On the contrary, a male participant commented on the Honda advertisement, and evaluated the brand
negatively:
“People can direct their own lives. That is why they do not need Honda.” (male)
It was noticed that some female viewers commented on the commercial that they have watched and
made more general evaluations:
“I watch commercials because my baby who is 3 years old watches them too. We watch
together without getting bored.” (female)
“I prefer watching commercials to TV programmes because they are more lively and
funny.” (female)
“Commercials are evolving day by day.” (female)
“All car commercials are impressive for me.” (female)
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In this regard, Raftopoulou (2007) pointed out that “it was important for the majority of respondents
to show that they cannot be easily persuaded by advertising techniques for a ‘personal choice’” (p.
23). In this frame, some male audiences’ negative appraisals about advertisements is mentioned in
the below:
“It does not make sense for me.” (male)
“I especially do not watch the commercials.” (male)
It is noteworthy to pointed out that participants’ evaluations differentiated in terms of the language
used in the reception of the advertisements. In this respect, Yannopoulou and Elliott (2008)
underlined the differences between audiences in terms of “the use of long vs. short sentences, large
vs. small use of vocabulary, rich vs. limited use of qualifiers, adjectives or adverbs, use of explicit vs.
implicit meanings, and use of symbolism” (p. 17) in the analysis of reception process. In this frame, a
male participant’s assessment of the Honda commercial can be given as an example:
“Visually, the use of lines, fluency, the success of passing one figure to another draws
my attention. Auditory moving ad music, rhythm in the ad strengthens the power of
imagery and the lines of fact.” (male)
When it was evaluated the comment mentioned above, it was noticed that audience stated his
opinions using long sentences, and different qualifiers.
The effect of commercial
When the effect of commercial was evaluated in Nescafé example, it is seen female and male
audiences were similar in terms of willingness of drinking coffee or consuming the product (Figure 4).
For example, one participant expressed the effect of advertisement as given below:
“The moment of pouring water makes me drink coffee.” (male)
Figure 4. Consumption of product in the Nescafé advertisement
Some viewers associated drinking coffee with happiness, joy and smiling instead of making an
appraisal about the willingness of consuming product.
“The sense of happiness when you drink it.” (male)
“Nescafé is the source of joy.” (male)
Within the same context, it is mentioned that some participants wanted to try or used the product in
the example Honda, while they were making assessments about how they feel.
“I thought that my car needed to be renewed again.” (male)
“The message given in the commercial was not clear for me but I decided to go and
see what Honda looked like.” (male)
“I will go there as I got impressed.” (male)
“A lovely journey with obeying the rules of the road and a good music.” (female)
“Confidence” (female)
When it was evaluated audiences’ comments stated above, it was noticed that some participants
mentioned the brand positively. On the contrary, a male viewer evaluated the brand negatively, and
compared Honda with another rival company.
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“I thought why I couldn’t go there with Audi.” (male)
In this frame, it is likely to say that the commercial did not affect male audience or there was “an
inadequate effect” in terms of advertisers when the data given above was evaluated. In this regard, it
is important to pointed out there is a meaning creation in terms of own experiences and he
emphasizes analysis of objects in terms of their properties.
Identification with the experience
It has been seen that some audiences make connections between themselves and the characters/the
components in the process of evaluating the advertisements. Similarly, in Plunkey’s (2010) study, it
was revealed that “through identifications with advertisement content, viewers reinforce product
interest and personal attributes, such as values, desires, and interests” (p. i). In this respect,
audiences’ comments about Nescafé commercial can be given as examples for this issue:
“The man who has some difficulties to wake up early looks like me as I have the same
thing, and I always drink coffee to be awake. The intention of the person offering
coffee is quite similar with mine.” (male)
“The positive ideas that make people simile are quite similar with mine, and they are
also relaxing.” (male)
In a similar way, in Honda advertisement, it is seen that some viewers made connections between
themselves and the components in the commercial that they have watched:
“The idea that allows people to use the car in each period of life is familiar to me as I
like being consistent.” (male)
“I want to be strong and innovative in all conditions.” (female)
On the contrary, one male participant did not make this connection, and stated that:
“I do not think a situation in which the commercial and my perspective of life have
similarities.” (male)
When the comments are examined, it was also noticed that male viewers evaluate the same
commercial from different points of view.
Study II: Focus Group Discussion
In focus group discussion, it has been seen that four main topics come into prominence in the
reception of the advertisements. In this context, male and female audiences’ comments and
interpretation about the components of advertisement, product and brand, the strategies and format
of Nescafé and Honda advertisements, and general assessments about advertisements were
presented.
The Components of Advertisement
It was noticed that characters in the advertisement were one of the recurring topics in the
participants’ comments. In this frame, two female participants stated that the characters were lovely,
and therefore they really liked the commercial. Other two participants considered that the actor has
been chosen because the character is well-known, funny and witty. Another female participant
pointed out that the supporting characters were not as strong as the main character therefore the
commercial should have been more spontaneous. A male participant gave examples based on a
television program that he watched and made a proposal about the format of the commercial:
“It could have been better if the character had been “laz” from ‘Benim Annem Bir
Melektir’.” (male)
Some participants expressed their negative views on the celebrity in the Nescafé advertisement:
“I really do not like the actor in the commercial. I think that viewers should find
something interesting in the commercial that makes them feel connected.” (male)
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“They are trying to appeal to public interest with a character who acts like an ordinary
person.” (female)
Phillips (2000) pointed out that “advertisements that explicitly spell out the meaning of a rhetorical
figure to consumers may lead to dislike of the advertisement” (cited in Yannopoulou & Elliott, 2008:
10). Similarly, Ayaşlıoğlu (2007) underlined that contrary to some of the negative opinions about the
products expressed in the advertisement, almost all the participants thought that a negative aspect
will not be stated in use of chosen products (p. 80). On the other hand, Ayaşlıoğlu (2007) stressed
that “all the participants adopted a critical attitude against the representation of the products
embedded within the texts in the advertisements and stated their opinions with the negative
modifiers” (p. 80).
Comments about Product and Brand
In focus group discussions, when the evaluations of male and female viewers are examined, it was
noticed that comments on the product and the brand are one of central issues of the debate. In this
regard, a female participant stated that:
“Actually, Nescafé is a well-known product. Nescafé can be consumed a lot as it is in a
part of the life of Turkish people, which is the way of increasing the consumption.”
(female)
It is also noteworthy that female and male participants compared Nescafé ratings with other products
and brands when evaluating the advertisements. Within this context, most participants compared
Nescafé with tea and Turkish coffee. In this frame, a male participant pointed out that we used the
name of the product as if we were talking about a handkerchief brand like Selpak.
