Changing Britain, 1760-1900
Part Four: Changing Britain, 1760-1900 A study of the reasons for and impact of industrialisation
on life in Britain. It will focus on the social, economic and political developments which
transformed life across Britain in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
Mandatory content
Health and housing
Illustrative areas
Reasons for problems of overcrowding, poor
quality housing and subsequent medical
problems. Improvements in housing including
slum clearances. Improvements in health
including medical advances, piped water
supply and public health.
Industry — textile factories and coal mines
The impact of technology and legislation on
textile factories and coal mines. This will
include the impact of the factory acts and mines
act and improvements to working conditions.
Transport — canals and railways
Building of the canals and railways, the
development the canal and railway networks.
Reasons for the decline of canals. Impact of
these transport networks on society and the
economy.
Pressure for democratic reform up to 1867
The Radical unrest at Peterloo and Bonnymuir.
The 1832 Reform Act. Chartists. Reasons for the
1867 Reform Act and the extent of democratic
change it brought.
1
PART ONE: HEALTH AND HOUSING
Reasons for problems of overcrowding
Highland Clearances:
 People were forced to leave the Highlands by their landlords who realised that
having sheep and deer on the land was more profitable than allowing the crofters to
rent the land from them. Having sheep on the land meant that landowners could
sell their wool and mutton.
 As a result of the evictions, many people left to go to towns and cities.
Irish Immigration:
 Many people in Ireland had relied on the potato crop, and when the disease called
blight ruined their crops in 1845 over 1 million people died as a result of starvation
and illness. Many people had moved into the country from Ireland by the mid1800s to escape famine.
 Irish people were attracted to Britain because it was a relatively short journey by
sea, and settled mainly on the west coast of Scotland, but also in Dundee and in
English cities such as Liverpool and London.
Growth of new industries:
 New industries such as cotton mills, ship building and engineering attracted
workers to cities.
Farmers looking for work:
 Due to more machines being used on farms, many farm workers became
unemployed because machines could do the work of many men.
 When wealthy farmers stopped renting out small areas of land for poorer farmers to
farm, many had to move to the towns and cities to find work.
Early marriage:
 Young people could easily get jobs in cities and this meant they could afford to get
married earlier and have more children.
Birth Rate Rising:
 People were marrying younger and having more children.
Death Rate Falling:
 Improvements in medicine meant that people lived longer and children survived
into childhood. For example, Joseph Lister began to use antiseptics in surgery and a
vaccination to prevent smallpox was created.
 Improvements in farming and the growth of the railway network meant that better
quality fresh food reached cities, which allowed people to fight disease.
 During the second half of the 19th century, housing and water supplies had
improved. For example, in 1859 clean water began to be pumped from Loch Katrine
into Glasgow which meant that Glaswegians no longer had to rely on the public
wells in the city.
2
Poor quality housing and subsequent medical problems
When houses are built today they must meet very high standards. This is enforced
by the council and basic necessities like running water and electricity are standard.
We take it for granted that windows and doors are fitted properly and that the
house must be wind and watertight. This was not always the case. Cities needed
cheap homes as the Industrial Revolution continued to grow. There were few
building regulations then and those that did exist were frequently ignored. The
council did not build houses and builders had a freehand to build as they wished.
Profit became the main motivator for builders. They knew that those coming to the
cities needed a job and somewhere to live. Therefore, a house was put up quickly
and cheaply – and as many were built as was possible.
Homes for the Poor
During the 19th Century more people moved into the towns and cities to find work
in factories. Cities filled to overflowing and most were not prepared for this great
increase in people. People crowed into already crowded houses. Rooms were rented
to whole families or perhaps several families.
Land-owners or factory owners often built houses for their workers. Unfortunately,
this did not always make standards better. The houses were cheap, most had
between 2-4 rooms - one or two rooms downstairs, and one or two rooms upstairs.
But Victorian families were big with perhaps 4-5 children.
There was no water, and no toilet. A whole street (sometimes more) would have to
share a couple of toilets and a pump. The water from the pump was frequently
polluted. It was no surprise that few children made it to adulthood.
Some of the worst houses were ‘back to backs’ in England. The only windows were
at the front. Housing conditions like this were perfect breeding grounds for
diseases.
Homes for the Rich
On the other hand the homes for the middle classes and the upper classes were
much better. They were better built, larger and had most of the new gadgets
installed, such as flushing toilets, gas lighting, and inside bathrooms. These houses
were also decorated in the latest styles. There would be heavy curtains, flowery
wallpaper, carpets and rugs, ornaments, well made furniture, paintings and plants.
Most rich people had servants and they would live in the same house, frequently
sleeping on the top floor or the attic. The rich had water pumps in their kitchens or
sculleries and their waste was taken away down into underground sewers.
Most of the rich lived on the edge of the cities. This way they avoided the
congestion of the inner city. They also avoided the smoke and smell associated with
the city factories and sewers. Most of the upper classes would have large, well
maintained gardens where children could play and parents could relax.
3
The water supply
TOILETS
Toilets would have been nothing more than cesspits. When these were filled they had to be
emptied and what was collected was loaded onto a cart before being dumped in a local
river. This work was also done by the night-men. Local laws stated that their work had to
be done at night as the stench created by emptying the cesspits was too great to be tolerated
during the day. When the great social reformer Lord Shaftesbury visited one house, he
went into the cellar – where a family was living – and found that the sewage from a nearby
cesspit had leaked right under their floor boards. People simply put up with the stench.
THE COST
A block of 40 houses would have possibly 6 toilets for all persons. It is estimated that on
average 9 people lived in one house, which would mean that 6 toilets served 360 people!
Another problem was that it was the responsibility of the landlord of the house to pay to
have cesspits emptied and they were never too enthusiastic to do this. One cesspit cost £1 to
empty. As the average rent was 2 shillings a week, this equalled 5 weeks rent. No-one in
local authority enforced the law and as a result, courtyards could literally flood with
sewage.
DRAINS
Drainage systems would have changed all of this but they cost money. Drainage pipes had
to be made out of brick as no pipes existed then. One foot of brick drainage pipe cost 11
shillings. The poor could not pay this type of money and the wealthier members of a city
were not willing to pay for such an expensive item if it did not benefit them. Liverpool had
a drainage system built but only in the areas where the rich merchants and businessmen
lived. None existed in the areas where the poor lived.
FRESH WATER
Fresh water supplies were also very difficult to get in the poor areas. With no running
water supplies, the best people could hope for was to leave a bucket out and collect
rainwater. Some areas were lucky enough to have access to a well with a pump but there
was always the chance that the well water could have been contaminated with sewage from
a leaking cesspit. Those who lived near a river could use river water. However, this is
where night-men emptied their carts full of sewage and where general rubbish was
dumped. Any water collected would have been diluted sewage.
Types of houses
1) MINERS’ ROW
The rapid growth of deep-coal mining in the 19th century necessitated the building of
thousands of mining villages to house the expanding working population. This housing
was provided in most cases as one or two room dwellings in what became known as
"Miners’ rows".
4
Left: 'Miners’ rows' in the Coatbridge area.
Living conditions in miners’ rows were primitive, with mainly room and kitchen type
housing, stone floors, outside toilets and external water stand pipes. The houses were
characterized by dampness, poor ventilation and lack of sunlight. Many mining
communities lacked access to water and proper drainage or garden grounds.
Accommodation was dependent on employment, so if you lost your job then you also lost
your house. (After the Blantyre Mining Disaster, 1877, Scotland's worst mining incident
which claimed approximately 206 lives, 34 of the widows were evicted within six months of
the accident.)
Civic buildings such as schools, libraries and shops were created largely at the miners'
expense.
2) TENEMENTS
These flats were either a “single-end” or
a “room and kitchen”. You would enter
the building through the front door into a
“lobby” and then you would go up the
staircase to your “landing” (except if you
were on the ground floor!)
Overcrowding in Scotland was a massive
problem. 88% of households in Scotland
lived in 3 or fewer rooms. In the rest of
Britain and Ireland, this figure was only
19%.
5
Children shared beds – no matter what age or sex they were. Recessed beds (or hole in the
wa’) were the only way round this problem. Folding beds on castors which slid under the
other beds were also used.
The big family wash was done in a shared washhouse. Damp clothes were hung on a pulley
inside. Some mothers took their washing in an old pram to “the steamie”.
There was no running water inside the house, and families shared toilets which did not flush
and therefore overflowed. This created cesspools of human waste which contaminated
drinking water which caused Cholera. Dampness in the walls caused TB. There was a lack of
rubbish collection and therefore the streets were full of human, animal and household waste.
Tenements were mostly found in Scotland.
3) BLACKHOUSES
Blackhouses were built in rural areas using local natural resources such as stone, timber and
turf. Blackhouses were built with a thatched roof. The floor was simply trampled mud.
Double walls with turf in between the two walls for extra insulation were created.
A fire was lit at all times so the roof would not rot, and so the thatch would be smoked which
was a good fertiliser for crops. There were no windows and there was no chimney, so smoke
had to find its own way out. This smoky atmosphere and lack of ventilation created health
problems such as bronchitis.
6
Animals and humans lived in the one house. Animals lived in the byre area, which had an
earth floor and drainage for animal waste. This created health problems, and the houses were
foul-smelling due to animal waste and lack of ventilation.
The dark and unsanitary conditions were a perfect breeding ground for the diseases called
Typhoid, Cholera and Tuberculosis.
4) BACK TO BACK HOUSING
These are houses which
are rows of terraces.
Attached to the back of
these houses are another
row of houses. The rows
of houses were literally
built back to back one
room deep. Some had
one-room cellars below
ground level. As a
result, the small rooms
were damp and poorly
ventilated. One family
would live in a cellar.
Some terraces also had
an attic which one
family would inhabit.
These people had no means of escape if there was a fire.
These were known as “2 up and 2 down” houses with one family living in each
room.
These houses were mostly found in England.
