Grandparents
Professor Margaret Sims,
University of New England and Edith Cowan University.
January 2010
Introduction: Why do we encourage grandparent
involvement in the lives of their children and
grandchildren
The world has changed. Grandparents and other family members are more
likely to be living further away from each other. This means parents of
today have less support upon which to call, making the job of parenting
more stressful. We know that parents who are stressed are less likely to be
effective, so it is important that we consider how to reduce their stress.
Grandparent involvement in the lives of their children and grandchildren
acts as a form of protection, buffering children against risks in their
environments.
Grandparents influence grandchildren in many positive ways
Grandparents influence grandchildren’s outcomes, even when they are not
directly involved in the lives of their grandchildren. For example we know
that if grandmother was exposed to hazardous chemicals whilst she was
pregnant, the impact of that exposure can be seen in her grandchildren.
Particularly relevant for Australia, is the evidence from Western Australia
that shows grandchildren of stolen children are more likely to demonstrate
greater mental and physical problems than those Indigenous children who
do not have a grandparent or parent who was removed under the stolen
children programme.
The more involved grandparents are in the lives of their grandchildren, the
more influence they have over grandchild outcomes. For example,
grandparents:




transmit religious and moral beliefs to their grandchildren which
influences grandchildren’s educational achievement;
buffer the impact of maternal depression on children;
living in the home can help improve mothers’ parenting skills;
living in the home can help improve the home learning environment
with positive outcomes for their grandchildren’s reading skills.
Chapter 1: Grandparents getting involved
Grandparents in our modern world may contribute financially to their adult
children and grandchildren. In return they receive other forms of support
such as emotional and physical support. Grandparents who were more
involved when their grandchildren were young are more likely to have
positive and ongoing relationships when those grandchildren grow into
adults. Involvement in the lives of grandchildren can consist of visits, other
forms of contacts (phone, internet) and involvement in activities.
Grandchildren who stay overnight at their grandparents’ house as
youngsters are more likely to remain involved with their grandparents as
they grow up. In some families, grandparents live with parents and
grandchildren.
What impacts on grandparents’ ability to be involved?
Grandparents’ health impacts on the amount of time they can spend with
their grandchildren, and what they can do with the time they spend
together. Grandparents who are healthy and more able to participate in
activities with their grandchildren are likely to be more satisfied with the
relationships they have with the children.
Maintaining involvement with grandchildren can be difficult after divorce.
Grandparents often feel left out, anxious, depressed and/or angry.
Sometimes grandparents’ visiting rights are considered in divorce
proceedings, but this is still relatively uncommon. New Zealand was the first
country in the world (through their Children, Young Persons and Families
Act of 1989) to mandate extended family involvement in decisions around
child placement and since that time a number of other countries have
developed legislation around kinship placement and custody.
Grandparents building loving relationships with
grandchildren
Grandparents and grandchildren need to spend time together to build
loving relationships that will last a life-time. It is not always easy to build
these relationships but there are some simple strategies that can be used to
help the process along.
1. Share children’s interests: talk with parents to find out children’s
interests: perhaps a particular story the child likes, a rhyme or song
or a game, and share these (see Example 1).
Example 1: Sharing the child’s interests
Compare the two scenarios.
1: Pierre is babysitting his grand-daughter, Brittany, and he is excited at
spending time with her. As her mother leaves, Brittany is clearly unhappy. “She’ll
be back later,” says Pierre. “Don’t worry, we’ll have a great time together. You
know what, I’ve got a ball and I thought you might like to play ball with me.” He
puts Brittany on the floor and rolls the ball to her. She ignores it. Jack tickles her
foot. “Here’s the ball Brittany. Can you get it and roll it back to me?” Brittany
frowns and turns away. Jack feels rejected and gets up off the floor. “Okay, I’ll
leave you to play how you want.” He sits in his chair and turns on the TV.
2: Pierre is babysitting his grand-daughter, Brittany, and he has asked his
daughter to bring her favourite books. He knows that she loves “The Wiggles” so
he has a CD playing of Wiggles songs. When mum leaves he hugs Brittany, then
sits on the sofa with her on his lap. He reaches for the familiar books. “Mummy
left these for us to read together. Would you like a story?” Brittany is upset and
sucking her thumb but she nods. Pierre hugs her gently then opens her favourite
book and begins reading the story. By the time he is half way through Brittany is
beginning to engage with the story. She stops him at one part and says: “That’s
not how Mummy does it.” Pierre smiles and hugs her. “Show me how Mummy
does it.”