“Nescafé is not a common drink in the society. Turkish coffee is more general than it.”
(female)
“Tea is more preferable for us.” (female)
“Black Sea people could abandon Black Sea tea and drink coffee.” (female)
“Coffee in a tea tray is an alternative, equivalent to tea, tea competitor.” (female)
“For me, the place of the two is identical. Sometimes, I drink tea and sometimes
Nescafé.” (female)
“Not Nescafé but coffee with milk instead took me back. Mom's milk boils onto coffee
spilling.” (male)
“You might not always find Nescafé, but find the tea always.” (male)
One male participant mentioned “retaliation” in the process of evaluating the Nescafé advertisement:
“Nescafé is retaliation to tea.” (male)
Global and local cultural elements were confronted in male participant’s assessment. Nescafé and tea
were depicted as the two opposing poles.
Similarly, in the case of Honda commercial, audiences mentioned the other product of Honda or
addressed to different car model:
“Hybrid cars can be produced. Price increase comes to gasoline.” (male)
“I would be more interested in Honda motorcycle. I would pay more attention to
Formula 1 car of Honda.” (male)
When the comments mentioned above are examined, it is seen that this process is beyond the
meaning of the messages produced by the advertisement.
In the process of evaluating the Honda advertisement, two male participants pointed out that:
“Honda exist all over the life.” (male)
“Life in him.” (male)
When the comment mentioned above is evaluated, it was noticed that connotations were produced by
male participants. “Every moment of life” was being expressed in the case of written assessments for
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Nescafé, “everywhere in the life” in the form of expressions were used for Honda. Besides, two female
participants’ connotations are expressed as below:
“World brand” (female)
“The passion for speed, tempo, energy” (female)
Interpretation about the Strategies and Format of Nescafé and Honda Advertisements
The advertisement format and strategy are one of the prominent topics in the focus group
discussions. Audiences’ assessments on the strategies of Nescafe commercial are given below:
“Use of celebrities is effective in the advertisement. I like to watch advertisements. I
would do comparisons. Shorter commercial breaks increased the advertising rating.”
(female)
“Have done something to increase sales of Nescafé in local.” (female)
A female participant states this while she was underlying the importance of the smiley face on the
cup:
“The smiley face on the cup makes people relaxed and calm.” (female)
It has been seen that some participants referred to the previous commercial in the process of
evaluating the advertisements. For example, a female audience addressed to the previous commercial
of Nescafé:
“In the previous advertisement of Nescafé there was a man sleeping on the sofa and a
woman was watching TV.” (female)
In the process of evaluating the commercial, female and male participants made assessments about
the advertisement format. In this frame, participant’s assessments can be given as examples of the
Honda commercial:
“With an animation format it’s an intriguing advertisement.” (male)
“Honda is an intriguing advertisement.”(female)
“Honda with an international advertisement has the ability to broadcast in every
country, it exhibits self-confidence.” (female)
Looking at impact of symbolic expressions in the advertisement, it was identified that some audiences
criticized the style of Honda advertisement. In this regard, participants mentioned the following ideas:
“Producers can handle some more descriptive ads.” (male)
“There should have been speech covering information in the advertisement speaking
about why he should buy that car.” (male)
“There could be a willingness to buy while such ads might be composed of normal
appetite.” (male)
“A car could have been advertised.” (female)
“If a new product is to be promoted, the differences could be highlighted. Here, no
difference.” (female)
As Raftopoulou underlined that “the appropriateness of marketing techniques, associated for years
with consumerism and individualism in the mind of the audience, can be questioned, though not
completely rejected” (2007: 23-24). Within this context, Yannopoulou and Elliott (2008) pointed out
that:
“Participants of all interpretive communities concentrated mainly on the visual part of
the advertisement. They seemed to look for and read the text only when they had
difficulties in comprehending the advertisement, and as a consequence they searched
for clues in the advertisement’s text. If they still couldn’t understand it, their attitude
towards the advertisement became either indifferent or negative, because it made them
feel that they were not clever enough to be able to grasp its meaning.” (29-30)
Although most of the participants prefer informative advertisements more, some audiences expressed
the opposite:
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“Advertising should not directly give information but rather draw interest of the
audience. I should go to see the product because I wonder.” (female)
“Honda does not need to tell each of my models. With a developed technology, the
world brand is expressed here.” (female)
“Honda does not concern sales of the brand. You expect to get one in a queue.” (male)
In this respect, Yannopoulou and Elliott pointed out that “participants of the working class preferred
clear and simple advertisements, while participants of the middle and upper social class liked
advertisements with complicated meanings that take them on a conceptual journey in their efforts to
read them” (2008: 29).
It is remarkable to state that participants’ evaluations differentiated in terms of the impact of the
advertisement:
“After watching a car ad, I would like to see the car, comfort, design, interior, features.”
(female)
“No request to ride the car at the end of the ad.” (female)
“No temptation request to ride Honda.” (female)
In this frame, Barak (2009) pointed out “when describing what they believed to be the impact of
commercials as a marketing tool, our interviewees tended to play down the (negative) influence on
them and thus depict themselves as intelligent critical consumers.” (25)
In the focus group discussions, it was specified that some audiences referred to the previous
commercials in the process of evaluating the Nescafé advertisement. Besides, it was also identified
that female and male participants compared Honda with other brands in the process of evaluating the
advertisement. In this respect, it is significant to note that some audiences do not only analyze the
commercials they watched but also refer various brands’ advertisements.
General Assessments about Advertisements
Female and male viewers make evaluations about advertisements in general assessments in the focus
group discussion. In this context, the audiences may have referred to the different dimensions of the
issues. For example, a female audience mentioned advertisements she drew attention:
“People like to watch the commercial of the things they posses. For example, I'm
interested in seeing advertising of my car.” (female)
Some participants drew attention to the role of commercials in the sale of products and in the increase
of profit of companies:
“Those companies that broadcasted advertisements developed more than the others.
Economic dimension of the ad is important.” (male)
“Thanks to the ads increased sales of 3 in 1.” (female)
It is also noteworthy to note that some participants engaged in evaluations of advertisement styles:
“I dislike virtual advertisements during football matches. They used to display ads when
there was a foul only during the games.” (male)
“Virtual advertising is aversive.” (female)
Some participants commented about advertisements in some product categories they watched:
“The ads that take my attention are related with cars, motorcycle and holidays.” (male)
“Women do the shopping of home life, food, hygiene and advertisers pay attention to
those ads. I do not make zapping when ads begin. I would pay attention immediately to
ads if the music sounds well like Honda ad.” (female)
Some female and male audiences, in particular young participants, referred to social media influences
in their life. In this regard, one male participant highlighted the importance of advice of
advertisements in the virtual platform, especially in social networking sites:
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“I watch the ad when there is a comment made on the Internet. If people liked the ad I
would pay attention to it also. I would like to try the product if it is suitable for us. I
take it that impressed me but I would not buy a car because the impressed me but it
can have an effect when I am willing to buy a car.” (male)
The findings of the focus group discussion pointed out that viewers focus on, make comments and
discuss the components implicitly (e.g. Laz Dursun, Nescafé cabinet, selection of venue), and they
evaluate the format and the strategy of the commercial. Besides, it was noticed that again audiences
also think out of the box that they make detailed evaluations and wider comments, and focus on
broader discussions about the advertisements.
