THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT ON WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT
Meiliyana, S.IP, M.A
Staff Pengajar Jurusan Ilmu administrasi Negara FISIP Universitas Lampung
Email: meiliyana@unila.ac.id
ABSTRACT
Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengidentifikasi dan menganalisis peran
pemerintah dalam pemeberdayaan perempuan melalui program-programnya.
Penelitian ini dilakukan di empat kabupaten di Provinsi Lampung. Penelitian ini
dilakukan di tingkat daerah karena pemerintah daerah memiliki wewenang yang
besar dalam membuat kebijakan untuk meningkatkan kualitas hidup perempuan.
Penelitian ini adalah penelitian dengan menggunakan studi kasus. Teknik
pengumpulan data dilakukan dengan wawancara dan dokumentasi.
Hasil penelitian menunjukan bahwa pemerintah daerah telah berusaha untuk
membantu mengatasi permasalahan yang dihadapi oleh kaum perempuan di
daerahnya dengan melaksanakan program-program yang sesuai dengan kebutuhan
kaum perempuan. Namun upaya tersebut masih perlu ditingkatkan untuk
memaksimalkan hasil dan dampak yang diharapkan. Penelitian ini juga
menemukan fakta bahwa pemerintah daerah yang menjadi lokasi penelitian belum
memiliki data yang memadai tentang keadaan perempuan di daerah tersebut.
Penelitian ini merekomendasikan kepada pemerintah untuk mencontoh
model pemberdayaan perempuan oleh Narayan Deepa yang focus pada reformasi
institusi. Reformasi institusi akan berdampak pada kesempatan yang diberikan
bagi perempuan untuk berpartisipasi dalam pembangunan. Penelitian ini juga
merekomendasikan agar pemerintah meningkatkan kerjasama dengan berbagai
organisasi perempuan dan NGO.
BACKGROUND
The
history
of
women’s
representation in the Indonesian
Parliament is one of a long process of
Indonesian women’s struggles in the
public sphere. The first Indonesian
Women’s Congress in 1928, which
prompted the emergence of an
increased
women’s
nationalist
activism, is a turning point in history
because of the role the Congress
played in improving opportunities for
Indonesian women to participate in
all aspects of development. However,
women still face cultural, social and
legal barriers that constrain their full
participation in the development
process.
ADMINISTRATIO
Actually during the struggle for
independence up to and after 1945,
Indonesian women played a major
role in the armed services and
generally in the public sphere.
However, after independence, along
with the homecoming of men from
the war, patriarchal values broadly
re-emerged, as did the perception
that the role of women was to
manage the household (Parawansa,
2001). Patriarchal values according to
Gupta and Sarma (2002:902) implies
the dominant of men in all the
settings and all situations. This
situation makes women tends to be
excluded from development.
Until now, Indonesia has been
struggling with the issues of unequal
opportunity to access of public
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Jurnal Ilmiah Administrasi Publik dan Pembangunan, Vol.1, No.1, Januari – Juni 2010
service such as education and health
services, which leads to unequal
participation in the policy making
process.
I will show some data that
illustrate the unequal situation faces
by Indonesian women.
EmploymentANGKATAN
Participation
Rate (TPAK)
TINGKAT PARTISIPASI
KERJA
MENURUT
KELAMIN
Based onJENIS
Sex (2000-2003)
TAHUN 2000-2003
100,00
80,00
60,00
85,60
83,61
81,76
50,29
48,22
46,77
86,53
50,22
40,00
20,00
0,00
'2000
'2001
Laki-laki
Man
'2002
'2003
Perempuan
Woman
Source:
Ministry
of Women
Empowerment,
(www.menegpp.go.id. 30 January, 2008)
This figure above shows us that
women involvement in employment
sector which is lower than men. The
involvement
of
women
in
employment sector is caused by
various reasons. As mentioned in The
Statistic Gender Profile of Metro City
(2006:31), women work because of
economic reason so that they have to
work or women decide to work
because they have a choice whether
work or not. But since the stereotype
Republic
of
Indonesia
of women are handling household and
taking care of child so it impact on
the
women
participation
on
employment
sector.
Low
participation
of
women
in
employment sector imply to position
of women on decision making within
their family. Furthermore it also
imply to the participation and
position of women in the public
policy making process.
