Chapter 2: Policing Today
Objectives
 Define community policing.
 Describe the four-step problem-solving model called SARA.
 Identify the problems commonly associated with traditional policing.
 Define the concept of a problem as defined by Herman Goldstein in his book ProblemOriented Policing.
 Define the CAPS program.
 Define CompStat and identify the core principles of CompStat as presented in the New
York City model.
 Define some of today’s new policing strategies, such as “hot-spot” policing, intelligenceled policing (ILP), and predictive policing.
 List and briefly describe some of the more common crime analysis techniques.
 Describe a geographic information system and explain how such a system enhances
police service.
 Explain the impact of information technologies on the police.
Discussion Questions
1. Define community policing. (p. 49-50)
Community policing was a relatively new movement in policing during the 1990s that
focused on a service orientation that was characterized by building key partnerships
within the community and addressing a variety of social problems within a neighborhood
other than just crime. Crime was not viewed as the sole purview of the police, but rather
an entire community’s responsibility. For the most part, the movement focused on
programs that fostered five elements: 1) a commitment to crime prevention; 2) public
scrutiny of the police; 3) accountability of police actions to the public; 4) customized and
decentralized police service; and 5) community organization. Community policing is
preventative, proactive, and information driven.
2. Describe the four-step problem-solving system commonly referred to as SARA. (p. 5355)
The problem-solving methodology commonly referred to as SARA consists of four steps
including Scanning, Analysis, Response, and Assessment. Each step can be described as
follows:
Scanning: Instead of relying upon broad, law-related concepts (i.e. robbery, burglary,
auto theft, etc.), officers are encouraged to group together separate related incidents that
come to their attention as “problems” and define the problems in more precise and
useful terms. For example, and incident that typically would be classified simply as
“robbery” might be seen as part of a pattern of prostitution-related robberies committed
by transvestites in center-city hotels. In essence, officers are expected to look for
possible problems and accurately define them as part of their daily routine.
Analysis: Officers working on a well-defined problem then collect information from a
variety of public and private sources, not just traditional police data such as criminal
records and past offense reports. Officers rely on problem analysis guides which direct
officers to examine offenders, victims, the social and physical environment, and previous
responses to the problem. The goal is to understand the scope, nature, and causes of the
problem and to formulate a variety of options for its resolution.
Response: The knowledge gained in the analysis stage is then used to develop and
implement solutions. Officers seek the assistance of citizens, businesses, other police
units, other public and private organizations, and anyone else that can help in order to
develop a program of actions. Solutions should go beyond traditional police responses to
include other community agencies and/or municipal organizations.
Assessment: Officers evaluate the impact and the effectiveness of their responses. Were
the original problems actually solved or alleviated? They may use the results to revise a
response, collect more data, or even to redefine the problem.
3.
Identify the problems commonly associated with traditional policing. (p. 50)
The community policing largely resulted from recognized problems associated with the
traditional policing modality. Specifically, traditional policing is reactive in nature; that
is, the police respond to calls for services after an activity occurs. Traditional policing
also relies heavily on randomized motor patrol, which has been found not effective in
deterring crime or catching suspected offenders. Additionally, because traditional
policing emphasizes patrol, the role of the individual officer has been reduced to
patrolling for and responding to crime.
4. Define the concept of a problem as defined by Herman Goldstein in his book ProblemOriented Policing. (p.55)
Goldstein book attempted to give meaning to each of the stages in the SARA model. The
first stage, scanning, involves grouping individual, related events together as
“problems.” Goldstein defines this concept of a problem as a cluster of similar, related,
or recurring incidents rather than a single incident. In using this definition Goldstein
assumes that few incidents (of crime) are isolated.
5. What was the CAPS program? (p. 56-58)
CAPS stands for the Chicago Alternative Policing Program. This program was the
largest and most comprehensive community policing initiative in the United States. It
represented a full-scale adoption of community policing with the following features:
 Crime control and prevention through vigorous and impartial law enforcement,
rapid response to serious crime, and proactive problem solving within the
community
 Special attention to building and identifying neighborhoods
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Organizing police services so that officers were responsible for crime control in a
specific neighborhood or geographic area.
A system of differential and structured response to calls for service.
A proactive and problem-solving approach toward community disorder and decay
that are often associated with crime.
Combined community and city resources for crime prevention and control.
More efficient data collection and analysis to identify crime patterns.
A commitment to training police personnel and the community on community
policing.
A dedication to communication and marketing of the community policing
philosophy.
A commitment to evaluation, strategic planning, and organizational change
needed to fulfill the community policing philosophy.