Evaluation about Gender and the Reception of Advertisements
This section of the study consists of two main parts. In this frame, male and female audiences’
comments and interpretation about the commercials were presented.
Female perspective
As for Study 1, when an advertisement was shown to female audiences, most of the participants
evaluate the advertisement referring to the product appeals (e.g. taste, flavor, smell), and the
elements of commercial. In Nescafé commercial, most of female participants stressed the sound of
birds, the sound of ship, the warm weather, lively sky, smiling, speech in Black Sea accent, Laz
Dursun (Figure 5), actors’ way of speech (accent), the smoke of the coffee and the motto of Nescafé
“enjoy the moment”, the effects of the product, the effect of the coffee and its power to make
consumers relax.
Figure 5. The character in the Nescafé advertisement
It has been seen that one woman viewer focused on the promotion (Figure 6) rather than the product
itself:
“the presents” (female)
Figure 6. The present of Nescafé
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It has been identified that some women audiences described Nescafé as a label via focusing on the
features of the good.
“Nescafé makes people energetic.” (female)
“The liveliness that it gives is more meaningful than its power which makes people
smile.” (female)
“It is a very good product to start the day as being awake.” (female)
It was noticed that some female participants think that Nescafé is an essential component in their
lives:
“joy and happiness” (female)
“3.5 minutes break: Nescafé” (female)
Figure 7. Consumption of product in the Nescafé advertisement
It has been seen that some women viewers draw their attention to emotional appeals in the
presentation of the label. Similarly, Raftopoulou (2007) pointed out that emotions and feelings are
involved in the making-sense process of the advertisements, and stressed that “several emotions are
involved in their interpretation; however, these are not always the ones intended by the text” (p. 24).
In the study, when an advertisement was shown to participants, some female audiences would
evaluate the advertisement referring to the emotional appeals (e.g. fun, mood alteration, health/wellbeing). In this frame, female participants mentioned emotions like relaxing, joy, happiness and smiling
in the example of Nescafé advertisement (see Figure 7). Along the same lines, some female
participants stated that:
“It affects life positively and makes us feel relaxed.” (female)
“Nescafé makes people relaxed and smile.” (female)
“energy/joy and its positive effects.” (female)
“vitality” (female)
“love of coffee” (female)
“Nescafé gives joy and it makes people to drink. It is familiar to us. Nescafé is always in
our lives.” (female)
When the comments are examined, it has been point out that female viewers addressed to the
product with energy, fun, and vitality. Within this context, it is seen that emotional appeals such as
relaxing/enlivenment, happiness/smiling were associated with Nescafé. According to the viewers
Nescafé is so close that it is always a part of their lives, and it triggers them to drink.
The case of the Honda commercial, the features which appeal to women participants are given below:
“The heart beating, its drawings and the sound.” (female)
“A concrete reality is underlined in a context of abstraction.” (female)
The features that appeals first to women participants about how the label is located are mentioned
clearly:
“The place where Honda is in the city and the world.” (female)
“In every part of the world in every condition.” (female)
“The globality of Honda” (female)
“It has been mentioned that Honda is in the countries and cities.” (female)
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“It has been claimed that the label is trying to be everywhere in the world.” (female)
In this frame, it was noticed that most of female participants interpreted advertisements in the similar
ways.
Figure 8. Various visual components in Honda advertisement
When Honda advertisement was shown to female participants, most of the participants evaluated the
advertisement referring to the product properties, and the elements of commercial (see Figure 8).
“The speed and the comfort are underlined.” (female)
“Comfort and visuality” (female)
“It is perfectionist and easy to adapt itself in each condition.” (female)
“Honest, strong, global, technological, durable, innovative” (female)
“Safety and dominance” (female)
“A Honda which is in progress in a globalized world has been described.” (female)
In this context, as mentioned below, two female participants used the word “space era”:
“The speed of sound. The car of space era.” (female)
“It is a technology which is developing via the space era.” (female)
In Honda commercial, when the definitions and connotations of label are evaluated, it was identified
that some features like safety, quality, technology and innovativeness become prominent. However,
nature and environment become prominent in a female viewer’s comment.
It has been seen that some female viewers put forward different concept for label definition and
connotation. In this frame, one female participant pointed out a different concept in the process of
evaluating the Honda commercial:
“Isolation” (female)
Similarly, it was noticed that some female viewers released different concepts of brand definition and
associations by using their imagination as stated below:
“Night and the stars” (female)
“free” (female)
As for Yannapoulou and Elliott’s (2008) study, it was revealed that some participants are prone to
produce new meanings. In this respect, Yannapoulou and Elliott (2008) pointed out that:
“examining our participants’ responses, we notice that some participants can think more
freely, out of the box, and are able to come up with alternative meanings based on the
same stimuli. They can think in an abstract way, while some participants think in a
more concrete way and have difficulties in providing alternative meanings.” (p. 30).
In addition, Yannopoulou and Elliott (2008) noticed that participants that have previous experiences
about the products (viewed before or heard about it or their friends used them) were more receptive
to alternative meanings and used their imagination more (p. 31). Within this perspective, mentioned
in the above expressions are evaluated, it was noticed that some of the female participants are prone
to produce new meanings. Two of the female participants mentioned the “comfort” referring to the
motion silhouette of the product although it was just to show a skyline in the advertisement. Similarly,
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some participants pointed out the “technology” even though the car’s technical hardware did not
demonstrate in the advertisement. One of the participants pointed out the “innovation” although there
were neither real image of the products nor the technical features. At this point, some participants
attracted attention to the features of product that were not expressed in the advertisement. In this
regard, this situation indicated that some participants referred various features which were not
expressed or shown in the advertisement. It is possible to stress that there is a tendency to ascribe
different meanings or produce new meanings about the product or features not shown in the
advertisement.
