THE ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY
• An essay is argumentative when it argues in
favor of a particular position.
• The essay’s arguments are designed to support
the position argued for in the essay.
• Remember that an argument is a set of claims,
the conclusion of which is supported by one or
more premises.
• Thus, arguments consist of claims, and recall that
a claim is a statement which is true or false.
• If an argumentative essay is good, then it contains
credible claims, that is, those which are known to
be true, or for which there is good even if not
conclusive evidence.
PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZING AN
ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY I
• 1. Focus. State what you are addressing, and
what your position is on the matter. Thus ‘focus’
states in a single word the need to inform your
reader of the subject matter of your essay.
– Avoid trite phrases.
– Be as concise as possible.
• 2. Stick to the issue. Say only what needs to be
said in relation to the topic being considered, and
avoid irrelevancies.
– Points made in an essay should either
“support, illustrate, explain, clarify, elaborate
on, or emphasize” the position being argued
for; or
– “serve as responses to anticipate objections.”
PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZING AN
ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY II
• 3. Order. Arrange the essay’s parts in a
logical sequence.
– Make a point before you attempt to clarify it, if
such clarification is required.
– Put the clarification after the point which requires
it, and not in some other spot in the essay.
– Support points with examples, if necessary, and
put the examples after the point which requires
them.
– A reader should be able to follow through the
points of the essay in an order which makes sense
and is not confusing.
PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZING AN
ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY III
• 4. Be complete. The position argued for should
be supported “fully and adequately,” but not
exhaustively if the topic is too large for such
thorough treatment.
– “anticipate and respond to possible objections.”
– “sentences should be complete, and
paragraphs should be unified wholes.”
– Both a sentence and a paragraph should
usually have a single point to keep things as
clear and simple as possible for
comprehension.
– “the essay should reach a conclusion.” (Note
that a conclusion and a summary are different
things. Only a long and complicated essay will
SUMMARY OF THE PRINCIPLES
OF ESSAY ORGANIZATION
• 1. Focus. Inform the reader of the issue of the
essay and your position on it.
• 2. Stick to the issue. Say only what needs to be
said in relation to the topic being considered, and
avoid irrelevancies. (Less is more.)
• 3. Order. Arrange the essay’s parts in a logical
sequence.
• 4. Be complete.
• The last three points taken together mean that you
should say what needs to be said and only what
needs to be said, and do so in an order which
makes sense.
GOOD WRITING HABITS
• 1. Use an outline. Either begin by making an outline of
the main points of the essay, or write a first draft of the
essay, and then make an outline. (M&P recommend the
latter method.)
– The outline should be logical, and the parts of the
essay should fit the outline.
• 2. Revise your work. M&P: “Revising is the secret to
good writing,” and you may have to revise several times.
• 3. Get another opinion. Revise, if necessary, according
to that opinion.
• 4. Proofread aloud to detect problems with grammar
and punctuation.
• 5. Reread later. When you think that your work is
finished put it aside and read it again later. Be critical of
yourself. Act as if you are grading someone else’s
essay.
ON WRITING I
• JS: “Both life and writing are challenging.
Each is worth taking up for that reason.”
• JS:
“A man who has written well has at
least lived that part of his life well.”
• JS: “I have yet to see a pencil, pen, or Pentium
act on its own volition to fill a page with either
prose or verse. I’m not sure, but I think that
this says something important about
humanity.”
ON WRITING II
• JS: “Writing is the principle means by which
philosophic thoughts become part of the public
progress of culture. When a thought
expressed is original and true, then something
of novel importance has been communicated.
When such a thought expressed is also well
expressed, then insight and beauty are united
in a single intellectual object, and a mind
digesting it is doubly rewarded.”
ON WRITING AND REWRITING
• JS: “As living is mostly reliving, so writing is
mostly rewriting. However, there is a notable
difference between reliving and rewriting. It is
the difference between repetition and revision.