KILLER DISEASES
Disease
SMALLPOX
Symptoms
Causes
The whole body is covered in spots, boils and
scabs. The victim could have a high
temperature and would feel faint. 30% of
victims die and some of those who survive
could go blind and would also be permanently
scarred.
People living in close proximity to each other.
Overcrowded tenements. Passed by saliva droplets
and sharing clothes. A very big killer in the 1800’s.
7
TYPHUS
TB
(CONSUMPTION)
Symptoms include fever, headache, chills, and
general pains that are followed by a rash. The
rash spreads to the whole body except for the
face, palms, and soles of the feet. This form of
typhus fever is very
similar
to
the
typhus that is spread by lice.
You can get typhoid fever if you eat food or drink
water that has been handled by a person with the
disease. Also people that came into contact with
water contaminated with sewage. Typhus is from
rats and fleas. They bite the victim and this cases the
disease to spread.
The greatest killer in the cities. The disease
caused a wasting of the body with the lungs
being attacked. The lungs attempt to defend
themselves by producing what are called
tubercles. These tubercles become yellow and
spongy and coughing fits cause them to be spat
out by the sufferer. People would become thin
and pale and constantly tired. Victims would
also cough up blood.
Persons with typhoid fever usually have a
sustained fever as high as 39° to 40° C. They
may also feel weak, or have stomach pains,
headache, or loss of appetite. In some cases,
patients have a rash of flat, rose-colored spots.
TB affected those who had been poorly fed and were
under nourished. It also affected those who lived in
dirty and damp homes. TB can be spread by a
person breathing in the exhaled sputum of someone
who already has the disease. In the overcrowded
tenements of the industrial cities, one infected
person could spread the disease very easily. TB
killed one-third of those who died in Britain
between 1800 and 1850.
You can get typhoid fever if you eat food or drink
beverages that have been handled by a person who
has the disease or if sewage contaminated with
bacteria gets into the water you use for drinking or
washing food. Therefore, typhoid fever is more
common in areas of the world where hand washing
is less frequent and water is likely to be
contaminated with sewage.
People with Cholera suffer from watery
diarrhoea and abdominal pains. Vomiting up
blood. Muscular cramps and severe weakness.
Massive weight loss. Spasms of the body.
Sunken eyes and cheeks. The lips and skin
turns blue finally black as blood vessels burst.
In severe untreated cases death may occur
within a few hours with possible case fatality
rate exceeding 40%.
A person may get cholera by drinking water or
eating food contaminated with cholera. In an
epidemic, the source of the contamination is usually
the faeces of an infected person. The disease can
spread rapidly in areas with inadequate treatment of
sewage and drinking water. In the 19th century
sewage often mixed with drinking water, hence the
reason it spread so often.
Sore throat. A temperature. Headache.
Feeling generally unwell. A rash that develops
within 12 hours. Cheeks are flushed, and the
child looks 'scarlet'. The rash fades after a few
days, or sooner if treated. The skin then
undergoes peeling. The tongue has a thick,
white coating that peels after four or five days,
producing a red strawberry appearance.
Can spread from person to person by breathing in
airborne droplets from an infected person's
coughing or sneezing. Can also be passed by
touching the infected skin of someone with a skin
infection, or by sharing contaminated clothes, towels
or bed linen. People living in overcrowded houses
contracted the disease.
TYPHOID
CHOLERA
SCARLET
FEVER
King cholera
Disease accounted for many deaths in industrial cities during the Industrial Revolution. With
a chronic lack of hygiene, little knowledge of sanitary care and no knowledge as to what
caused diseases it was only a matter of time before the dreaded disease cholera struck. As the
cities became more populated, so the problem got worse.
8
Cholera was a greatly feared disease. Caused by contaminated water, it could spread with
speed and with devastating consequences. It was given the nick-name "King Cholera". Britain
was hit by an outbreak of cholera in 1831-32, 1848-49, 1854 and 1867. The cause was simple –
sewage was being allowed to come into contact with drinking water and contaminating it. As
many people used river water as their source of drinking water, the disease spread with ease.
An attack of cholera is sudden and painful – though not necessarily fatal. In the 1831-32
outbreak the death rate of those who caught it was 50% In total 55,000 people died. 15,000
people died in London in the 1848-49 outbreaks. A second outbreak starting in London in
1848 was even more serious, with some 65, 000 deaths in England, Wales, and Scotland and
another 30, 000 in Ireland. There were further outbreaks of the diseases in 1854 and 1866.
SUMMARY: WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW
Lack of sunlight, space, privacy and space for the children
Yard was usually a rubbish tip
Washing of clothes was done in filthy yards or public washing houses
No hot water supplies inside tenements
Food and drink was often contaminated, no laws to stop deliberate contamination and people
drank too much.
Very little medical knowledge known and Doctors unaware of dirt dangers there was no
knowledge of causes of disease, for example, cholera and T.B
T.B caused 1/3 of all deaths
The streets were unlit and were filled with filth. Flies, stray dogs and rats roamed the streets
in summer No street cleaners in poor areas of towns.
Overcrowding in towns. There were not enough houses and Families could only afford one
room between them. One family of between 6-8 people would share a room and one bed.
Poor quality of building work. Builders were not subject to building regulations cheap bricks,
slates and soft woods were often used. Houses deteriorated quickly
Lack of clean water and sewers. No indoor toilets No piped water Household waste dumped
in street. Sewage was rarely collected, contaminated water supply by leaking into the wells.
Water wasn’t often in large supply Outside tap was shared by many families. Raw sewage
ended up in rivers. Wells were contaminated usually by sewage seeping into them from the
cesspit next to the well.
Lack of ventilation. Air could not circulate in houses because the houses were close together.
Germs spread quickly in houses because windows were often closed. Air was polluted by
cesspools, sewers, smoke and rubbish.
9
Improvements in housing
THE GOVERNMENT TAKES A HAND - AT LAST!!
Governments were traditionally reluctant to help with housing problems
in the country. Britain followed the doctrines of “Laissez faire” – this
means to leave alone. The argument was that Britain was the most
powerful nation on earth. This was because governments did not get
involved in people’s lives. It was the view that people should look after themselves and not
look to the state to solve their problems. With the onset of cholera outbreaks and the Great
Stink of 1858, the government attitude towards its responsibility was to change forever.
Government Acts were passed that gave councils the ability to knock down slums and build
proper houses that were well ventilated. Drier, healthier brick housing replaced damp and
dirty tenements. Until 1851 there was a tax on windows so some people began to brick up
their windows, this resulted in a lack of fresh air. This meant that diseases could spread easily.
Diseases like T.B, Scarlet Fever, and Typhus were big killers. By the twentieth century the
government was insisting on the construction of planned housing estates which improved the
standard of living. These houses had living rooms, kitchens, two or three bedrooms and a
bathroom. A variety of Public Health Acts were also passed that also meant that councils
were forced to provide a proper refuse disposal system. Councils were also required to
provide a clean water supply and sewage system. This helped to reduce deaths from the
dreaded disease cholera.
WHAT ACTS DID THE GOVERNMENT PASS?
Improvements in housing:
2
The Artisans Dwelling Act 1875 - Councils were given the power to pull down slums and
build new houses, but cost was a problem.
Improvements in health:
Public Health Act 1848 - A central health board was established to set up local health
boards and give advice to the local boards.
Public Health Act 1875 - Local Authorities had to appoint a medical officer. Authorities had
to: cover and maintain sewers properly, provide clean water, and pave and clean the streets.
Local officers were appointed to check up on slaughterhouses and take responsibility to
make sure that contaminated food was properly destroyed.
WHY ELSE WERE THERE IMPROVEMENTS?
PIPED WATER SUPPLY
In the Glasgow area, councillors and tax payers were persuaded in 1855 to fund a scheme to
transport piped water from Loch Katrine in to the city. This was opened by Queen Victoria in
10
2
1859 and meant that Glaswegians no longer had to rely on the 30 public wells in the city or
pay for water from some of the private suppliers.
SEWAGE SYSTEM
A new sewage system of almost 50 miles was put in place in Glasgow between 1850 and 1875
to help each sanitation problems in the city.
IMPROVED DIET
The Agricultural Revolution had increased the quality and the quantity of food available.
Having an improved diet meant that there was a healthier and stronger population. The
coming of the railways also meant that fresher foods were more widely available. Foods like
milk, meat, vegetables and fruit could be transported all over the country and these foods
were also much cheaper, and this meant people could eat a more balanced diet and therefore
have stronger immune systems to help them fight disease.
From 1815 onwards corn had been taxed and this made the cost of bread very expensive. With
the ending of these Corn Laws in 1846 bread became cheaper and more income could be spent
on other foods. These foods helped to build up resistance to diseases and allowed people to
live longer.
IMPROVED MEDICAL CARE
More hospitals were built and both doctors and nurses received better training during the
nineteenth century. Hospitals became cleaner and the link between dirt and disease better
understood. Doctors began to sterilize equipment before operations. Joseph Lister developed
Carbolic to sterilize equipment and dressings. Hospitals became safer and cleaner places to be
treated. In fact in Lister’s hospitals survival rates went up from 55% to 85% between 1865 and
1869, a massive increase in just four years. Edward Jenner discovered how to prevent
smallpox, using vaccination; this disease had killed 1 in 9 of the population. The government
introduced compulsory vaccinations for this, like the T.B and MMR vaccinations that we have
today. The development of penicillin an antibiotic used to fight infections had a big impact on
survival rates. Today when we go for an operation we are given anaesthetics to kill the pain or
we are even put to sleep so that we do not feel anything. This was only developed en-masse
after the 1850’s. Before this, people had to put up with the pain of operations like
amputations. Many people therefore died from shock. Diseases like plague died out, and as
the nineteenth century went on, drugs were found to treat diseases like cholera, typhoid and
diphtheria.
OTHER FACTORS
The continued progress in coal mining meant that more coal was being excavated and this
resulted in more coal being available to keep houses warmer and drier. Chemical works began
to produce good, cheap soap allowing people to be cleaner and healthier. Cheap, factory
made cotton clothes were easier to wash than woollen ones and clean cotton bedding reduced
germs which caused disease.
11
PART TWO: INDUSTRY –
TEXTILE FACTORIES AND COAL MINES
TEXTILE FACTORIES
The shift from working at home to working in factories in the early 18th century brought with
it a new system of working. Factory and mine owners sought to control and discipline their
workforce through a system of long working hours, fines and low wages.
Working conditions in factories