As for Study 2, it is noteworthy to point out that in the context of focus group discussion, female
audiences commented in detail about the commercial than the male participants. In this frame, female
participant’s assessments can be given as examples of the Honda commercial:
“Animated transitions could have cover words such as safe, comfortable,
environmentally friendly.” (female)
“More memorable together with music.” (female)
“Starting with heartbeat, life-long fact, expressing the existence in all over the world in
every corner of life give it a little more up to date emphasize by using technological
objects.” (female)
“Honda needs advertising in terms of brand identification.” (female)
“Connotations about innovativeness and technological aspects of Honda.” (female)
“There was a music expressing the technology of Honda. An accurate determination. In
shopping centers music is especially used.” (female)
“Ad remains in the human mind when its music is listened.” (female)
“Gazelle was very clear in the advertisement.” (female)
“Gazelle was very nice.” (female)
“I would like to be where gazelle is.” (female)
Male perspective
As for Study 1, when Nescafe advertisement was shown to male audiences, most of the participants
evaluated the advertisement referring to the product appeals, and the elements of commercial. When
the comments of male viewers about Nescafé are examined, the basically important expressions are
stated below (see Figure 9):
“The label itself” (male)
“The cup of coffee” (male)
“Questioning the Nescafé booth in the port” (male)
“I found it ironic that a man from Black Sea region suggests coffee instead of tea.”
(male)
“Practicality and sincerity of Black Sea people” (male)
“Nescafé brand and its package ... sea side” (male)
Figure 9. The service of product in the Nescafé advertisement
It has been seen that a man viewer focuses on the promotion rather than the product itself:
“promotion” (male)
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When the important features are examined in the process of evaluating the advertisements, it has
been seen that female and male audiences have a lot in common. It is pointed out that the most
essential features are the visual components of the commercial for both genders. Moreover, female
viewers give importance to audial components -especially speaking- more than male participants. In
this regard, Yannopoulou and Elliott (2008) underlined that:
“We have noted that participants of all interpretive communities concentrated mainly on
the visual part of the advertisement. They seemed to look for and read the text only
when they had difficulties in comprehending the advertisement, and as a consequence
they searched for clues in the advertisement’s text.” (p. 29-30).
When the comments about the components of the Nescafé commercial are examined, it has been
seen that male viewers underlined emotional appeals such as mood alteration and health/well-being
and they also associated the product with happiness, smile, and joy.
“When drank the feeling of happiness, smile and craving.” (male)
“Positive mood alteration, relaxing, cheering up.” (male)
“Nescafé is the source of joy.” (male)
Figure 10. A scene from the city in Honda advertisement
The case of the Honda advertisement, animation, music, lighting, city, space is among the factors
attracting the attention of many male participants (see Figure 10 and 11). One male participant
mentioned gazelle. Some male audiences expressed their opinions about the advertisement as given
below:
“Flashily life, splendent world” (male)
“City, shining, luminous, beautiful architecture city” (male)
“Speed, curiosity, family, nature, journey. See new places with this and be happy.”
(male)
It was noticed that male participants think that Honda has a part in their lives:
“In the commercial, it has been referred that Honda has always been a part of our lives
since the first heart beatings and it will until the last day of our lives.” (male)
“It makes me feel that Honda is always with us when we are happy. It implies that
Honda is with us in our happy moments.” (male)
Figure 11. The display of heart beating drawings in Honda advertisement
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Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry, July 2011, 2(3)
When two male audiences made comments about concepts expressed in the advertisement, they
pointed out that:
“There is not any place without a car.” (male)
“The role and the importance of the label which improves the life standards.” (male)
“Honda observes the world more clearly which is quite different from the ordinary
people’s perspective.” (male)
Some male audiences issued definition of brand associations out of the context of the advertisement:
“Journey with the family” (male)
“Family, love, heart beating” (male)
“It is adaptable to the nature, harmless to the environment and it is in the centre of the
world via its features.” (male)
It was noticed that some audiences are using their imagination and producing different meanings. For
example, although there was not any indication in the advertisement, a male audience used the word
“strong” while evaluating Honda commercial. Besides, the participants also provide alternative
meaning based on their life philosophy. In this frame, a male participant’s assessment of the Honda
commercial can be given as an example:
“The idea of using Honda during the childhood and youth as well as her old age has
come close to me as someone who loves stability.” (male)
Figure 12. The display of car in Honda advertisement
Some male audiences’ comments about concepts expressed in Honda advertisement are mentioned
below:
“powerful, indispensable, timeless” (male)
“performance, security” (male)
“strength, quality” (male)
“power, speed, security” (male)
“the aesthetic quality of a vehicle brand” (male)
“Emphasis on items of comfort, speed, confidence, peace, comfort and so on that a car
should associate is good.” (male)
“Comfort, health, flashily life, splendent world, life embedded in nature, energetic,
laidback, speed, and trust.” (male)
Within this perspective, mentioned in the above expressions are evaluated, it was noticed that some
male participants mentioned the “power”, “performance”, “esthetics” and “robustness” referring to the
motion silhouette of the product (see Figure 12). Two male participant mentioned “security” based on
her own experiences, although neither the product specifications nor the real image of the car's
skyline were shown in the advertisement. At this point, some participants attracted attention to the
features of the product that were not expressed in the advertisement. It is possible to say that there
is a tendency to ascribe different meanings or produce new meanings about the product or features
that are not shown in the commercial.
As mentioned above, some male viewers released different meanings about the brand either context
dependent or explicitly used their imagination as stated below:
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Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry, July 2011, 2(3)
“Adrenaline that increases pulse is expressed in the advertisement.” (male) (Language
is noticeable).
“My cousin had a Honda Civic.” (male) (He emphasizes interrelationship between
objects)
“I thought it was a hospital ad because of heartbeat.” (male) (He uses his imagination)
“The expressions suit my ideas that Honda brand is compatible with the natural life and
is required for social activities and with which the travelling is nice.” (male)
“Honda brings to mind Far East and the dynamism.” (male) (There is an explicit
expression).
“Comfort, health, glamorous life, moving side by side with nature in a way of life.”
(male) (There is an explicit meaning creation).
As for Study 2, it was identified that male participants made comments in detail about Honda than
Nescafé in terms of the message, style and format of advertisement:
“The beginning and the end of the ad is effective. It is starting with a heartbeat
continues until till the death. I think they wanted to show that Honda is next to us
every time.” (male)
“Advertising should influence people at first sight. In the example of Honda ad I would
then change the channel in 3 seconds.” (male)
“Honda gives energy.” (male)
“The message that Honda is around the world.” (male)
“Fast is better, the car should have high horsepower.” (male)
In this regard, it was noticed that in particular more educated female and male audiences were more
interested and more evaluated the advertisements.
The summary of decoding strategies is shown in Table 3. The format of this table mainly based on the
study by Yannopoulou and Elliott (2008: 32).