Repetition and revision in turn have different
consequences. In reliving, the same kind of
thing is experienced once again, and its lack of
novelty is such as to make it likely that
consciousness takes no special note of it. (An
exception is works of art.) In rewriting, on the
other hand, mind attends to the project of
completing something incomplete, of perfecting
an imperfection. When the revision is
satisfactorily concluded, life is not relived but
renewed.”
ESSAY PROBLEMS I
• 1. The windy preamble. In this problem the
writer delays getting to the point of the paper
with introductory remarks that are
unnecessary.
– Solution – Avoid the unnecessary, and get to
the point.
• 2. The stream-of-consciousness ramble.
Here thoughts are written simply as they occur.
– Solution – Organize your thoughts in logical
order.
• 3. The knee-jerk reaction. Here only the
author’s initial response to an issue is
considered.
– Solution – Consider the issue in the depth
ESSAY PROBLEMS II
• 4. The glancing blow. Issues are addressed
indirectly rather than directly.
– Solution – Address issues head on.
• 5. Let the reader do the work. Reading is
made difficult by bad writing involving “non
sequiturs, abrupt shifts in direction, and huge
gaps in logic.”
– Solution – Make your writing readerfriendly by writing in a linear, logical
fashion.
CLARITY
• A good writer always strives for clarity in his or her
writing.
• The successful communication of thoughts from
writer to reader depends on making it clear just
what thoughts the writer is attempting to
communicate.
• Difficult ideas can demand difficult expression, but
every attempt should be made to be as clear as
possible.
• Deliberate obscurity is an insult to the reader, and
may indicate that the author does not understand
the subject himself. Unintentional obscurity should
be eliminated through rewriting and through
getting another opinion.
• Write as if your life depended on the successful
PARTS OF DEFINITIONS
• In any definition, there is the term or expression
being defined, and the term or expression that
defines.
• That which is being defined is called the
definiendum. (The plural is definienda.)
• That which defines is called the definiens. (The
plural is definientia.)
• A ‘table’ (definiendum) is ‘a piece of furniture
consisting of a smooth flat slab fixed on legs.’
(definiens)
• ‘The early bird catches the worm’ (definiendum)
means ‘rise early if you want to be successful.’
(definiens)
• ‘broke’ (definiendum) = ‘penniless’ (definiens)
TYPES OF DEFINITION AND
THEIR PURPOSES I
• Stipulative definition =df. A definition which
introduces an unusual or unfamiliar word, or a
coined word, (a neologism) or gives a new
meaning to a familiar word.
• Example: “A ‘concipient,’ (definiendum) as I
am using the term, is a subject who produces
an object with which an artwork or one of its
parts is meant to be identified in virtue of
comprehending language which singles out
an object which the comprehension of the
language has an essential role in producing.”
(definiens)
TYPES OF DEFINITION AND
THEIR PURPOSES II
The Return of the Hunters, Pieter
Brueghel, 1565
• Explanatory definition
=df. A definition which
explains, illustrates,
discloses, or clarifies an
important aspect(s) or
feature(s) of a difficult
concept.
• Example: The term
‘artwork’ (definiendum)
signifies an object which
was produced through
an intentional action or
actions. (definiens)
TYPES OF DEFINITION AND
THEIR PURPOSES III
• Precising definition
=df. A definition which
reduces vagueness and
eliminates ambiguity.
• Example: The precise
meaning of ‘nonobjective art’ (definiendum)
is ‘art entirely without
reference to anything
beyond itself.’ (definiens)
No. 14, 1960, Mark Rothko (1903-1970)
TYPES OF DEFINITION AND
THEIR PURPOSES IV
• Persuasive
definition =df. A
definition intended to
influence the attitude
of the reader.
• Example: ‘Capital
punishment’
(definiendum) is the
name of the only
appropriate response
of society to the crime
Electric Chair, Andy Warhol, 1971 of first degree murder.
(definiens)
TYPES OF DEFINITION AND
THEIR PURPOSES V
• Definition by
synonym =df. A
definition which gives
another word or phrase
that means the same
thing as the the word or
phrase being defined.
• Example: ‘Capital
punishment’
(definiendum) means
‘the death penalty.’
Electric Chair, Andy Warhol, 1971
(definiens)
DEFINITION BY SYNONYM?