Long working hours: normal shifts were usually 12-14 hours a day, with extra time
required during busy periods. Workers were often required to clean their machines
during their mealtimes.
Low wages: a typical wage for male workers was about 15 shillings (75p) a week, but
women and children were paid much less, with women earning seven shillings (35p)
and children three shillings (15p). For this reason, employers preferred to employ
women and children. Many men were sacked when they reached adulthood; then they
had to be supported by their wives and children.
Cruel discipline: there was frequent "strapping" (hitting with a leather strap). Other
punishments included hanging iron weights around children's necks, hanging them
from the roof in baskets, nailing children's ears to the table, and dowsing them in
water butts to keep them awake.
Fierce systems of fines: these were imposed for talking or whistling, leaving the room
without permission, or having a little dirt on a machine. It was claimed that employers
altered the time on the clocks to make their workers late so that they could fine them.
Some employers demanded that their overseers raise a minimum amount each week
from fines.
Accidents: forcing children to crawl into dangerous, unguarded machinery led to
many accidents. Up to 40 per cent of accident cases at Manchester Infirmary in 1833
were factory accidents.
Health: cotton thread had to be spun in damp, warm conditions. Going straight out
into the cold night air led to many cases of pneumonia. The air was full of dust, which
led to chest & lung diseases. Loud machine noise damaged workers' hearing.
Parish apprentices: orphans from workhouses in southern England were
"apprenticed" to factory owners, supposedly to learn the textiles trade. They worked
12-hour shifts, and slept in barracks attached to the factory in beds just vacated by
children about to start the next shift.
REFORM OF TEXTILE MILLS:
When concerns were raised about the working conditions in factories, especially for children,
reformers began to propose changes to improve working environments. The first supporters
of factory reform were caring mill owners, many of them in the Tory Party, who were
motivated mainly by their religion. One such factory owner was Robert Owen.
Robert Owen