Table 3: Summary of Decoding Strategies
Gender
Visual and Audial
Part
Textual Part
Female
draws attention
visual components
draws attention
textual part
stimulus for
meaning creation
create different
texts
Richness of
Info
make comments
in detail about
the
advertisements
Meaning Creation
&Produce New
Meaning
Common themes:
(e.g. safety, comfort,
nature, environment,
technology, speed,
tempo, energy)
Different concepts
become prominent
from male
more attention to
audial components
(e.g. quality, free
isolation, speed of
sound, space era, night
and star,
innovativeness)
Male
draws attention
visual components
draws attention
textual part
differentiation
depending on
product category
stimulus for
meaning creation
create different
texts
(made comments
in detail about
Common themes:
(e.g. security, comfort,
nature, environment,
technology,
dynamism, speed)
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Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry, July 2011, 2(3)
Gender
Visual and Audial
Part
Textual Part
Richness of
Info
car
advertisement)
Meaning Creation
&Produce New
Meaning
Different concepts
become prominent
from female
(e.g. powerful, family,
strength, aesthetics,
performance,
robustness)
Conclusion
In the evaluation section, we analyzed the findings based on reception analysis. Results indicated that
audience readings of advertisement components differ in the context of two advertisements. Our
findings revealed a difference in interpretation based on the gender of the participants.
When audiences’ interpretations towards the commercial, product and brand were evaluated, it was
noticed that the negative and positive features of evaluations towards the commercial, product and
the company constitute the most important phase of this study. There had been examples that the
participants comments in the context of commercial effect on culture. Some criticisms about the
format and strategy of the products were realized. The participants’ evaluations differentiated in terms
of the language used in the reception of the advertisements.
When the effect of commercial was analyzed, it was noticed that easily consumed products can have
an effect on the participants in our example. It was noteworthy to note that there was a willingness to
consume or to buy the product. Luxury products like cars may have different effects on male or
female consumers. Some female and male audiences, in particular young participants, seemed to be
entertained by advertisements; sometimes they had a lot more fun than the programs. Besides, they
also refer to social media influences in their life. In addition, a mother viewing the advertisements
with her child also pointed out that there is a positive effect of advertisements in communication
between them.
One of the most important point about identification was that there were associations between the
brands and themselves for male and female participants based on their experience.
Further comments about components of advertisement was examined, it was considered that the
characters in the advertisement were one of the recurring topics in the participants’ comments in the
focus group. Looking at impact of symbolic expressions in the advertisement, it was identified that
some audiences criticized the style of Honda advertisement. It was also noteworthy to point out that
participants concentrated mainly on the visual part of the advertisement when they evaluated the
elements of commercial. In other words, they made further comments about the advertisement’s
visual components.
When participants’ comments about product and brand were evaluated, it was noticed that this topic
was one of the central issues of the debate. The consumers compared the brand, the product and the
advertisement with similar or competing ones. Female and male audiences refer to the television
series/programs they watched while they are making relevant assessment about the commercials they
are viewing. In this frame, females attributed to media theme more than male participants. Besides,
female and male participants also refer similar products, and compare the brand with similar labels
and indicate the advantages and weaknesses of them.
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Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry, July 2011, 2(3)
The evaluations on interpretation about strategies and format of advertisements were analyzed, it was
founded that the advertisement format and strategy were one of the prominent topics in focus group
discussions. The findings of the study revealed that the presentation of advertisements’ theme, mainly
through its style, characters, product benefits, voice and visuals evokes different reactions.
When audiences’ general assessments about advertisements were determined, it was realized that the
role of commercials in the sale of products, evaluations of advertising styles, comments about ads in
some product categories were some of the general assessments. It was noteworthy to stress that the
symbolic presentation caused difficulties in creating assessment, and different effects than expected
at the end.
As a result of the study, some of the audiences had different assessments than the communication
professionals or the advertiser's had planned. In this context, it had been noticed that the audiences
had undertaken an active role in the process of reception of advertisements. In this frame, the
participants made assessments outside the intended meaning of the advertisements. Meanings that
were produced by the participants had been shaped both within and outside the context of the issue
based on the previous information and personal worlds of the life of the audiences. It was realized
that the participants produced different and even opposite meanings in assessing the ads.
For further studies it is suggested that other researchers can add different data sets (i.e. social class,
age, education) to their research questions. Conducting an ethnographic research in this field is
another proposal for researchers. Also, there are necessary explanations so that the research findings
can be tested in other studies.
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Appendix: Ready-Made Questions
Questions about Audience Reception of Advertisements
This study was conducted by researchers at the Faculty of Communication, Akdeniz University.
Your answers will only be used in the report of the study, and your personal information will not be
shared by third parties. Thank you for your participation.
Demographics
Sex
: Female
Male
Age
: ............
Education: …………………………………………………………..
Profession: ................................................................................
Income (monthly household income): ……………………….….TL
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Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry, July 2011, 2(3)
Questions
What is described in the advertisement?
What did you first notice about this advertisement? What caught your attention?
What kind of feelings do you have when you watch this advertisement?
Is the message of the advertisement meaningful/significant to you (for any particular reason)?
What types of values and ideals do you think are expressed in the advertisement that you
noticed? Do you feel these reflect your own?
6. Which components caught your attention in terms of visual-audial elements in the
advertisement?
7. How do you describe this product/brand?
8. Does this advertisement remind you of situations that you have been in?
9. Does the advertisement contain any part of your life philosophy? An you tell us about them
10. What types of information are expressed/presented in the advertisement?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry, July 2011, 2(3)
Reflections of Preservice Information Technology Teachers
Regarding Cyberbullying
Yavuz Akbulut
Cem Çuhadar
Anadolu University, Turkey
yavuzakbulut@anadolu.edu.tr
Trakya University, Turkey
cemcuhadar@trakya.edu.tr
Abstract
The current phenomenological study addressed the reflections of preservice information technology
(IT) teachers regarding their cyberbullying or victimization experiences. Fifty five preservice IT
teachers at a Turkish teacher training institution were offered a lecture with the purpose of
awareness-raising on cyberbullying, which was followed by the assignment of take-home reflection
papers. Document analysis on reflection papers led researchers to find out underlying themes
regarding participants’ cyberbullying or victimization experiences. Findings revealed that females
were more likely to be victims than males. Instant messaging programs, e-mail, cell phones and
online social networks were used as means to cyberbully. Varying psychological consequences of
victimization incidents were reported. Noted reactions to incidents were discontinuing interaction
with bullies, and seeking family, peer and legal support. Findings further implied that awareness
raising activities regarding cyberbullying were likely to reduce cyberbullying instances and increase
preservice teachers’ action competence.