The Percentage
of Illiteracy
Rates
PERSENTASE
PENDUDUK
BUTA HURUF
USIA Up
10 TAHUN
KE ATAS
For Children
to 10 years
(2000-2004)
TAHUN 2000-2004
16
14.54
14.16
12.69
14
12.28
11.71
12
10
6.87
8 6.31
5.84
5.34
5.85
6
4
2
0
2000
2001
Laki-laki
Man
2002
2003
Perempuan
Woman
Source:
Ministry
of Women
Empowerment,
(www.menegpp.go.id. 30 January, 2008)
ADMINISTRATIO
2004
Republic
of
Indonesia
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Meiliyana, The Role Of Government On Women’s Empowerment
The figure about illiteracy rates
above shows us the gap between
women and men on accessing
educational facilities. Men are more
likely to higher their education
rather than women. Mulyaningsih
(2004:16) argues that this situation is
caused by stereotypes of gender
which embedded in the society. For
instance, there is an assumption in
the society that if women are highly
educated, it will be difficult for them
to find a spouse. Women dropping
out of school are also more tolerated
in society so that if the family has to
make priority for their children, they
are more likely to give an
opportunity for son to higher their
education. Low education of women
imply on women opportunity to
participate
in
public
sphere
especially in the policy making
process.
According
to
The
Asia
Foundation Report on 9 May, 2007,
women in Indonesia are significantly
under-represented
in
political
participation at all levels and the
number of women members of the
national legislature is now lower than
a decade ago during President
Suharto’s New Order era. Today,
women constitute less than 12
percent of members of the National
Parliament in Indonesia and more
than half the country’s 440 district
legislatures have no women members
at all (The Asia Foundation website,
April 17th 2008).
According
to
the
Asia
Foundation, there are number of
reasons for this, including the way
political parties recruit candidates,
structural barriers embedded in
legislation regulating elections, and
cultural prejudices against women as
leaders. This number of women in
politics becomes important because
this is one indication of the degree to
which barriers have been removed
for women. Since the number of
women in politics in Indonesia are
ADMINISTRATIO
3
low, so in other words, it can says
that women still face cultural, social
and legal barriers that constrain their
participation in the development
process.
Within
the
Indonesian
Constitution/1945
article
27
mentions: every citizen has an equal
position within Indonesia’s law. It
legally shows that there is no
distinction between men and women.
From this constitution, we can see
that the state guarantees equal
rights between men and women.
Indonesia also has taken such
initiatives to enhance women’s
participation in development. The
first initiative to include women’s
issues in national development
planning was taken in 1978 by
drawing up specific regulations about
women. Following this regulation,
the government established the
Ministry of Women Affairs which
changed into the Ministry for the Role
of Women in 1983. The government
also ratified CEDAW (Convention on
Elimination
All
Forms
of
Discrimination Against Women) and
adopted it into Law No. 7/1984,
which binds Indonesia to respect,
protect, and fulfill women’s rights.
Furthermore, Indonesia also adopted
“Beijing Platform for Actions” in
1995.
Ratified
and
adopted
“international commitment”, should
be follow up in national level. In
1999, Khofifah Indar Parawansa who
was
minister
of
women’s
empowerment and head of the
National Coordinating Board of
Family Planning at that time, made
significant changes in the course of
policies and programs on gender
equity and women’s empowerment.
The changing of the ministry’s name
from the Ministry for the Role of
women to the State Ministry of
Women’s Empowerment was to
reflect the state’s role in promoting
women’s rights and gender issues
(Utomo, 2006). This ministry helps
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Jurnal Ilmiah Administrasi Publik dan Pembangunan, Vol.1, No.1, Januari – Juni 2010
the president (government) in
formulating policy and coordinating
action for women empowerment. The
Indonesian
government
also
established women empowerment
bureaus at local government level to
help
the
national
government
formulate policy at the local level.
Since 2004, the parliament is also
required to have 30% of its members
be women in order to ensure their
greater participation in public
sphere.