2. Make routines relationship building times: Use routine tasks such
nappy changing, toileting, feeding, bathing and sleeping to help
build loving relationships. For example, nappy changes can be a
loving one-on-one experience if you take a little time, talk about
what you are doing as you change the child, play a tickle game
(watch the baby’s non-verbal response and do not persist if you
cannot see signs of enjoyment), perhaps do a little baby massage,
and
have
lots
of
hugs
(see
Example
2).
Check with parents how they manage these simple routines and try
to do these things in the same way, even if it is not a way that you
would have chosen yourself. The aim is to use familiar routines to
ensure the child feels comfortable with you. If you really want to,
you can gradually change the way these routines are handled once
you and the children have a secure and loving relationship but
always start a new relationship doing things the way they are done
at home.
Example 2: Using routines
Compare the two scenarios.
1: Mary lays Marcus on the change table. “I’m going to change your nappy,
Marcus. Can you lie still for me please?” She quickly undoes the snaps and
whisks the nappy out from under Marcus. Marcus starts to wriggle. Mary tries
to hold him down with one hand whilst she reaches for the clean nappy. Marcus
wriggles even more and begins to whine. “Hold still Marcus. This will be done in
a minute,” says Mary. She lifts him and slides the clean nappy under but Marcus
wriggles vigorously and she fumbles the snaps several times. “Hold still, Marcus
I can’t fasten these with you moving around so much.” She holds him down
firmly and Marcus begins to cry. Mary quickly snaps the nappy closed and picks
him up. “There, there, it’s all over now,” she says as she carries the crying child
out into the other room.
2: Mary lays Marcus on the change table. “I’m going to change your nappy,
Marcus. Here, can you feel my hands on your tummy”. Mary tickles Marcus’s
tummy as she undoes the snaps on the nappy. Marcus wriggles a little and
smiles. “Do you like a tickle? I’ll tickle again. Let’s just get this wet nappy off and
out of the way. Here we go. Now I can really tickle. Here comes my hand. See,
here it comes, it’s coming. Ready. Ready. Now! Tickle. Tickle.” Mary tickles and
Marcus giggles. “Do you want another tickle? Yes? My hand is coming. It’s
coming. I’ve got you. Tickle. Tickle.” Marcus giggles again. “Okay we have to
get this nice clean nappy on now. I’m going to lift you up and now slide the
nappy under you. There it is. Can you feel it? Nice and dry. Here we go, doing up
the snaps at the side. There, all done. Oh, you are all lovely and dry. Ready to
get up? Up we go. Time for a hug. Ready? And Squeeeeeze. Oh that’s a lovely
hug. What shall we do now?”
3. Be sensitive to all forms of communication: Watch children’s
nonverbal communications as well as listen to their language. It is
important that you develop an understanding of each child as a
unique individual. Be responsive to children’s communication (both
verbal and non-verbal). Try to follow children’s interests and focus
(see Example 3) so that they are ‘leading’ the interactions some of
the time. You can see in Example 3 how Marta does not immediately
lift Zac up from his nap, but pauses to have a ‘conversation’ with
him, following his interest in the teddy. In doing this she is building a
loving and trusting relationship with Zac, and, at the same time,
giving him lots of language and concept learning (eg the concept
‘up’). She is teaching him that he is important and that his opinions
matter to her; essential learning for creating a healthy self esteem
and the ability to develop empathy and caring for others.
Example 3: Following children’s lead
Compare the two scenarios.
The key
in cot
interacting
children
is to beon
sensitive
1: Zac is lying
in his
looking with
at the
teddy resting
the endand
of responsive.
the cot near his
This
means
reading
the
verbal
and
non-verbal
cues
children
are “Zac you
feet. Marta has heard him wake and comes in to pick him up. She says:
giving
you,
and responding
that show
‘listening’ She
are awake.
That’s
great.
I’ve got lotsinofways
exciting
thingsthat
we you
can are
do together.”
understand
what children
are back
communicating
leans overand
andtrying
picks to
him
up. Zac wriggles
and looks
at the cot. (see
Maria carries
Example
4).