Keywords: Cyberbullying; information technology teachers; higher education; empathy training
Introduction
Emerging information and communication technologies provide us with novel and engaging channels
of interaction. The borderless digital world has become a fruitful platform for social interactions where
individuals can communicate with more anonymity and less monitoring. In this regard, the traditional
interpretation of ‘physical’ bullying has been extended in a way to address the ‘virtual’ experiences.
Usually referred to as cyberbullying, this new form of bullying involves deliberate and repeated harm
that is directed at peers through electronic media (Beran & Li, 2005; Patchin & Hinduja, 2006).
The rich variety of communication tools and the anonymity provided by emerging technologies
facilitate several types of cyberbullying. These have been classified by Willard (2005) as flaming
(sending angry or vulgar messages),
harassment (sending offensive messages repeatedly),
cyberstalking (harassment with threats of harm), denigration (posting harmful or untrue statements
about other people), masquerade (pretending to be someone else to make that person look bad),
outing and trickery (sending material that contains humiliating information, engaging in tricks to get
embarrassing information to disseminate that information), and exclusion (intentionally excluding a
person from the group).
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Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry, July 2011, 2(3)
Cyberbullying is considered a source of deep emotional damage on individuals as victims are often
hurt psychologically (Anderson & Sturm, 2007; Feinberg & Robey, 2008). Empirical studies revealed
significant relationships between cyberbullying and emotional troubles (Erdur-Baker & Tanrıkulu,
2009; Hoff & Mitchell, 2009; Juvonen & Gross, 2008; Patchin & Hinduja, 2006 & 2010; Ybarra,
Mitchell, Wolak, & Finkelhor, 2006). Considering that there is a significant relationship between
perceived psychological vulnerability and achievement (Nishina, Juvonen, & Witkow, 2005), it can be
maintained that cyberbullying can have the potential to interfere with students’ ability to learn at
school (Patchin & Hinduja, 2010; Shariff & Strong-Wilson, 2005). In this regard, it is crucial to take
immediate precautions to prevent cyberbullying.
Online perpetrators usually shield themselves through nicknames. This identity hide makes bullies
more powerful than the victims (McGrath, 2007; Shariff, 2008). Because of this anonymity and power
divide, cyberbullying is also attractive to Web users. In addition, users are likely to say things they
would not say to a person face-to-face as long as they believe they remain anonymous (Arıcak et al.,
2008; Beale & Hall, 2007). Indeed, a comprehensive survey study with 695 undergraduate students in
Turkey revealed that the ease of remaining anonymous in the cyberspace was a significant trigger of
cyberbullying (Arıcak, 2009). Thus, even allegedly decent individuals with exemplary characteristics in
the physical world may be deceived by the attraction of anonymity and power in the virtual world
unless timely and properly awareness raising is realized.
In addition to anonymity, perpetrators do not witness the impact of their actions on the victim, which
makes them lack the empathy and awareness regarding the consequences (Froese-Germain, 2008).
The role of empathy in cyberbullying was well investigated by several scholars (Ang & Goh, 2010;
Jolliffe & Farrington, 2006). For instance, Ang and Goh (2010) studied the relationship between
affective and cognitive empathy, and gender on cyberbullying through surveying 396 adolescents from
Singapore. Findings revealed that at low affective empathy, boys and girls who also had low cognitive
empathy had higher scores on cyberbullying than the participants who had high cognitive empathy.
This was valid for boys at high affective empathy as well. For girls, different levels of cognitive
empathy resulted in similar levels of cyberbullying. The study implied the need for empathy training
among adolescents.
One of the dominant attitudes toward cyberbullying instances was reported as indifference, since
peers prefer to avoid conflicts and to maintain harmony within the group (Huang & Chou, 2010). This
finding from a Taiwanese sample was retained in several international studies, which revealed that the
majority of the victims do not report the incidents to adults (Juvonen & Gross, 2008; Li, 2007). In a
recent comprehensive survey conducted in 25 European countries, researchers resorted to a random
stratified sample of 23.420 children aged 9-16, and one of their parents (Livingstone, Haddo, Görzig &
Ólafsson, 2010). Twelve percent of the children were bothered by something on the internet whereas
39 percent encountered at least one of the risks identified in the survey. Among these risks, cybervictimization through hurtful messages was the least common risk, but was the most likely to upset
the users. Moreover, parental underestimation of the risks was quite substantial since ‘56% of parents
whose child has received nasty or hurtful messages online say that their child has not’ (Livingstone et
al., 2010, 11). Such findings are raising alarms regarding the lack of precautions to prevent
cyberbullying.
Previous studies in Turkey among different populations revealed that the extent of victimization was
about 30 percent or more (Akbulut, Sahin & Eristi, 2010b & 2010c). Cyberbullying instances like
flaming, denigration and exclusion were observed even in instructional settings, particularly in
communicative e-learning environments sheltering platforms for heated group discussions (Dursun &
Akbulut, 2010). Further investigations with preservice teachers revealed that there was a significant
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correlation between victimization and likelihood of bullying (Akbulut, Eristi, Dursun & Sahin, 2010a).
This finding is also retained in a recent study conducted in Belgium, which revealed that cyber-victims
were nine times more likely to engage in cyberbullying (Walrave & Heirman, 2011). In such a serious
context, taking immediate actions to prevent cyberbullying is not solely a concern of victims but also
that of their observers and addressees as well.
Above studies collected data from different socio-economic and educational backgrounds. Our recent
investigations with pre-service teachers suggested that higher levels of education may have
suppressed the impact of some background variables that influenced cyberbullying. However, it was
also observed that the issue was prevalent among individuals with higher education (Arıcak, 2009;
Dursun & Akbulut, 2010). Thus, in addition to high level education, awareness raising and substantive
instruction on cyberbullying should be included in school curricula (Patchin & Hinduja, 2010). This
argument was retained in recent studies (Ryan, Kariuki & Yilmaz, 2011; Slovak & Singer, 2011).
Slovak and Singer found that even school social workers were not equipped with skills to deal with
cyberbullying properly, though they all believed cyberbullying caused serious psychological harm.
Similarly, Ryan et al. (2011) found that Turkish and Canadian preservice teachers felt unprepared to
deal with cyberbullying.
It has been suggested that awareness raising on responsible and ethical use of information and
communication technologies can prevent cyberbullying instances (Erdur-Baker & Kavşut, 2007).
Indeed, raising awareness to eliminate parental underestimation, and empowering collaboration
among parents, students, educators and relevant institutions are considered central themes to
effectively addressing cyberbullying (Kingston, 2011). These precautions can be further supported
through building empathy and training users about online safety skills (Holladay, 2011). In this regard,
awareness raising activities among IT people and school stakeholders carry utmost importance.