He owned a cotton mill in New Lanark in Scotland.
He thought that if workers were treated well then they would work harder. This would then
make greater profits for the factory owners.
12



He provided good houses and a school for his workers and their families.
He would not allow a child under ten to work in his mills.
He set up the Grand National Consolidated Trades Union for his workers in 1834.
GOVERNMENT ACTS TO IMPROVE TEXTILE MILLS:
Main
proposer
Year
Act
1802
Health and
Morals of
Apprentices
Act
Robert Peel (a
factory owner)
1819
Factory Act
Robert Owen
1833
Factory Act
Lord Ashley,
Earl of
Shaftesbury
1842
Mines Act
Robert Peel
1847
Ten Hours Act
John Fielden
1878
Factory and
Workshops
Act
What it
said…
Was it
successful?
Factory apprentices only: a maximum 12hour day; good accommodation and medical
treatment.
A maximum 12-hour day. No child under the
age of nine to work.
No child under the age of nine to work.
Children between the ages of nine and 13
years: 48-hour week; must go to school parttime.
No child under the age of ten to work. No
woman or child under 15 to work
underground.
No worker to work more than ten hours a
day.
No woman to work more than 60 hours a week.
No child under ten 1878
to work. Laws on safety,
ventilation and mealtimes.
Only apprentices,
not enforced.
Not enforced.
Four inspectors
made sure the
law was obeyed.
Inspectors
employed to
report conditions.
Ineffective
monitoring.
Covered all
factories, and
workshops. More
inspectors.
NEW TECHNOLOGY IN TEXTILE MILLS:
Date
Nature of spinning and
weaving
1730
Workers spun raw cotton at
home on spinning wheels
and handlooms. They were
paid by merchants who
then sold their cloth
Workers still spun and
wove at home but the flying
shuttle had increased the
speed of production


Too slow to meet demand
Could compete with better
quality products from India
Kay’s Flying Shuttle

1763: Spinning Jenny
1769: Water Frame
1779: Mule
Spinning now done in
factories built on streams.
Water powered machinery
used.
Weavers still worked at
home although some
spinning factories had
sections for weavers

Greater demand for cotton
cloth
Spinners unable to spin
enough thread for the
weavers
Demand for cotton cloth still
growing
Water power could not be
trusted all year round
Weavers could not weave all
the thread being made
1735-1770
1780-1810
Problem



13
Solution
1781: Boulton and
Watt steam engine
1785: Power loom
1804: Power loom
improved
1813: Power loom
modified
COAL MINING
Conditions in the Mines
Conditions for those who worked in the coal mines of Britain were terrible. Miners had to
work long hours in the dark and wet with a number of hazards to deal with which were not to
be found in many other work-places. Problems included:
 Cave-ins
 Flooding
 Gas explosions
 Suffocation
 Raising coal to the surface

Illness among the miners. These included things like stunted growth, crippled legs,
curvature of the spine, skin irritations, heart disease, ruptures, asthma, bronchitis,
“Black Spit” and rheumatism. Many women suffered from miscarriages and were no
longer able have children.
The miners came up with some remarkable methods to try and overcome the difficulties:
VENTILATION

Taking canaries into the mine. If the canary died, there was gas and the miners needed
to leave the pit.

Cutting two shafts and lighting a fire at the base of one of them, to draw fresh air
down the other.

John Buddle invented an air pump, but it was expensive and pit owners were reluctant
to pay for a pump.
LIGHTING

Several methods were used, none of them particularly attractive.

Rotten fish, which gave off a phosphorescent glow - besides the dreadful smell.

Candles, which exploded the methane.

Flint mills, which produced sparks of light but could also, ignite the methane.

After 1815, the Davy lamp was available, but it cost money and employers were
reluctant to buy them.
FLOODING AND OTHER PROBLEMS

Water in the workings. This was to some extent alleviated by the inventions of Savery,
Newcomen and Watt, but again the machines cost money.
NEW TECHNOLOGY:
Mining the Coal: Some of the first coal cutters used were hand held and were not that
successful. Nevertheless companies from all over Britain competed to produce coal cutting
machinery. In 1870 some companies were using huge machines like the Gartsherrie that were
similar to giant chainsaws. However, these caused an increase in the amount of gas and coal
14
dust produced, as well as an increase in noise which led to hearing problems. Even so, by 1900
the vast majority of coal was still cut by hand, the miner using pick and shovel.
Ventilation: We know that the conditions in the mine were horrible. As miners went deep
underground it became hotter and stuffier. There was also the ever present danger of gas and
with that came explosions. Mine owners realised that the solution to this was a better
ventilation system. Huge ventilation fans were thus installed in mines and improved air
quality from the 1860s. These pumped in fresh air and extracted the dangerous stale air. The
problem, however, was the cost of the new technology. This made many mine owners
reluctant to introduce them and despite the 1872 Mines Act fans did not become widespread
until the 20th century.
Moving the Coal Underground: After the Mines Act of 1842 mine owners needed to find
new and faster ways of getting the coal to the loading areas. At first horses like Shetland
ponies were used mainly because of their smaller size. These remained in use even up till the
1990s. A pulley system was used to move wagons underground on rail tracks, again
however this was dependent on the steepness of the slope. Steam engines were later
developed to pull the wagons.
Lifting the Coal: The winding gear was the machine used to allow coal to be raised to the
surface as well as to allow men to reach the pit face. The cages also brought down supplies
and machines to the pit bottom. Cages were normally suspended on a steel winding rope. The
cage is normally supported underneath by cage chains - four corner chains and two safety
chains. the Headgears are the iron and brick towers that stand over mine shafts. They had to
be able to support the cage's heavy loads and withstand the power of gale force winds. After
1860 most companies started to use wire rope. Using wire rope instead of hemp meant that
heavier loads could be lifted. Steam winding engines were also used. This increased the
amount of coal which could be extracted from mines, in some cases by almost 200 %.
Pumping out the Mines: As mines grew deeper so the problems of water increased and
keeping the mines clear of water was a constant task. Thomas Savery in 1698 invented a steam
pump and in 1776 James Watt invented a steam engine this was used to pump the water out
of mines Originally steam engines were used, often operating above ground, but they were
not reliable and were very difficult to maintain. They did not cope well with pumping water
from great depths. Only with the introduction of electricity did this particular task become
easier.
Gas: There were three main types of gas, each of which presented unique problems. (See
'Dangerous Gases'.) Better ventilation dealt with many of these gases. However, there were
other technological advances during the period which also contributed. Perhaps the most
famous was the safety lamp invented by Sir Humphrey Davy in 1815. This worked by
surrounding the flame with wire gauze, allowing air in to let the flame burn but not allowing
it to ignite gases outside the gauze. The presence of inflammable gases was indicated by a
change in the colour of the flame. However, this lamp did not give as much illumination as
naked lights like candles and these were still being used in the 1850s and 1860s in mines
where no risk of explosions was anticipated. In the years between 1835 and 1850 more than
six hundred fires and explosions were reported in British coal mines.
15
The Davy Safety
lamp was introduced
in the 1830s. The
lamp allowed miners
to work deep
underground
without the risk of
fire. The flame was
protected by a gauze
mesh. This would
stop the ignition of
dangerous gases.
The gas also warned
of the dangers of
carbon monoxide
poisoning as if there
was little oxygen in
the air the lamp
would go out.
Roof Fall: It is essential to prop up the roof of the coal workings adequately. Initially this
was done by leaving coal supports-the room and stoop method. During the 19th century this
method was replaced by 'artificial' props. These might have to withstand pressures of 40 tons
or more. Stronger props made either of wood or steel were used and latterly hydraulic props
which could absorb movements in the roof were introduced.
GOVERNMENT ACTS TO IMPROVE CONDITIONS:
The Government was shocked and appalled at the conditions that woman and children were
being forced to work in. They abandoned their policy of Laissez Faire in 1842 by passing the
Mines Act.
THE MINES ACT 1842