Use
language
to
check
out
your
understanding,
even
him out of the room. Zac begins to cry. “What’s the matter Zac? Are you
still a little
with
new-born
babies
(the
more
language
they
hear
that
is
relevant
tired? Oh that’s no good. Come and have a drink and a snack and I’m sure you will
to what
they are to
experiencing,
the better they will be at
feel better.”
Zac continues
cry.
understanding and using language throughout their lives).
2: Zac is lying in his cot looking at the teddy resting on the end of the cot near his
feet. Marta has heard him wake and comes in to pick him up. She sees that he is
lying quietly looking at the teddy and pauses. “Zac,” she says softly. He flicks a
glance at her then turns back to the teddy. “You are looking at the teddy. Would
you like to touch the teddy?” She gently picks up the teddy and moves it closer to
Zac. Zac reaches out and takes the teddy in both hands. “You have the teddy. He
feels so soft and cuddly. Do you like to cuddle the teddy?” Zac grins, looks at Marta
and hugs the teddy tight. “You are giving the teddy a lovely hug. That makes teddy
very happy. Can I give Zac a hug?” Zac smiles at Marta. He does not let go of the
teddy but his body moves a little in her direction. Marta smiles back. “Let me hug
Zac and teddy together. I’ll lift you both up for a hug. Ready now?” She reaches
down but pauses as her hands reach around Zac. “Okay to lift you up for a hug
now? Ready? Okay then, let’s go. Up we go, Zac and teddy coming up for a hug.
Here we are now.”
Example 4: Sensitive and responsive interactions.
Compare the two scenarios.
1: Jack is excited about getting home and spending time with his grandson,
Adam, who is staying overnight at their home. He hurries into the house to find
Adam playing on the rug. He reaches down and swoops Adam up into his arms
for a hug. “Hello my little man. I’m so happy you are here with us tonight. We
are going to have a ball.” Adam squirms and leans away from Jack. Jack carries
him over to the window and points out his boat in the back yard. “See, I have the
boat here. I know you love being on the boat. I’ve got to clean it out so maybe
tomorrow you can come and help me and play in the boat. What do you reckon?”
Adam turns away from Jack and wriggles to get down. Rather disappointed, Jack
puts him down on the floor and Adam toddles back to the rug and sits down. Jack
feels sad that Adam does not appear to be looking forward to what he thought
would be a great treat. He picks up the newspaper, sits down in his chair, and
begins to read.
2: Jack is excited about getting home and spending time with his grandson,
Adam, who is staying overnight at their home. He hurries into the house to find
Adam playing on the rug. He sits on the floor next to Jack and smiles. “Hello my
little man. I’m so happy you are here with us tonight. We are going to have a
ball.” Adam looks up at him, smiles and reaches towards Jack. “You want a
cuddle? I’d love a cuddle. Come over here then and let me hug you.” Jack reaches
towards Adam but, as his hands close over Adam he pauses and checks: “You
want a cuddle?” Adam leans towards him and Jack picks him up. “Oh my man,
your cuddles are just wonderful. Look, I’ve got something to show you. It’s
outside and we can look through the window. Wanna go and see?” He points to
the window then looks as Adam. Adam smiles. “You wanna see. Okay. I’ll just put
you down here for a moment so I can get up. There, I’m up. Now I can pick you up
and we’ll go see. Ready?” He reaches down to Adam, pauses, and when Adam
reaches up to him he picks him up. “Okay, let’s go over to the window. Here we
are. Look, I have the boat here. I know you love being on the boat. I’ve got to
clean it out so maybe tomorrow you can come and help me and play in the boat.
What do you reckon?” Jack smiles at Adam and Adam reaches up and tugs his
hair. “Oh, you wanna play rough do you. Oh yes, I think it’s time we had a fight.
Let’s go back over here then. Ready?” Jack and Adam rough-house together and
Adam giggles madly. He is having a great time.
4. Hug and cuddle appropriately: Physical contact is very important to
the wellbeing of humans (and all primates). We all need lots of hugs
and cuddles. Never stop cuddling your grandchildren out of fear of a
child abuse allegation but DO make certain that the hugs you offer
will not put you at risk of an allegation. Always hug with hands
outside the clothes, and in public where others can see. If this is a
particular concern for you, you may want to ensure that routine
tasks such as nappy changing are also performed in public, or in
places where you are visible to others even if they are not
particularly paying you any attention. Talk to your children about the
importance of cuddles and ensure that you have their support in
offering physical affection to your grandchildren. The initial
conversations may feel awkward, but in the end, it will be most
useful if you all agree on ways that hugs and physical affection can
be expressed.