The current study investigated cyberbullying victimization incidents among preservice IT teachers who
will be teaching at K-8 schools. Since they will have considerable roles in organizing IT activities at
schools, offering them training on cyberbullying and addressing their perceptions may empower
awareness raising and facilitate future collaboration opportunities among school stakeholders. It is
also believed that such awareness raising activities may lead to a decrease in future cyberbullying
instances. Thus, as a contribution to ethical awareness raising and empathy training on cyberbullying,
preservice IT teachers were offered with a lecture on cyberbullying, and their personal experiences
and reflections were described.
Methods and Procedures
Participants
Participants were 55 preservice teachers (36 males & 19 females) from a computer education and
instructional technology department in Turkey. Age of the participants ranged from 20 to 23 years.
They were enrolled in the third grade Education and Technology course in fall 2010. They were the
most IT literate preservice teacher group in the college of education since they were required to take
several unique courses such as Information and Communication Technologies in Education,
Programming Languages, Graphics and Animations in Education, Operating Systems and Applications,
and Internet Based Programming.
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Implementation
In two groups, participants were provided with a two-hour cyberbullying lecture by the course
instructor. Some of the lecture headings were definitions and examples regarding cyberbullying, types
of bullies and cyberbullying, reasons behind bullying incidents, psychological effects of cyberbullying
on the victims, ways to diagnose victims, descriptions of risky user behaviors, and responsibilities of
users, families and educators regarding the problem. The lecture was supported with several top rated
videos and impressive cartoons on cyberbullying. These videos were translated to Turkish by the
researchers and Turkish subtitles were embedded.
Before the lecture, participants were asked whether they ever heard of the term, which revealed that
none of them was familiar with the concept. Through clues provided by the course instructor, they
brainstormed to create a definition and description of cyberbullying. The lecture was provided in a
way to generate discussions regarding the reasons and prevention ways of cyberbullying. At the end
of the implementation, participants were asked to provide and reflect on their personal anecdotes in
the light of the provided lecture.
Data Collection and Analysis
The study was conducted with a qualitative stance and followed the phenomenological analysis
approach to analyze the data. In such an approach, the purpose is to offer insights into how an
individual experiences, perceives and interprets a given phenomenon in a specific context (Yıldırım &
Şimşek, 2006). In this regard, perceptions of preservice IT teachers regarding their cyberbullying or
victimization experiences are investigated.
Participants were given a take-home assignment in which they were supposed to reflect on their
personal experiences. Each reflection paper demonstrated unique cases, and these were analyzed
through document analysis techniques. Through investigating the current literature and the data
collected, headings to address the findings were determined as (1) victim profiles, (2) means of
cyberbullying, (3) types of cyberbullying, (4) problems stemming from cyberbullying, and (5) followup actions. Themes and categories were given their final form after a consensus among researchers
was sustained, and findings were summarized through frequencies and sample statements.
Findings
It was observed that the number of participants who experienced or observed a specific cyberbullying
incident was 42. In 23 (55 %) of the reported cyberbullying incidents, the victim was a female.
Reported incidents represented different age groups. Some participants preferred to report
experiences from the secondary or high school years whereas the majority tended to report nearby
events. Prevalent means of cyberbullying are summarized in Table 1 below:
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Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry, July 2011, 2(3)
Table 1: Means of cyberbullying
Means
Online platforms
 Facebook
 Online games
 Discussion forums
 Online gambling sites
f
22
13
5
3
1
Cellphones
18
9
8
1



Talking
Texting
Recording / sharing embarrassing scenes
Instant messaging
E-mail
11
8
Online social platforms like Facebook and mobile communication devices were prevalent means of
cyberbullying. In addition, instant messaging services and e-mail were used to cyberbully. Recording
embarrassing scenes was reported only in one case. This was probably because the majority of
participants did not have access to high tech cellphones yet.
Some of the cyberbullying instances were unplanned and haphazard whereas some involved
elaboration. For instance, usernames were stolen through trickery, and these were further used to
solicit humiliating and embarrassing information about a specific target group or individual.
“The fake address was quite similar to that of my cousin. It was hard to tell the
difference. Anyways, he was using my cousin’s photo as the profile pic. I was wondering
how he could get such an address even though Facebook takes some precautions
regarding these fake addresses. I think the guy was a professional. He could contact with
my cousin’s friends and nobody noticed that he was not my cousin. So, he might know
my cousin very well.” [Participant11]
As exemplified, masquerading and trickery examples were quite striking. Nearly half of all instances
involved harassment, i.e. sending offensive messages repeatedly (Willard, 2005). The distribution of
cyberbullying types observed in reflection papers are summarized in Table 2:
Table 2. Types of cyberbullying
Type
Harassment
Flaming
Masquerading
Cyberstalking
Denigration
f
16
7
6
5
2
It was revealed that a considerable amount of harassment directed at women were sexual harassment
incidents. Harassment incidents were realized through both social networks (e.g. Facebook) and
cellphones (i.e. talking and texting). Another common type of cyberbullying was categorized as
flaming in the current study. Willard (2005) defines flaming as sending angry, rude or vulgar
messages. In almost all reports of flaming, participants believed that the incident was caused because
of jealousy, since they believed that the victim was in an enviable status in terms of academic
achievement, social popularity or relationships with the opposite sex. Flaming stemmed from jealousy
was slightly more prevalent among women.
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Masquerading and trickery instances were reported to go together. The former involves pretending to
be someone else and sending material to make that person look bad whereas the latter refers to
engaging in tricks to solicit embarrassing information to disseminate that information (Willard, 2005).
Cyberstalking (i.e. harassment with threats of harm) was partly conducted by perpetrators who
masqueraded. Among cyberstalking instances, blackmailing was observed frequently. Finally,
denigration was a type of cyberbullying observed in the data. The following sample depicted several
cyberbullying types together.
“Even though some time has passed, he continued to harass my friend. He called and
sent online messages invariably. My friend could not stand this, but could not tell
anybody either. He was blackmailing with threats of harm to either my friend or my
friend’s family. He was asking my friend to do several favors for himself and sending
offensive messages when rejected.” [Participant37]
Psychological effects of cyberbullying on individuals were reported by participants. These problems
ranged from common problems including anxiety through more serious ones like suicide attempts.