6. Define CompStat and identify the core principles of CompStat as presented in the New
York City model. (p. 52-53)
The application of technology to the community policing philosophy gave way to a
process commonly referred to as CompStat. It is a collection of modern management
practices, military-like deployment efforts, and strong enforcement strategies; all based
on the availability of accurate and timely statistical crime data. The focus of CompStat is
on making the police more efficient and effective. The following are the core principles
of CompStat:
 Analysis of accurate and timely intelligence and statistical crime information
based on geographical settings and/or areas, using high technology computer
systems.
 Rapid deployment of resources, particularly combining patrol with non-uniform
agents within a specific area aimed at specific targets.
 Tactics that focus on visible street crime or “quality of life” crimes.
 Relentless follow-up and assessment that includes placing accountability on all
levels within the organization.
7. Define some of today’s new police strategies, such as hot spots policing, intelligence-led
policing (ILP), and predictive policing. (p. 65-69)
Many of today’s new police strategies, including hot spots policing, ILP, and predictive
policing have emerged from evidence-based policing, which utilizes the scientific method
to identify, implement, evaluate, and modify the methods that are most effective in
reducing crime. Hot spots policing applies empirical data that indicates that crime is
rather concentrated in isolated areas. In other words, a few geographic locations are
typically responsible for a majority of police calls for service and reported crime.
Therefore, the police identify such areas and then direct their resources at those places.
ILP is a model for policing that utilizes criminal intelligence analysis as a means to
prevent and reduce crime through both best practices and partnerships with other
entities. Predictive policing also uses information and analytical tools to prevent crime.
This is done similarly to ILP, but with fewer resources, thus improving upon ILP.
Predictive policing also involves using advanced analytics to evaluate and examine date
through advanced statistics and artificial intelligence. Such techniques include data
mining, crime mapping, and geospatial prediction to plan for and respond to future
crime.
8. List and briefly describe some of the more common crime analysis techniques. (p. 69-72)
The statistical analysis of data and the organization of information into manageable
summaries provide law enforcement with meaningful tools with which to combat crime.
The crime problem has continued to grow in terms of quantity, sophistication, and
complexity, thereby forcing police officers and investigators to seek additional help in
enforcement techniques. The purpose of crime analysis is to organize massive quantities
of raw information from databases used in automated records systems, and to forecast
specific future events from the statistical manipulation of these data. In theory, crime
analysis provides a thorough and systematic analysis of data on which to make rational
decisions regarding past, present, and future actions.
Some of the more common crime analysis techniques are:
 Crime-specific analysis: A tabular or graphic display of reported crimes within a
given pattern of time and/or location. It is often used to detect robberies or
burglaries that cluster in specific locations during various time periods.
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Link analysis: A graphic portrayal of associations and relationships among
people, organizations, events, activities, and locations from a given point in time.
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Telephone toll analysis: Computerized reports derived from court-ordered longdistance telephone billings of suspects in illegal narcotics trafficking. Reports
indicate a number and frequency of calls that are displayed in numerical,
chronological, and geographical order.
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Visual investigative analysis (VIA): Charting that depicts key events of criminal
activity in chronological order.
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Case analysis and management system (CAMS): Computerized case management
in which large amounts of data re compiled and indexed for each retrieval of
specific items. This system is used to clarify relationships and to calculate the
probability of associations.
9. Describe a geographic information system and explain how such a system enhances
police service. (p 73-74)
GIS is used in law enforcement to map criminal events that coincide with environmental
criminology studies that illustrate crime patterns. Police departments have benefitted
from GIS because it is an influential mechanism in hot-spots policing and Crime
Prevention Through Environmental Design, situational policing, directed patrols, and
crime analysis. Police departs can also use GIS to dispatch police units by providing
directions, address histories, nearby hazards, water lines, etc. GIS is also beneficial in
analyzing individual officer performance by area.
10. What has been the impact of information technologies on the police? (p. 77-79)
Information technologies have become central to the support of modern policing
strategies. Information technologies are useful in data analysis, as well as storing and
maintaining older data. What is important to note, though, is that information
technologies are not limited to the roles of crime analysts. The entire organization must
have access to such technology, such as field inquiries, mapping of specific
neighborhoods, and managerial performance measures. Information technologies also
play an integral role in administrative decision making. Although there are countless
benefits of information technologies for the police, officers and administrators in
departments must be equipped with information and training. It is the role of the police
administrator to ensure that information technology development and design support the
emerging strategies in policing. Also, police officers and executives must manage
technology rather than be managed by it. Finally, individual officers must understand
their role in the community as aided by, but not controlled by, information technologies.