• Not every philosopher or logician agrees that
definition by synonym is really a definition of the
definiendum (term or phrase being defined) as
opposed to a means of making the meaning of the
definiendum understood through the use of an
equivalent term or phrase.
• For instance, to say that ‘valor is courage’ is not
accepted as a definition of ‘valor’ by L. Susan
Stebbing, who maintains that “the defining
expression [definiens] must contain more words
(or symbols) than the defined expression
[definiendum].”
– For Stebbing we would need something like
‘valor’ means ‘strength of mind or spirit that
enables a person to encounter danger with
firmness” to have a definition of that term.
TYPES OF DEFINITION AND
THEIR PURPOSES VI
• Definition by
example =df. A
definition which points
to, names, or
describes one or more
examples of
something to which
the defined term
applies.
Excavation, de Kooning, 1950
• Example: Willem de
Kooning’s Excavation
(definiens) is an
example of Abstract
DEFINITION BY EXAMPLE? I
• Again, not every philosopher or logician agrees that
definition by example is really a definition of a word or
phrase being defined, rather than being a means of
making it clear to what the definiendum refers.
• Stebbing also objects to this kind of definition, since one
could point to examples of a kind of thing, like a sonnet,
without being able to define it. She says: “We must be
careful not to use ‘definition’ so widely that it comes to
stand for any process enabling us to learn the
application of terms.”
• Ostensive definition =df. “The act of indicating,
presenting, or introducing the object to which the name
is to apply.” – W. E. J. Johnson.
• Although Stebbing recognizes that we can learn the
meaning of terms ostensively, she disagrees that it
constitutes definition, since “names simply demonstrate”
they don’t define, and this is “to confuse understanding a
symbol with defining it.”
DEFINITION BY EXAMPLE? II
• Definition by example may
be all we have in certain
cases, or at least what we
have until we are able to
produce an explanatory
definition of the
definiendum. For instance,
no one has yet succeeded
in giving an explanatory
definition of either ‘art’ or
‘artwork.’ We may be left
with giving painting as an
example of art, and pointing
to an artwork such as the
landscape to the left by
Chaim Soutine as an
example of art.
TYPES OF DEFINITION AND
THEIR PURPOSES VII
• Analytical definition
=df. A definition which
specifies: a) the type of
thing the term applies to,
and b) the differences
between the things the
term applies to and other
things of the same type.
• Example: A ‘readymade’
is a work of art which is
not a new thing created,
but is a preexistent object
which is merely selected
Fountain, Marcel Duchamp, 1917
by the artist whose work
it is.
TYPES OF DEFINITION AND
THEIR PURPOSES VIII
• Not every term can be given a complete definition.
• Abstract terms like ‘goodness,’ ‘truth,’ ‘knowledge,’
and ‘beauty’ cannot be completely defined.
• M&P: “A writer may have to settle for providing
mere hints of their subtle meanings.”
• Hence, although M&P do not do so, we might
refer to definitions which hint at the meaning of
terms which cannot be completely defined as
suggestive definitions.
• Example: “By ‘reality’ I mean the things that most
of us agree have independent existence apart
from our perceptions of them.”
TYPES OF DEFINITION AND
THEIR PURPOSES IX
• If we exclude definition by synonym and definition
by example, then not every term can be defined.
• Terms which cannot be defined except through
synonym or example are basic or primitive parts
of our conceptual scheme.
• JS: “A concept is basic or undefinable when any
attempted definition of the concept must employ a
term which refers to a concept synonymous with
the concept to be defined, so that the definition
utilizes the concept itself of which it is meant to be
the definition, and no meaning of the term is
thereby provided.”
TYPES OF DEFINITION AND
THEIR PURPOSES X
• Example: The term ‘object’ names a primitive concept in
our conceptual scheme, and so does not admit of
definition apart from synonym or example.
• JS: “One might attempt to define ‘object’ by saying that
‘An object is anything of any sort of which a property or
properties can be predicated.’ But since ‘thing’ in
‘anything’ is a synonymous means of indicating what is
meant by the basic concept of object, the concept is not
here defined, but something is merely said about it
which may or may not be true.”