5. Be friends with your children: Your relationship with your children
can help you build strong relationships with your grandchildren. If
your grandchildren can see that their parents trust you, and enjoy
being with you, then they are more likely to be open to building a
loving relationship with you. Conflict between you and your children
is likely to make it more difficult for your grandchildren to bond with
you. It is worth your time to discuss issues of conflict with your
children and attempt to resolve them. You may end up agreeing to
disagree, but if you can at least accept and tolerate your differences,
this will help your grandchildren feel safe with you.
Chapter 2: Parents’ role in maintaining grandparent
involvement
Parents sometimes feel conflicted about involving their parents in the lives
of their children. For some, there is a strong feeling that asking for support
is a failure on their part. In fact, given the pressures on parents today,
recognising the need for support, and reaching out to get that support, is
now considered a strength rather than a failure. In contrast, other families
are more likely to expect to give and receive support from each other, so
find the idea of grandparent involvement in their children’s lives normal.
Grandparents can offer a range of different supports aimed at making the
lives of their children easier. Grandparents can be an important source of
advice for parents and they can offer child minding. Child care can be on an
occasional basis (for parents to have time-out or to attend social events) or
can be more regular (for example providing regular care whilst parents are
working). In Australia, around 1 in every 5 children receives some form of
grandparent care at some point in their early years. In some families, where
grandparents live with parents and grandchildren, the support offered is
more pragmatic, ranging from domestic help to day-to-day child care.
The more contact grandparents have with their grandchildren the better
the relationship they develop, and the more support they can offer parents.
Parents can create opportunities for grandchildren and grandparents to
spend time together and build a loving relationship. It is important to select
opportunities that are likely to offer positive experiences for grandchildren
and grandparents. Consider:



The venue: visiting the grandparent’s home where there are many
delicate ornaments within reach of a toddler is not conducive to a
relaxing visit. It might be more appropriate to meet in a local park or
playground where the children can play safely and interactions with
adults can be less stressful;
The time of day: getting together when a grandparent is tired will
make it more difficult for the grandparent to interact positively with
the children. Getting together when a toddler is ready for an
afternoon sleep will have the same effect. Consider the personal
schedules of your children and the grandparents and try to match
times when both are likely to be at their best;
The interaction opportunities: going to a restaurant where the child
is uncomfortable sitting still for any length of time, and where the
noise level makes meaningful conversation difficult is not likely to
enhance the adult-child relationship. Consider involving
grandparents in the child’s playgroup where there are multiple play
opportunities available, and where either child or grandparent can
rest in a quiet corner if required. Encourage grandparent
involvement in children’s activities at home, school and the
community. Create family get-togethers where people can relax and
enjoy each others’ company.
Parents can help grandparents connect with the children by providing
grandparents with information about the child’s routines, likes and dislikes.
Sharing a favourite toy, game, song or rhyme can be a positive, loving
experience. Changing a nappy using the familiar routine established by
parents will be reassuring for a child left in the care of a grandparent.
Sometimes parents and grandparents have different views about how
children ought to be raised, and how children should behave. These
conflicts may result in limited contact between grandchildren and
grandparents, and a degree of family conflict that makes spending time
together uncomfortable. It is important to remember that children are not
necessarily harmed by experiencing two different sets of expectations and
rules. Sometimes they are able to easily adapt, as long as they are clear
which expectations operate in which environment. Learning to adjust their
behaviour according to the context is a useful skill for children to learn.
However, there may be such a wide gap between what parents and
grandparents find acceptable that the only alternative is to attempt to talk
about the differences. It is important to remember that this is a
conversation about values, what each of you consider important, and in a
values conversation there is no right and wrong. Grandparents are not
wrong because they have different expectations than parents. Parents are
not wrong because they have different expectations than grandparents.
Both want the best for the children. You will find that focusing on the
outcome – what is best for the children – will help you through the
conversation. On most occasions there is common ground that can be built
upon so that grandchildren and grandparents can spend quality time
together. There are support services available (Family Relationship
Programmes) to help parents and grandparents discuss their concerns.