This banned women and girls and boys under the age of 10 from work underground.
Both women and children could continue to work in the coal industry in the many dirty
and difficult jobs above ground, for example, sorting and bagging the coal.
The minimum age for operating a winding engine to work in the shafts was set at 15.
To enforce the Act the government appointed one inspector for the whole of
Britain.
16
PROBLEMS WITH 1842 ACT




Inspectors were not given the right to go down pits until 1850.
So many pits ignored the new law and kept on using children, it was difficult to prove the
age of a child anyway especially since many children did not have birth certificates.
The miners' families were keen to keep their children working, since they produced
valuable extra income for the family.
Many women were made unemployed and could not find any other work. It did not deal
with the conditions of men and boys over the age of 10. It did nothing about safety,
working conditions and the length of working day.
THE COAL MINES INSPECTION ACT 1850
 More inspectors appointed with the right to go underground.
 New powers to enforce rules and regulations about safety and to prosecute anyone they
found breaking them.
 Powers to collect information about accidents.
 All fatal accidents had to be reported to the Home Office.
THE MINES REGLATION AND INSPECTION ACT 1860
 Forbade boys under 12 from going underground unless they could read and write.
 It was compulsory for each mine to have at least two exits to improve ventilation and also
provide a safe exit for the miners in the case of an accident in one of the shafts.
THE MINES ACT 1872
 In 1872 it was made compulsory for the mine manager to hold a certificate of competency
which was only gained after passing a national exam.
 The act gave the mine workers the right to appoint their own safety representative to
inspect their mine.
 Insisted on safer methods in the mining industry, for example, fan ventilators, stronger
timbering, wire ropes better safety lamps
But not all mine owners obeyed the new laws.
Had conditions in coal mines improved?
From a history textbook
Despite the Government’s attempts at reform of the working conditions in coal mines, in 1870 boys
were still doing the type of work that had been condemned 30 years before. Many of the old dangers of
suffocation, snapping of winding gear and explosions were still present.
By the historian Christopher Culpin, in “Making Modern Britain”, published in 1987
To some extent mining was safer. The use of cages was better than sending miners down the shaft
dangling on a rope. The Davy Lamp also improved safety. However, coal mining remained a dangerous
occupation. The threats of floods, explosions and roof falls were ever present. There was no medical
knowledge of the deadly lung diseases which miners developed as a result of spending their working
lives breathing in coal dust. Mining also remained an entirely manual occupation: machines did not
replace picks and shovels until well into the twentieth century.
17
From Her Majesty’s Commissioner’s Report in 1881
The Commissioners inspected a number of mines, including the one at Blantyre near Glasgow where an
explosion had occurred on 22nd October 1877. The safety of mines has been greatly improved during
the previous thirty years as a result of increased care exercised by workers as well as changes in
winding gear. The Mines Regulation Act of 1872 has decreased the number of accidents but increased
the cost of production.
From a report from a mining engineer, presented in 1896
The annual reports of the Mines Inspectors show that there has been progressive improvement in the
safety of the mines. There is no doubt that the health of the miners has also improved. Lung disease has
long been a problem in the mines. This has been caused by poor ventilation. However, it is clear to the
ordinary man that the number of miners who suffer from the “Black Spit” is fewer than 20 years ago.
From a history textbook
As mines got deeper and larger, so the risks increased. Technological advances meant more coal could be
produced. Yet, in some ways, the new technology caused even more risks. The early equipment and
machines were often dangerous and unreliable. Fatal accidents were not uncommon.
PART THREE: TRANSPORT –
CANALS AND RAILWAYS
CANALS
Reasons why canals were built:
Canals were needed for the Industrial Revolution which was creating huge amounts of heavy
produce which had to be moved. Roads simply could not handle such weights and the
vehicles needed to move this produce did not exist. Canals were the answer to moving heavy
objects large distances.
Canals were man-made rivers which were deep enough to cope with barges which were
capable of moving nearly forty tonnes of weight. This was far more than a pack of mules
could carry or a horse and carriage.
In the 1760s the 3rd Duke of Bridgewater, who owned a number of coal mines in northern
England, wanted a reliable way to transport his coal to the nearby city of Manchester which
was rapidly industrialising. He commissioned the engineer James Brindley to build a canal to
do just that. Brindley's design included an aqueduct carrying the canal over the River Irwell an engineering wonder which immediately attracted tourists. The construction of this canal
was funded entirely by the Duke of Bridgewater and was called the Bridgewater Canal. It
opened in 1761 and is often considered to be the first canal of the modern era to be built in
Britain.
The new canal proved highly successful. The boats on the canal were horse drawn with a
specially constructed towpath alongside the canal for the horse to walk along. This horsedrawn system proved to be highly economical and became standard across the British canal
network. Commercial horse-drawn canal boats could be seen on Britain's canals until as late
as the 1950s (although by then steam and diesel powered boats had become more common).
18
The period between the 1770s and the 1830s is often referred to as the "Golden Age" of British
canals. During this period of "canal mania", huge sums were invested in canal building, and
the canal system rapidly expanded to nearly 4000 miles (7000 kilometres) in length, and
essentially had no competition. Many different rival canal companies were formed, often
competing bitterly. The new canal system dramatically sped up industrialisation across
Britain.
Within Scotland, the Forth and Clyde Canal and the Union Canal connected Scotland's major
cities in the industrial central belt; they also provide a short cut for boats to cross between the
west and the east (and east to west) without the need for a sea voyage. The Caledonian Canal
provided a similar function in the Highland of Scotland. Other Scottish canals, such as the
Crinan Canal avoided the need for a long diversion around the Kintyre peninsula; and the
Glasgow, Paisley and Johnstone Canal was intended to link these three places directly to the
west coast of Scotland, but never reached beyond Johnstone.
BUILDING THE CANALS
Building a canal was a very big and costly job. It could take a lot of time and effort just to
raise the money to build a canal. Canal companies also had to fight to get planning
permission from Parliament and local people. Once a canal company had got over these
problems then their engineers would then have to get on with the job of overcoming the shape
of the land through which the canal was to be built.
In order for a canal to work it must be built on an even level. To cope with uneven land
engineers had to design a way to pass boats up or down a small hill. In order to do this they
had to build a lock, which was a set of large gates to hold back the water in a space big
enough to fit a canal boat. The diagram below shows how these locks worked.
These locks were built so that a canal boat could be raised to a higher level of water. In some
parts of the country the uneven shape of the land meant that many locks were needed. If a
canal had to go up a steep hill several locks were joined together to form a staircase.
Overcoming the shape of the land with tunnels & aqueducts.
19
When a canal engineer was faced with a very large hill to pass he would have to tunnel
through it. James Brindley started the first great canal tunnel called the Harecastle Tunnel on
the Trent and Mersey Canal. It was over a mile and a half (2.5 km) long and took eleven years
to build. However, canals did not only have to go through hills, there were places where they
had to build cross roads and rivers. These bridges were called aqueducts.
Canal locks
Canal tunnels were built by sinking shafts down to the line of the canal and then working left
and right from the bottom of the shaft. Once these tunnels were finished the shafts were left
open so that air could get into the tunnel. The width of tunnels was very small so as to keep
costs down, so towpaths for horses to pull the barges were rarely used. In order to stop the
canal boat hitting the side of the tunnel ‘leggers’ carefully walked them through.
The Navvies
Navvies were the men who actually canal. The building of canals was very labour intensive.
At one stage during the C19th, one in every 100 persons who worked in this country was a
navvy. The word "navvy" came from the word navigator.
The bulk of canal building had to be done by hand. The thousands of miles of waterways that
were laid by the navvies was done without the use of machinery. The standard tools of the
navies were picks, shovels and a wheelbarrow.
They lived by the canal that they were building in so-called shantytowns. Huts could
accommodate 20 men and they paid one and a half pennies for a bed for the night. Those who
slept on the floor paid a lot less. Five nights of floor sleeping cost one penny.
The work of the navvies was very hard physical labouring. They had to eat well because their
type of work required a decent meal at least once a day. A good navvy could shift 20 tonnes of
earth a day. Navvies new to the job could not manage to keep up with the experienced
workers and they frequently managed a half-day's work only. By the standards of the time,
navvies were well paid. They could earn 25 pence a day which compared well to those who
worked in factories.
20
The drinking of the navvies was well known and many towns feared the arrival of the navvies
to their region. Navvies worked hard and they drank hard. "Going on a “ran dan" was navvy
slang for going on a drinking spree that could last several days. Work on the canal stopped
and people in towns could fear for their safety. Only tavern owners were happy about the
high spending on alcohol.
Many navvies chose to live for the day. Death while working was high. Those working in
tunnels that were being built were especially vulnerable to collapses and explosions. All work
was done in a hurry and safety procedures were minimal. Getting the job done was far more
important than employee safety especially as there were plenty of navvies. The widow of a
dead navvy might get £5 compensation if she was lucky.
Navvies had to be strong as they would move up to 20 tons of earth in a day. They worked in
groups and were very loyal to one another. Navvies were better paid than other labourers but
they faced greater risks.
Social impact of canals
Travel: Canal boats don’t move very fast by twenty-first century standards, but the new
system of canals provides a reliable, safer - and so often quicker – trade route than the awful
roads.
Health: Fly boats travelled without stopping. They could carry food, which on a slower boat
would have gone off before it arrived at its destination.
Recreation: The paddle steamers on the Caledonian Canal were popular with tourists and
Queen Victoria went along the canal by boat.
Shopping: What people wanted was new, fresh food and exciting products from exotic
places. Their horizons were expanding, and the canals could bring the stuff they wanted.
Canals were good at moving fragile goods such as pottery and also heavy goods such as coal.
“All these things to buy, arriving in Glasgow and Edinburgh by canal... ... yes, my dear, and
unbroken, unlike most fragile deliveries which made by cart! Look at my fine new tea service
– from China!”
Not just fresh fish and seafood, but also things like apples from Holland, tar from Russia and
wood from the Baltic and America via the new Forth & Clyde Canal.
Communities: The Canal Company extends the Glasgow Branch of the canal to a new
terminal basin, Port Dundas, with warehouses and a village built alongside.
Ports such as Liverpool grew in size.
Economic impact of canals
Work: Canals created huge numbers of jobs, especially for blacksmiths. A blacksmith’s job
also included making the paddle gear on locks, the strapping for the huge lock gates,
metalwork on bridges and mooring rings and boat hooks.
Digging the canals is long, hard work for strong men, and many ‘navvies’ from Ireland arrive
to support the local workforce in digging the ‘navigations’. Some navvies are, in fact, very
tough women - disguised as men.
21
Growth of industries
Canals were a major factor in the industrial and urban expansion that took place between 1760
and 1830.
Canals were built to join up key areas of production (coal mines, mills, quarries) with large
towns or ports.