• JS: “Or if it be said that ‘An object is whatever can be
presented in any way to mind’ we would have to inquire
into the meaning of the term ‘whatever,’ and in doing so
would discover that it means ‘anything or everything
that,’ and so we would be utilizing once again a
synonym of our basic undefinable notion.”
TYPES OF DEFINITION AND
THEIR PURPOSES XI
• We could say that ‘object’ means ‘entity’ or ‘thing’
and this would be a definition by synonym.
• Or we could give as examples of objects things
like chairs, trees, the sky, thoughts, emotions,
numbers, and so forth.
• Or we might attempt a suggestive definition by
saying something like: (JS) “Everything is an
object, including the concept of ‘object.’ Not only is
the concept of ‘object’ primitive, but it has
unrestricted application. As such, the concept of
‘object’ will apply to anything of which we, as
subjects, are or can be aware, and anything of
which we think as not depending on awareness
will also be an object.”
TYPES OF DEFINITION AND
THEIR PURPOSES XII
• M&P: “Most terms convey meaning beyond the literal
sense of the written or spoken words. This ‘meaning’ is
a term’s emotive or rhetorical force – its tendency to
elicit certain feelings or attitudes.”
• For instance, the term ‘abortion’ literally means
‘deliberate termination of pregnancy.’ But that term can
have different emotive or rhetorical force for someone
depending on his or her view on the morality of abortion.
For one person it may elicit feelings of revulsion, and
that person may think of abortion as ‘baby murder.’
Another person may think that abortion represents
freedom of choice, and that person may think of
‘abortion’ as ‘expression of an individual right.’
• M&P: “The emotive or rhetorical force of a term is
subjective, and can vary considerably from one person
to another, and is usually not taken to be part of the
SIMPLICITY AND
COMPLEXITY IN WRITING
• A general rule of thumb in good writing is to be as
simple as possible. Don’t use two words if one will do,
don’t use a longer word if a shorter one will get the
meaning across. Avoid repetition and unnecessary
complexity. Thus writing should be direct and to the
point when possible.
• However, complicated ideas can demand complicated
expression. And there may be cases where to
attempt to simply an idea may pervert the idea or
destroy its force. It may even be necessary at times to
be complicated to be clear. And some repetition may
be necessary to get across novel and difficult ideas.
• Also, to write simply need not mean to write for an
uneducated audience. There is nothing wrong with
good academic writing which shows a command of
vocabulary as it expresses intelligently difficult
AMBIGUOUS CLAIMS I
• A claim is ambiguous if: a) it can be assigned
more than one meaning; and b) if the particular
meaning which it should be assigned is not made
clear by the context. (See example on p. 49.)
• A claim can be ambiguous for different reasons.
• A semantically ambiguous claim =df. A claim
whose ambiguity is due to the ambiguity of
meaning of a particular word or phrase. (See
examples of semantic ambiguity on p. 50.)
• To remove semantic ambiguity substitute an
unambiguous word or phrase for the word or
phrase which causes the claim to be ambiguous.
AMBIGUOUS CLAIMS II
• A syntactically ambiguous claim = df. A claim
which is ambiguous because of the structure of
the claim. (See examples on p. 50.)
• To eliminate syntactic ambiguity rewrite the
claim.
• Syntactic ambiguity can result when it is not
clear what a pronoun refers to. Example: “John
peeled the skin from the tomato and then ate it.”
To what does ‘it’ refer, the skin or the tomato?
• Syntactic ambiguity can also result from careless
use of modifying phrases. Example: “Joan filed
her nails on the sidewalk.” Was the sidewalk the
place of filing or was it used as the tool of filing?
AMBIGUOUS CLAIMS III
• A grouping ambiguity occurs in a claim when
it is not clear how groups referred to in the
claim relate to the claim.
• Example: “Social drinkers actually consume
more alcohol than alcoholics.”
• To remove the ambiguity, it must be made
clear whether we are talking about individual
members of the group or about the group as a
collection of individuals.
