Competency 1
Competency Literature Review
Andrew Evans
Azusa Pacific University
Competency 2
The use of competencies in higher education and leadership settings brings forward both
criticisms and praise. In order to effectively review competencies, a definition is first needed.
According to Ainsworth (1977), “competency-based education refers to an instructional system
where students are given credit for performing to a pre-specified level of competency under prespecified conditions” (p.322). Competency models should provide specific behaviors and
benefits of the competencies (Thach & Thompson, 2006).
Competency-based education is not a new model specific only to the classroom, rather it
is one that has been used in a diverse range of settings. This type of education and training is
becoming present in a variety of areas including higher education, the field of leadership, as well
as in the professional and business setting. Many different fields are seeing the benefits of
competencies first hand.
Educational settings are moving towards competency-based programs which are more
student-centered models (Tigelaar, Dolmans, & Wolfhagen, 2004). They give students ability to
obtain and show expertise in behavior, skills, or disciplines. It forces students to focus on
achievement versus instruction. At the end of the program, professors and students will be able
to know exactly what area or behaviors the student is proficient in. It also allows students to be
freed from the burden of formal and mundane coursework, and allows them to show proficiency
through various forms of behaviors. However, there is also one main draw back to this type of
education. Not all educational content and standards can be expressed by students in terms of
behavioral performance (Ainsworth, 1977).
Not only have competency-based models been present in higher education, but in 2001 a
public retail company went to a competency training model because they believed that it would
improve performance, support priorities, and bring cultural change in managers (Boak &
Competency 3
Coolican, 2001). They also believed that one of the main benefits of this approach is that
competencies have the ability to change behaviors in leaders and managers (2001).
Competency-based models have the ability to weed out the non-performing leaders. This type of
training and instruction forces employees to either perform or move on.
Competency models are also becoming present in the field of leadership. Competencies
can be used to describe the actions, skills, or behaviors which make up a successful leader.
However, we see that there is not a single set of competencies which can include all of the useful
competencies which leaders exhibit. In other words it is not possible to determine every
competency that a leader may need to posses in order to be proficient or successful. As a result
of this, competencies are helpful in developing skills and behaviors, and should be used as an
educational tool to aide in that process. Competencies should not be used as a recipe for
leadership, but instead should be used as a tool which learns from past experience, knowledge,
and lessons in order to benefit others (Hollenbeck, McCall, & Silzer, 2012).
The benefits of competency-based education extends into the workplace and economy as
well. Due to the fact that competency-based education focuses on specific behaviors, it prepares
graduates to be well-equipped to enter the workforce with versatile and flexible skills (Forster,
1996). It gives students not only the knowledge to enter into the work force, but it helps prepare
them with tangible behaviors that will benefit them in future careers.
The effects of this can be seen in the use of competencies to determine performance at the
professional level. Zenger, Folkman, & Edinger (2011) believed that sixteen core competencies
were positively related to successful business. They found that the most important competencies
to focus on were those that the organization held in high regard.
Competency 4
As I review the literature and compare it to Azusa Pacific’s MAiL competency-based
program, it is clear to see the benefits of the eight competencies selected for the MAiL program.
The main benefit is that the MAiL program prepares students for real-world action not only
through traditional educational means, but through experiencing leading, mobilizing, and
mentoring first hand. Ware and Grantham (2005) hold that effective managers must master
behaviors and skills to be effective. The MAiL program competencies prepare students to serve
as effective leaders who are able to be persons of integrity, academic inquiry, mentors,
strategists, educators, mobilizers, team builders, and change agents. The program not only gives
students the knowledge, but it allows students to put the knowledge into practice.
References
Ainsworth, D. (1977). Examining the basis for competency-based education. The Journal of
Higher Education 48(3), 321-332.
Competency 5
Boak, D, & Coolican, D. (2001). Competencies for retail leadership: accurate, acceptable,
affordable. Leadership & Organization Development Journal 22(5), 212-220.
Forster, K. (1996). Competencies and the curriculum: Can schooling contribute to the
reconstruction of work? Educational Philosophy and Theory 28(1), 24-39.
Hollenbeck, G. P., McCall, M. W., & Silzer, R. F. (2006). Leadership competency models. The
Leadership Quarterly 17(4), 398-413.
Tigelaar, D. H., Dolmans, D. M., & Wolfhagen, I. P. (2004). The development and validation of
a framework for teaching competencies in higher education. Higher Education 48(2),
253-268.
Thach, E. & Thompson, K. J. (2007). Trading places: Examining leadership competencies
between for-profit vs. public and non-profit leaders. Leadership and Organization
Development Journal 28(4), 356-375.
Ware, J. & Grantham, C. (2005). Which skills and competencies will be most critical for leaders
as the workplace continues to evolve. Leadership in Action 24(6), 15.
Zenger, J. H., Folkman, J. R., & Edinger, S. K. (2011). Making yourself indispensable. Harvard
Business Review 89(10), 84-92.