The canal boats could carry 30 tons at a time with only one horse pulling - more than ten times
the amount of cargo per horse that was possible with a cart.
Could carry heavy loads of e.g. coal etc. where cart wheels with heavy loads would sink into
the mud.
Canals meant that heavy goods could be transported to Edinburgh from Glasgow and the
west of England.
The Trent and Mersey Canal was opened in 1777 linked the industries in the Midlands,
especially Birmingham, with the ports of Liverpool, Hull, London and Bristol. This meant
their goods could be exported on ships and sold abroad.
Canal building increased the demand for bricks, stone, timber and iron.
Profits for investors
Canals could make those who invested in them vast sums of money. In the 1790's so-called
"canal mania" took place when people invested their money into practically every canal
project.
Speed
Many boat-owners now prefer to get to the city by canal rather than using the River Clyde
due to the fact that rivers were crowded and slow.
Canal journeys were actually faster than going by road on a horse-drawn carriage or
stagecoach as once a horse got a barge moving, its own momentum would keep it going at a
decent pace.
Cost
Until the middle of the 19th century canals were the cheapest form of transport for heavy
industrial goods and raw materials.
Farming
Canal boats carried dung from cities to rural areas which was used by farmers to make their
land more fertile. This especially helped areas such as Linlithgow and Stirlingshire which got
manure from Edinburgh.
Price of coal
The poor state of most of the roads meant that they often became unusable after heavy rain.
Because of the small loads that could be carried, supply of essential commodities such as coal,
and iron ore were limited, and this kept prices high. In 1793, the first barge of Monkland coal
arrives in Glasgow by canal. As supply increases, coal prices begin to fall.
Reasons for the decline of canals:
Travel was slow.
Each canal company had its own ideas about width and depth – so it was difficult to organise
‘through traffic’. Different builders build different size canals so that different size canal
barges were needed. One canal barge might not be able to use a canal built by another
22
engineer. This, naturally, limited them a great deal. On the other hand, railways organised
this by agreeing on a common gauge.
Ideally canals need level ground. They were difficult to build in hilly areas – needed tunnels
or aqueducts or system of locks.
Factories and warehouses were built along canal banks. This made it difficult and expensive
to widen them when this proved essential if they were to compete with the railways
Better roads had lead to better horse drawn carriages being developed. These were a lot faster
than barges and passengers used these in preference to canals.
Food that rotted quickly could not be transported by canal as refrigerated units had yet to be
invented.
Canals could freeze up in winter and a hot summer could literally dry them out if they were
not topped up with water on a regular basis.
If you needed to go through a tunnel the bargeman had to lie on his back on top of the boat
and propel the barge through by pushing with their feet against the ceiling.
Trains were soon to take over the role played by the canals. Railway companies often bought
up a link in a canal chain in the area and let that link fall into disrepair or imposed such high
charges that people refused to use it. This made the whole chain less used.
1830 was a crucial date for the end of canals. This was the year that the first railway – the
Liverpool to Manchester opened. By 1840’s railways were a major competitor. Railways were
faster and could carry all the bulky goods barges could. Plus they also carried people!
RAILWAYS
Before the Industrial Revolution, transport in Britain was not good and it was difficult for
people to get around from one place to another. There were no railways or decent roads to
transport people or goods to different places throughout Britain.
Why did transport change?
When Britain was undergoing a huge growth in new industries, it was important that goods
produced in these new industries and the raw materials they needed were able to be
transported from one area to another. Transporting goods by road was slow and cost a huge
amount of money. This meant that factory owners had to pay a huge amount of money in
transport costs. It was also very difficult to transport bulky goods such as good in this way.
The demands of industry led to the growth of canals to transport goods. However, the canals
were expensive to build and travel on them was still quite slow. The answer was to build
railways.
The First Railways
Wooden tracks were first used to put trucks on to in mines to make the transportation of coal
easier. This led in 1804 to the development of iron rails by a man called Richard Trevithick to
transport iron from Penydarren in Wales to the nearest canal. The first trains had arrived!! In
1825 the first public railway service was opened between Stockton and Darlington. It was
23
such a success that soon plans were underway for a track between Liverpool and Manchester.
Stephenson’s “rocket” engines pulled these trains. The new railway line was a great success.
By 1831 it was carrying an average of 1 250 passengers a day as well as hauling goods and raw
materials to different places. Trains could go very fast at an average of 30 miles an hour.
Many people wondered if humans would be able to survive at speeds faster than this!!! A
new age of travel had begun.
The first trains consisted of covered coaches for the richer first class passengers with windows
and comfortable seats. As the years went on there were added extra’s such as toilets and
individual compartments. Third class passengers had open trucks with no cover which could
be a very cold and wet way to travel. They had to stand and were exposed to the elements or
breathing in smoke from the engines.
RAILWAY DEVLOPMENT TIMELINE
1804 : Richard Trevithick built a steam locomotive for his iron works at Penydarren in Wales. It was
essentially built for a bet but it did manage to pull ten tonnes of iron. However, like most first models, it
was highly unreliable. What he did encouraged others to improve on his design.
1811 : John Blenkinsop invented a steam engine which had cogs on one of its wheels. These gripped an
extra rail laid down on the normal rail line and gave his engine more grip.
1813 : The "Puffing Billy" was built by William Hedley to pull coal wagons at the Wylam Colliery in
Northumberland. It was so reliable that it was used for fifty years.
1825 : the Stockton to Darlington rail line was opened. Two locomotives were used (the "Experiment"
and "No 1") and they could pull 21 coal wagons 25 miles at 8 miles per hour. This was unheard of at
the time and soon the line was in profit. Passengers were soon carried but steam trains did not operate
on the line for passengers until 1833. In many senses, 1825 is seen as the start of the Age of the
Railways.
1826 : George Stephenson was given a much bigger task - to build a railway between Manchester and
Liverpool. However, the company financing the scheme was not convinced that steam trains would
work properly on this rail line. They organised a competition to find out what train and which type of
train would be best for their line. The competition was to be held at Rain hill near Liverpool.
1829 : the Rainhill Trials took place. The winning train was the legendary "Rocket" built by George
Stephenson. He won £500. The "Rocket" travelled at 46 kph - about 30 mph.
1830 : the Liverpool to Manchester railway opened.
1838 : Robert Stephenson, the son of George, completed the London to Birmingham rail line.
1841 : Isambard Kingdom Brunel completed his London to Bristol line - the Great Western Railway.
This was such a stunning achievement that people used the rail line's initials (GWR) to call it "God's
Wonderful Railway”.
Railway Mania – the expansion of the network
Soon new lines were being opened all over Britain. In 1830 the Liverpool to Manchester line
opened. In 1838 the London to Birmingham line opened and in 1841 the London to Bristol
line began. By the 1840’s central Scotland had a network of railways. Many lines were built
to serve the mines and iron works. In 1842, the Edinburgh to Glasgow line was opened.
Other lines were built linking Glasgow with Greenock, Kilmarnock and Ayr. Both Edinburgh
and Glasgow were linked to London on the East and West Coast Lines. By the early 1900’s
practically every British town had its own railway station.
24
THE IMPACT OF THE RAILWAYS:
The Industrial Revolution: The railways helped Britain to become the world’s biggest
manufacturer. This is often known as the Industrial Revolution. The new railways started at
coal pits so this meant that coal could be carried to the factories much quicker. Factories like
cotton mills and steel and iron works began to expand because of the quick deliveries of coal.
The more coal that was being delivered the more the factory could produce. As more goods
were delivered around the country, companies grew faster because of the larger markets.
More Jobs: It has been estimated that there were ¼ of a million men working as navvies in
Britain in the 1840’s. This is short for Railway Navigators. Their job was to lay the tracks for
the railways. As the network began to spread there was obviously a need for more people to
work in the industry. For example Railway stations would need signal-men, porters, firemen,
ticket collectors, cleaners, clerks and so on.
Fresh Food: The impact that railways had on the delivery of food was enormous. Farmers
now had access to huge markets and could send their produce by train to towns further away.
This allowed them to increase their production of food. More importantly the food could be
delivered fresher. Vegetables, bread and milk could be delivered without going off. The
obvious impact was that as more food was available the healthier people became.
Sport: The Railways had a big impact on Sport. The Highlands became a very popular
destination for hunting deer and grouse. Landowners even opened their own rail stations to
give the visitors from the south a warm welcome. Scotland, already renowned as the home of
Golf also played host to large numbers of visitors from England. Places like St Andrews,
Carnoustie, Ayr and Berwick grew in size. Before the railways football teams only played
locally and Scotland did not have a national league. It was the railways that transformed
football into a national sport. In 1873 the Scottish Football Association was formed and by
1900 there were over 100 football clubs in Scotland. Clubs became wealthier as fans were able
to travel all over the country to watch their teams play.
Holidays: This was one of the biggest impacts the railways had of course. People had the
opportunity to take holidays and short breaks to the seaside and resorts like Blackpool,
Skegness, Morecambe, Nairn, and Ayr. The railways created the travel habit and holidays
were no longer the luxury of the middle or upper classes. For the first time the working
classes had the chance to visit parts of Britain that their parents and grandparents would
never have had the chance too. Many towns would have an annual holiday to allow their
workers the chance to take a trip. In Kelso in the borders the local church organised the
Spittle Day Trip. Children from poor backgrounds were taken to the seaside. It was a far cry
from the days when people never went further than walking distance from their home. Day
trippers went in large numbers to many resorts and soon piers and promenades were built for
their entertainment. Later boarding houses were opened for people to stay as the practice of
taking an annual holiday began to become more widespread.
Newspapers and the Mail: National daily newspapers became common after the
development of the railways. Before the railways towns and cities tended to read only local
newspapers. By 1900 there were many different national newspapers in circulation all
delivered to hundreds of cities around Britain? The Times, the Guardian although printed in
London could be delivered all over the country. As news travelled faster people became more
informed of what was going on in the country. At the same time the postal service also
became faster and cheaper with the introduction of the penny post.
Time: Clocks in Britain were not always accurate. In some cases, like Bath for instance,
London Time was half an hour ahead. So 3.30pm in Bath would be 4.00pm in London! This
25
was because coaches and canal journeys were so slow that the accuracy of the clock was
irrelevant. As trains developed and timetables were set, time had to be standardised and in
1846 all station clocks were set at Greenwich Mean Time
Towns and Cities: As the railways grew and the network expanded some towns and cities
also grew in size. Crewe, Swindon and York were of course the main three. These cities were
dependent on the rail industry itself. These cities made the locomotives, repaired engines and
built carriages and the rail tracks.
PART FOUR: PRESSURE FOR
DEMOCRATIC REFORM UP TO 1867
Politics in 1760 was UNDEMOCRATIC because:










In 1800, nobody under 21 could vote. Fewer than 5% of the population had this political right.
Most of the new cities and towns had no MP to represent them.
Voting was open. There was no secret ballot, so it was possible to pay a voter to vote.
Sometimes voters were frightened into voting for particular candidate.
The country was divided into constituencies made up of counties and boroughs. The seats were
unevenly distributed. There were some boroughs where nobody lived or where there were
only a few voters. These were called rotten boroughs.
In many constituencies, there was only one candidate for voters to choose from.
Also, only 2 political parties existed – the Whigs and Tories who both represented wealthy
landowners. No party represented the interests of the poor.
MPs in Parliament were not paid a salary, so they had to have enough money to support them.
Parliament was made up of the House of Commons and the House of Lords. The king chose
the Prime Minister, but increasingly the Prime Minister and his Cabinet made the decisions of
government.
Elections were only held once every seven years.
The government took a severe approach towards people (“radicals”) who protested
for the right to vote.
The Peterloo Massacre, 1819
Working class people held large meetings to protest against the political system. One such
meeting happened in Manchester at St Peter’s Fields in August 1819.
Around 50,000 people arrived at St Peter’s Fields from all around Manchester. Henry Hunt (a
radical speaker) was due to make a speech calling for the reform of Parliament. Manchester at
this time had no police force, so the army were sent to prevent any disturbances. When Hunt
began to speak the army attempted to arrest him, and attacked anybody who got in their way.
Eleven people were killed and 400 were injured.
The consequences: The government congratulated the army and those involved in keeping order in
Manchester. Henry Hunt was sentenced to over two years in prison. The government banned meetings
of more than 50 people at any one time. Tax on newspapers was increased so that working-class people
could not afford to read them and they would be less likely to publish negative things about the
government.
26
Bonnymuir, 1820
A few months later the government took action against Scottish radicals. In April 1820 there
was a strike of radical weavers in Glasgow. Givernment spies also joined the strikers and
encouraged them to start an uprising against the government. On April 5th 1820 about 30
radical protestors met at Bonnymuir near Falkirk. They were arrested by local soldiers on
suspicion of plotting to start a revolution. This was later called the Battle of Bonymuir. Three
ringleaders were executed and other protestors were transported to Australia.
The 1832 Reform Act
This increased the number of British people who could vote from 435,000 to 652,000. The vote
was mainly given to the better-off middle class merchants and businessmen, as well as
landowners. Large new industrial cities were now better represented in Parliament because
they had more MPs.
However, for many people the changes did not go far enough. The fact that you had to own property or
have wealth in order to vote meant that the majority of working men still could not vote. Voting was
also still done in public, so voters could be bribed or bullied into voting for certain candidates in
elections.
The Chartists
The Chartists were working class people who campaigned in the 1830s and 1840s for the right
to vote. They were angry that the 1832 Reform Act had not extended the vote to enough
people. They thought that if they could vote then they would have a say in the running of the
country and would be able to pass laws to improve their living and working conditions!
Different types of Chartists
 Moral Force Chartism led by William Lovett wanted to achieve reform through
peaceful protest and presented petitions to Parliament.
 Physical Force Chartism led by Feargus O'Connor felt that only a violent campaign
would achieve the vote for all men. He gave speeches about how Chartists should be
prepared to die for the cause. His speeches became more threatening as time went by.
The Chartists’ demands
The Chartists wrote The People’s Charter 1838 which set out these demands: manhood
suffrage; Secret ballot; abolition of property qualifications for MPs; payment of MPs; equal
electoral districts; and annual elections. Thousands of working people had rallied together on
the basis of this charter, and hundreds of them had gone to prison for their beliefs.
The authorities had viewed this campaign with great concern, and some of the propertied
classes had come to believe that the Chartists intended revolution, even though the
Movement's leaders always emphasized their commitment to peaceful protest. The
government's concern led to Queen Victoria being dispatched to the Isle of Wight for her
27
safety, and the Duke of Wellington - with thousands of soldiers and special constables - was
brought in to defend London.
The Chartists’ 1848 petition was signed by 2 million men and women and taken to London,
where 150,000 people followed to the biggest political rally in political history at Kennington
Common. The protestors were met by mounted guards at the Tower of London.
The People's Charter was not enacted in the 1840s. In the short term Chartism failed, but it
was a movement founded on an optimism that was eventually justified. It was a powerful
assertion of the rights of working people, creating in them a long-term self-confidence to
protest for change.
The 1867 Reform Act
In 1867 the Second Reform Act was passed, and this extended the vote to working
class men for the very first time.
Adult male householders in burghs (towns) could now vote.
Why did Britain become more democratic?
By 1900 working class men had been given the vote and there are many reasons which explain
why this happened. The ruling classes feared a revolution would break out in Britain similar
to the one which happened in France:

In 1789, ordinary working people who wanted more say in how their country was run
rose up in rebellion. Using the guillotine they executed the French Royal family;
landowners; Lords and Ladies and many others in power. It was felt in Britain that if
the vote was extended Britain would avoid the horror of what happened in France.

Political protests also made an impact on the ruling classes. 60 000 people met in St
Peters field in Manchester in 1819 to hear the speaker Henry Hunt talk about reform.
Events took a turn for the worse when 15 people were killed and many were injured.
The Peterloo Massacre as it became known highlighted the unfairness of the system
and put more pressure on the government to make changes.

It was also recognised that the people who made the country wealthy should be able
to participate in how the country was governed. The majority of MPs were
landowners in the countryside but the wealth of the country was now being made in
the growing towns of Manchester; Glasgow; Liverpool etc in the factories, mines and
railways. Recognising the economic contribution of people in the towns is an
important reason which explains why the middle classes were given the vote in the
1832 reform act.

The working classes were becoming better educated. Education Acts were passed in
1870 and 1872 which made primary education compulsory. This meant that ordinary
people were now literate and could read party policies and understand politics. Also
some working class people went to night classes and it was argued that these hard
working people who were improving themselves were morally entitled to the vote.
28

Radical ideas also spread which put even more pressure on the government. The
Chartists put forward their Charter which had six points. These included the vote for
all men; elections every year and the secret ballot. Chartists used a variety of methods
to put their petitions to Parliament and their idea’s spread throughout the country.

In 1867 it was recognised by the Conservative government that if they gave the
working classes the vote then these people who would be very grateful to them would
vote for them in the next election. Therefore, there were advantages to political parties
at Westminster for extending the vote.
29