Where issues are particularly difficult these services can be invaluable: for
example where a parent has concerns about past abuse that may or may
not have been substantiated, it is important for everyone’s wellbeing that
support is sought to help families balance the needs of each family member
with the children’s safety and wellbeing.
One challenge for parents is maintaining grandparent contact after a
divorce, particularly for the non-custodial parent. In the words of one
grandparent:
Before they separated, we were seeing her [the child] for
probably not every day, but every second day at the most, or
out of seven days we’d probably see her five. They lived close
by. But then when they separated, unfortunately she was used
as a bit of a ploy and we didn’t see her for probably six to eight
weeks. (Paternal grandmother, grandchild lived with mother).
(cited in Kaspiew et al., 2009, p287)
Sometimes grandparents ‘take sides’ and this can escalate family conflict to
the detriment of the grandchildren’s wellbeing. Again, it helps to focus on
the children and their needs. Supporting the grandparent-grandchild
relationship provides children stability and reassurance in their changing
world.
Sometimes where grandparents have felt excluded, they have resorted to
the legal system to gain access.
I see him [the grandchild] more regular now … because I won
… I see him once a fortnight … But I had to go through nine
months court to do it because she said I wasn’t going to see
him and we tried all the mediation. I went through everything
I could. (Paternal grandparent, grandchild lived with
mother).(cited in Kaspiew et al., 2009, p289)
Unfortunately, court-ordered grandparent visitation is not always
successful, particularly when it is against parents’ wishes. If you find
yourself in this situation, it may be necessary to suppress your feelings, and
focus on doing your best to make the visits work for the wellbeing of the
children.
Chapter 3: A special case: grandparents raising
grandchildren
A growing number of children in Australia (and indeed in other countries
around the world) are being raised by grandparents due to parental
absence or inability to provide an appropriate rearing environment (eg
illness, death, incarceration, drug addiction). Taking responsibility for
rearing your grandchildren brings with it a number of challenges. Whilst
some grandparents may feel more relaxed about parenting the second-time
around they are also more likely to feel stressed and tired. They may
experience financial problems as they attempt to stretch pensions to meet
the needs of additional family members, or, if they are still in employment,
they are likely to work for more years than they might have planned, or
work longer hours. The additional emotional and physical demands on them
may impact negatively on their physical and mental health. These impacts
may or may not be long term depending on the circumstances.
The system is not appropriately geared to support grandparent carers
adequately. In fact, many grandparents experience negative attitudes
associated with their caring, including prejudice from services and rejection
from peers because of new limits imposed on their availability to participate
in social events. Custodial grandparents are less likely to receive the support
that foster parents get from the formal system and are less likely to have
adequate informal support networks. Despite this, grandparent placements
tend to be more stable than foster placements, which is of immense benefit
to the grandchildren.
Children who need alternative placements tend to be traumatised as a
result of the situation that created the need for the placement (and
grandparents are themselves possibly traumatised for much the same
reasons). Children whose parents are drug addicted are likely to have
experienced neglect (emotional and physical) and may have experienced
abuse. Grandparents may be grieving for the lifestyle chosen by their
children. Children whose parents have died (and grandparents whose
children have died) are likely to be experiencing grief. This means that
children are likely to come into the placement with a range of emotional,
social and behavioural problems that are particularly challenging to
manage, problems with which grandparents may not have had to deal in
raising their own children. Grandparent carers need additional support in
managing these behaviours, particularly at a time when they are grieving
themselves. Where these challenges can be addressed, outcomes for
children are positive, however, where grandparents are not supported,
outcomes for children may not be as good. Grandparents may benefit from
support groups where they can network with other grandparent carers,
facilitated access to formal support, case management support and
advocacy.
The complexity of the legal issues facing custodial grandparents add to the
stresses they experience. Some grandparents prefer to keep their
arrangements informal, partly because they fear their children will refuse to
release their legal rights, and this might put the children at more risk if they
are reclaimed by their parents. Part of this is also due to the sheer
complexity of the legal system. Support services need to be available to
grandparents to help them negotiate their way through these complex
bureaucracies.
Some children in grandparent care need to take on a caring role
themselves, in caring for their grandparent. Generally this does not have a
negative impact on grandchild outcomes unless the child feels pushed into
unwanted precocity.
Conclusion
Grandparents are an important part of our families, and have a very special
role. Their involvement enriches the lives of their grandchildren. They can
provide invaluable support to their children and make the parenting role
easier and less stressful.