In spite of these efforts, the
reality shows that these efforts have
not yet removed enough of the gap
between men and women in regards
to access, control, participation and
benefits from the development goals
(Mulyaningsing,
2004). As
the
empowerment of women is one of
the central issues in the process of
development for many countries in
the world today (Sen, 1999: 202) and
as Kofi Annan has argued:
Women play a crucial role on
development. When they are
fully involved, the benefits
can be seen immediately,
families are healthier and
better fed, their income
saving and reinvestment go
up. And what is true of
families is also true of
communities, and, in the long
run, of whole countries (Kofi
Annan as cited in Van der
Gaag, 2004).
As women account for 51% of
Indonesia’s
population,
their
potential for development plays a
critical role making research in this
field essential for helping the
government further decrease the gap
in access, participation, control and
benefits of development between
men and women.
While Amartya Sen argues that
development is freedom, it requires
the removal of major sources of
ADMINISTRATIO
unfreedom, such as: poverty, poor
economic opportunities, systematic
social deprivation and negligence of
public facilities as well as intolerance
or over activity of repressive states
(Sen, 1999:3). Sen also argues that
the view of freedom that is being
taken here involves both the process
that allows freedom of actions and
decisions,
and
the
actual
opportunities that people have,
given their personal and social
circumstances. By refer to what
Amartya Sen argues, so it is clear
that in order to get involved in
development, the sources of un
freedom faces by Indonesian women
should be eliminated.
Local government plays an
important
role
in
women’s
empowerment. Under the new Local
government Law No.22/1999 that
took effect on January 1, 2001, local
governments in Indonesia assumed
new responsibilities that were
previously covered by the national
government,
which
called
as
decentralization.
Since
Conyers
(1986) argues, decentralization is a
tool to accomplish particular goals
such as local democracy, people
empowerment, citizen participation,
development
and
integration.
Additionally Elizabeth Powley in her
report
“Engendering
Rwanda’s
Decentralization: Supporting Women
Candidates for Local Office” also
says:
Local
government
is
a
powerful force in women’s
lives, often affecting the
delivery of basic services
(such as healthcare) and the
management of resources
(such as land, electricity, and
water) more directly than the
national government ( Hunt
Alternatives Fund website,
June 15, 2008)
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Meiliyana, The Role Of Government On Women’s Empowerment
So that, local governments in
Indonesia under the new concept of
decentralization, plays an important
role to empower women within their
area by making programs or policies
which can improve the quality life of
women.
In this research, four local
governments were chosen within
Lampung province on Sumatra Island.
Each area that observed has a
women’s empowerment bureau at its
local government level and have
already set some programs to support
women’s empowerment in their
areas.
This research will address
research questions as follow; 1).
What is the role of government on
women’s empowerment? 2) What is
(are)
the
local
government
program(s) to support women’s
empowerment? 3) How is the
program implemented in the society?
The purposes of this research
are: 1)to identify and analyze the
role of government on women
empowerment,2)to
identify
and
analyze the government’s programs
to support women empowerment 3)to
identify and analyze how the
government has implemented its
programs in society
5
empowerment programs in each local
government. The design of the
interview protocol is semi-structured
interviews with additional questions
that asked as clarifying or extending
explanations.
This research is case study that
follows Creswell`s (1998) definition
of case study, which uses detailed,
in-depth data collection involving
multiple sources of information and
is limited by time and place. In this
research, I look at specific programs
for empowering women, which have
been implemented by particular local
government in Indonesia.
The strong point of this study is
the analysis of the role of
government in empowering women in
Indonesia and of the subsequent
programs it has implemented. This
leads to the question of how seriously
the government handles this issue
and how its implemented programs
impact the condition of women.
ANALYSIS OF THE PROGRAMS
All the programs conduct by
these regions are adopted from
national programs and funded by
National State budget and Local
Government budget. The programs
will discuss one by one.
METHODOLOGY
1.
This research focus on the
regency level, for two main reasons;
1) The policies in this level are
especially implemented for the
development of the local people
(Local Government Law No.22/1999),
2) the patriarchal structure of the
societies in this area cause excluding
of women from decision making
process for development. Data
collection method of this research
are interview and archival documents
collection. Interview protocol was
developed before interviewing the
people
in
charge
of
women
ADMINISTRATIO
Enhance women’s role
development process.
on
This program is important since
women in these areas still faces
unequal opportunity on access,
control and gain benefit from
development. As Koffi Annan(2004)
argued, if women involved in
development so families prosperity
increase and for long run this
situation will affect whole countries.