These problems are summarized in Table 3 below:
Table 3. Problems stemming from cyberbullying
Problem
Varying psychological issues
Paranoia
Social anxiety / disbelief in people
Non-attendance / Academic failure
Aversion / Desire to revenge
Humiliation
Despair
Low self-esteem
Suicide attempt
f
11
11
9
8
8
5
4
3
1
Fear and anxiety were among popular psychological issues observed after victimization. Reflections
revealed that the anonymity of the perpetrators and the ambiguity of the extent of their power
increased the fear and anxiety. Since victims could not control what was going to happen next, the
level of paranoia got higher. While the victims developed a disbelief in people and preferred to isolate
themselves from the social group, their attendance rate dropped down, and interfered with the
academic success as well.
“Even though there was no personal or physical contact between the bully and her, she
was really hurt. She was depressed for a long time after the incident. They identified the
boy who published the pictures, who did not come to school either. Both of their grades
decreased. My friend would not show up in our planned activities, participate in our
conversations. She was even running away from obligatory conversations. This isolation
brought about several social problems, I think.” [Participant21]
Reactions to cyberbullying instances and the way these incidents ended varied among participants.
The most common reaction among bullies was regret, if they saw or understood the impact of their
actions. Among bullies, there were also some who repented their injustice to their peers particularly
because of the current lecture.
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Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry, July 2011, 2(3)
Table 4. Reactions and ending
Reaction
Regret
Discontinuing interaction with bullies
Family support
Peer support
Legal support
f
7
7
7
5
4
Victims on the other hand, resorted to several strategies to deal with bullies. As the frequency of
instances revealed, a considerable number of victims did nothing against bullying but wait till the
incident was over. Discontinuing interaction with the bully (e.g. blocking the sender) was the most
frequent precaution, followed by family support, peer support and legal support successively.
“My family helped me a lot. If they did not support me, I would not get over the
problem.” [Participant41]
“First, we applied to Facebook to shut down the address. Then, my parents found a way
to contact with the bully. I learnt that he confessed, and he was really regretful.”
[Participant07]
Cases reported by participants revealed that family support was sometimes preferred only if personal
efforts and peer support did not help. It was also revealed that legal support usually followed the
family support, which occurred through family’s intervention.
One of the significant findings of the current study was that the training helped participants have a
certain level of awareness regarding cyberbullying. Participants were able to reflect on their personal
experiences better through the help of the provided lecture. Some believed that they should focus on
their technical skills development whereas the majority considered themselves as responsible to
prevent further cyberbullying incidents. This awareness and understanding was observed in almost all
reflection papers. Participants who paraphrased their previous bullying actions were all regretful. They
further reported that they would not only abstain from such actions, but also help others deal with the
situation.
“I’m twenty years old now somebody is telling me what cyberbullying is. I used to love
doing it. I wish somebody told me about it when I was younger. We had a lot of fun
when we were younger, because we did not know that we were harming others”
[Participant19]
“The first time I heard it, I did not think it was that important. But now I think that we
were too late to learn the meaning of this word.” [Participant34]
Conclusion and Discussion
The proportion of participants who experienced or observed a specific cyberbullying incident retains
previous arguments regarding the prevalence of the problem (Akbulut et al., 2010b & 2010c; Arıcak,
2009; Arıcak et al., 2008; Erdur-Baker, 2010; Erdur-Baker & Kavşut, 2007; Ryan et al., 2011). In this
regard, awareness raising towards collaboration and dialogue is of utmost importance. That is, even
though certain individuals are not victims, they are quite likely to be aware of the victims around
them. Encouraging them to take immediate and responsible actions against cyberbullying is a critical
implementation in this regard.
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Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry, July 2011, 2(3)
Differences between males and females were expected (Akbulut et al., 2010b; Aricak et al., 2008;
Erdur-Baker & Kavşut, 2007) in contrast to studies indicating no gender differences (Patchin &
Hinduja, 2006). However, the victims were more likely to be females in the current study. In addition,
the profiles of the victims suggested that the issue was not peculiar to adolescents, but apparent in
different age groups (Akbulut et al. 2010a & 2010b; Arıcak, 2009; Dursun & Akbulut, 2010). Such
univariate reflections partially retain previous hypotheses. Further and in-depth analyses can be
conducted to address the influence of several other background variables on cyberbullying and
victimization. For instance, marital and socioeconomic status; purpose, frequency, location, time and
nature of Internet use; program of study; language proficiency; and several psychosocial factors can
be embedded in research designs to describe interactions among background variables influencing
cyberbullying and victimization. Moreover, regarding cultural differences observed previously (Li,
2008; Ryan et al., 2011), cross-cultural comparisons of individuals’ experiences through in-depth
analyses may lead to critical leaps regarding the description of cyberbullying in different cultures.
The means and types of cyberbullying reported by preservice teachers were quite similar to those
reported in the literature (Willard, 2005). Harassment was the most frequent type followed by
flaming. Previously it was reported that indirect flaming, exclusion and denigration were prevalent
cyberbullying types observed in formal instructional settings (Dursun & Akbulut, 2010). Thus, one can
suggest that flaming and exclusion transforms into harassment and cyberstalking when the
perpetrators are confident that they remain anonymous. Findings further implied that blackmailing
was a common type of cyberstalking. The least frequent type of cyberbullying was recording/sharing
embarrassing scenes through mobile phones. Regarding that capturing humiliating scenes is quite
attractive to young individuals, this finding could be interpreted as a consequence of digital divide
rather than the scarcity of the incident. If the majority had PDAs, probably such instances would have
been reported more frequently.
Reported problems stemming from cyberbullying revealed that the issue was quite serious, and
retained the significant relationships between cyberbullying and emotional troubles (Erdur-Baker &
Tanrıkulu, 2009; Hoff & Mitchell, 2009; Juvonen & Gross, 2008; Patchin & Hinduja, 2006 & 2010;
Ybarra, Mitchell, Wolak, & Finkelhor, 2006). Themes emerging from the reflections further retained
that cyberbullying interfered with students’ ability to learn at school (Patchin & Hinduja, 2010; Shariff
& Strong-Wilson, 2005). Thus, awareness raising on ethical use of information and communication
technologies through embedding the subject in the school curricula, and empowering collaboration
among stakeholders of the school are urgent steps to take.
The frequency of precautions among participants demonstrated the high degree of indifference
toward cyberbullying, which was expected (Huang & Chou, 2010). However, current findings further
implied that even a two-hour lecture regarding the issue could contribute to awareness raising and
serve as empathy training, which could be quite helpful in decreasing future incidents (Ang & Goh,
2010). In this regard, after planning to embed the issue to school curricula as a compulsory subject,
further investigations can be conducted to understand the nature of training to lessen such unpleasant
incidents. As a critical step, the subject matter could be covered in the curricula of the departments of
computer education and instructional technology, since the graduates of these departments play the
leading role both in the IT literacy education of the pupils, and in assisting other school staff.
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