FALLACIES OF COMPOSITION
AND DIVISION
• The fallacy of composition =df. Thinking that, because
something holds true of a group of things taken
individually, it must hold true of the same things taken
collectively, or as a group.
– Example: Joan, John, Jane, and Joe are the best musicians
of all musicians on the different instruments which they play.
It follows necessarily then that together they would make the
best band.
• The fallacy of division = df. Thinking that, because
something holds true of a group of things taken
collectively, it must also hold true of the things which
compose that group as they are taken individually.
– Example: The best band is The Four Js. The Four Js is
composed of Joan, John, Jane, and Joe, each of whom
plays a different instrument. Therefore since The Four Js is
the best band, Joan, John, Jane, and Joe must each be the
best musician of all musicians on the particular instrument
which he or she plays.
VAGUE CLAIMS I
• A vague claim = df. A claim with a meaning
that is indistinct or imprecise.
– Vague claims and ambiguous claims are two
different things. (Recall that an ambiguous
claim is one with a meaning which can be
interpreted in more than one way, and whose
meaning is not made clear by the context.)
• Vague claims should be avoided because
they lack sufficient precision to convey the
information appropriate to the claim.
VAGUE CLAIMS II
• Some vague claims are due to fuzzy words like ‘smart,’
‘heavy,’ ‘warm,’ and ‘heap.’ However, not all claims
made with fuzzy words are too vague for use. And just
because a claim lacks fuzzy words, it doesn’t mean that
it is automatically precise and clear rather than vague.
• A vague claim’s vagueness is a matter of degree, and
what is to be avoided in clear writing and critical thinking
is “an undesirable degree of vagueness,” not vagueness
of any kind.
– For instance, saying that you should study for a couple of hours or
so for each hour that you are in class each week is less precise
than saying that you should study precisely two hours and ten
minutes for each hour spent in class, but it is acceptable for getting
an idea of study time.
• Absolute precision in a claim is not always possible and
not always necessary. M&P: “The appropriate criticism
of a claim is not that it is vague, but that it is too vague
COMPARATIVE CLAIMS
•
•
•
•
•
•
In a comparative claim one thing is either specifically
compared with another – “A Ford runs quieter than a Rolls
Royce” – or it is implicitly compared with another – as in, “Fords
are better” (than all other cars).
Things to ask in assessing the truth of comparative claims:
1. Is important information missing? Thus, how was the claim
that a Ford runs quieter than a Rolls Royce determined?
2. Is the same standard of comparison being used when Fords
are compared with other cars? Were the Ford and the Rolls
driven over the same territory?
3. Are the items being compared really comparable? Was it a
new Rolls that was being compared with a new Ford?
4. Is the comparison expressed as an average? If so, make
sure again that important information isn’t missing. M&P:
“Comparisons that involve averages omit details that can be
important, simply because they involve averages.”
– Example: ‘On average, women are better students than men.’ Where?
When? How big was the student group sampled? What were the
backgrounds of the students compared?
KINDS OF AVERAGE
• Mean =df. The number that results when the sum
of a group of numbers is divided by the number of
members in the group.
• Median =df. The number in a group of numbers
which has as many numbers larger than it as
smaller than it.
• Mode =df. The number which occurs most
frequently in a group of numbers.
• Example: Five people in a small firm make the
following yearly amounts: $40,000, $40,000,
$60,000, $75,000, and $100,000. This totals
$315,000. Divided by 5 employees that gives an
average salary of $63,000. That is the mean
salary. The median salary is $60,000, and the
mode is $40,000.
PRINCIPLES OF PERSUASIVE
WRITING
• M&P: “The primary aim of argumentation and an
argumentative essay is to establish something, to
support a position on an issue.”
• To do this in a critical essay:
• 1. Discuss issues, not personal considerations.
• 2. Anticipate and discuss possible criticisms of
your view.
• 3. Don’t be rude or insulting.
• 4. Admit that an opponent’s argument is good if it
is good.
• 5. Concentrate on those things which are most
important.
• 6. Refute objections to your position before
presenting arguments for your view.
• 7. If you have a number of arguments for your