Parents can create opportunities for grandparents and grandchildren to
spend time together. Grandparents can focus on developing loving
relationships with grandchildren. The more extensive the grandparent
involvement, the better the benefits for grandchildren and parents.
As with any set of relationships, it is important that all involved commit to
communicate effectively. Whilst conflict is not uncommon, it can be worked
through to the benefit of all concerned. A commitment to the wellbeing of
the children will ensure that families work together and support each other.
Further Reading
Research about the importance of building secure
relationships with children
Gerhardt, S. (2004). Why love matters. How affection shapes a baby's brain.
Hove: Bruner Routledge.
Sims, M., & Hutchins, T. (in press). Programme planning for infants and
toddlers. In search of relationships. Sydney: Pademelon Press.
Small, M. (1999). Our babies, ourselves. How biology and culture shape the
way we parent. New York: Anchor Books.
Research about grandparenting
Cox, C. (2007). Grandparent-Headed Families: Needs and Implications for
Social Work Interventions and Advocacy. Families in Society: The
Journal of Contemporary Human Services., 88(4), 561 - 566.
Dolbin-MacNab, M. (2006). Just Like Raising Your Own? Grandmothers'
Perceptions of Parenting a Second Time Around. Family Relations,
55(5), 564 - 575.
Even-Zohar, A., & Sharlin, S. (2009). Grandchildhood: Adult Grandchildren's
Perception of Their Role towards Their Grandparents from an
Intergenerational Perspective. Journal of Comparative Family
Studies, 40(2), 167 - 185.
Families Australia. (2007). Grandparenting: present and future. (No. 2).
Barton, ACT: Families Australia. Available at
www.familiesaustralia.org.au
Horner, B., Downie, J., Hay, D., & Wichmann, H. (2007). Grandparent kinship
care in Australia. Geriaction, 25(1), 5 - 14.
Kaspiew, R., Gray, M., Weston, R., Moloney, L., Hand, K., Qu, L., et al.
(2009). Evaluation of the 2006 Family Law Reforms. Melbourne:
Australian Institute of Family Studies. Chapter 12 focuses on
Raphel, S. (2008). Kinship Care and the Situation for Grandparents. Journal
of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 21(2), 118 -120.
Smith, G., & Palmieri, P. (2007). Risk of Psychological Difficulties Among
Children Raised by Custodial Grandparents. Psychiatric Services,
58(10), 1303 - 1310.
Wang, Y., & Marcotte, D. (2007). Golden Years? The Labor Market Effects of
Caring for Grandchildren. Journal of Marriage and Family, 69(5),
1283 - 1296.
Worrall, J. (2006). Challenges of Grandparent Custody of Children at Risk in
New Zealand. Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary
Human Services., 87(4), 546 - 554.
Research about the impact of grandparents on children
Copen, C., & Silverstein, M. (2008). The Transmission of Religious Beliefs
across Generations: Do Grandparents Matter? Journal of
Comparative Family Studies, 39(1), 59 - 74.
Dunifon, R., & Kowaleski-Jones, L. (2007). .The Influence of Grandparents in
Single-Mother Families. Journal of Marriage and Family, 69(2), 465 481.
Oberlander, S., Black, M., & Starr Jr, R. (2007). African American adolescent
mothers and grandmothers: A multigenerational approach to
parenting. American Journal of Community Psychology, 39(1-2), 37 46.
Robaire, B. (2008). Is it my grandparents' fault? Nature Medicine., 14(11),
1186 - 1187.
Silverstein, M., & Ruiz, S. (2006). Breaking the Chain: How Grandparents
Moderate the Transmission of Maternal Depression to Their
Grandchildren. Family Relations, 55(5), 601 - 612.
Zubrick, S., Lawrence, D., Silburn, S., Blair, E., Milroy, H., Wilkes, E., et al.
(2004). Western Australian Aboriginal Child Health Survey
(WAACHS). The Health of Aboriginal Children and Young People.
Perth, WA: Telethon Institute for Child Health Research.
Zubrick, S., Silburn, S., Lawrence, D., Mitrou, F., Dalby, R., Blair, E., et al.
(2005). The Western Australian Aboriginal Child Health Survey: The
social and emotional wellbeing of Aboriginal children and young
people. Perth: Curtin University of Technology & Telethon Institute
of Child Health Research.