Governments implement this program
by:
a) Encourage
women
to
be
entrepreneurs
through
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Jurnal Ilmiah Administrasi Publik dan Pembangunan, Vol.1, No.1, Januari – Juni 2010
entrepreneur
workshops
and
improving the opportunities for
women on gaining credit from
financial
institutions.
The
increasing number of employees
and the number of employment
fields is unbalance. Unemployed
people need capital to create job
for their self. By improving the
opportunities for women on
gaining credit, it will help women
to have self income for them self
and for increase the family
income. Increasing family income
will also impact the quality of
consumption on fulfilling the
basic needs and health of the
family and the education of the
children (Statistic Gender and
Analysis of Bandar Lampung City
on 2004).
b) Socialize policies about increasing
women’s productivity on the
economic sector
To ensure both these
program
run
effectively,
government should refer to
empowerment model pursue by
Narayan (2002:14). Women must:
1) have access to information, so
they will know about the
program and benefit that they
can gain and how to access the
program. To ensure that men and
women are able to access the
information, so it should be
disseminated in forms accessible
(example; radio, TV, newspaper),
2) participate in decision making.
By participating in decision
making, women can give voice
about their needs. So that the
program will effectively meet
the
needs
of
women.
Participating here is not only
become passive participants but
they must actively participate, 3)
have the ability to hold public
officials and private employers
accountable for their actions. As
the program is implemented by
government, so accountability is
ADMINISTRATIO
c)
2.
necessary. In order to control the
government
performance,
women should have an ability to
do it. It stand for “opportunity
for women to higher their
education” so they will have an
ability to control the government
performance.
Enhance women participation’s
on politics
If
this
program
implemented effectively, means
number of women participate on
politics increased, so what
Rowlands (1998), said that
empowerment is emphasis on
access to political structures and
formal
decision
making,
established. By participating on
politics, the concept of “power
with”, which argues by Rowlands
(1997:13) will exist. Women
could tackle their problem
together within group. However,
government has to aware with
social structure of the society,
such as; patriarchal structure
that put women on sub-ordinate
position within family. That
position make women restrain on
making decision for themselves.
Also assumption in society about
politics itself which is masculine,
full of conflicts, required more
time, often go out at night, etc
(Mulyaningsih, et.al, 2004).
Improve the quality of life and
protection for women.
This program is important and
really meets the condition of women
in these regions. I argued this is the
basic program for empowering
women in these regions. Because this
program contains:
a) Eliminate illiteracy rates. This is
very essential for people to
improve their prosperity. Ability
to read and write is the minimal
standard that must fulfill by
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Meiliyana, The Role Of Government On Women’s Empowerment
people to improve their quality.
Furthermore, the number of
women in illiteracy rates in this
regions is still high. Establish
“Gerakan Sayang Ibu” (Love
Mother program). This program
aims to reduce mortality rate of
mother during giving a birth,
which is highest among ASEAN
countries. Furthermore, having
health service is one of human
right and only on health
condition women can do many
activities including taking care of
family, also be able to exercise
their ability. This program focus
on improving the quality of
health
service
at
health
facilities,
improving
local
government attention on health
service, improving administration
system, and improving husband
and men attention on women
health (Guideline of “Gerakan
Sayang Ibu”).
I suggest,
implementation of “Gerakan
Sayang
Ibu”
(Love
Mother
Program) should be followed by
increasing number of medical
staff at rural area. As mentioned
earlier, at Lampung Utara
Regency, the number of women
give a birth helping by “dukun”
(indigenous medical practitioner)
is higher, because in their region
lack of medical staff (doctors,
nurses, and midwife).
b) Train and conduct workshops for
the
treatment
and
giving
assistance to domestic violence
victims
c) Establish an institution for the
protection of women from all
forms of violence
d) Socialize
a
recording
and
reporting system on human
trafficking
Recently the number of women and
children victims of violence is
increased. They experience with
physical and non-physical violence.
Labor migration also vulnerable with
ADMINISTRATIO
7
violence since the protection for
them is weak. For example, they
work without payment, employ as sex
worker, mail-ordered-bride, etc. For
this
program,
I
suggest
the
government to be aware with the
culture of society. People still feeling
a shame to report violence that
occurred. Especially if the actor of
violence is a member of family or
even spouse.
3.
Strengthen Institutions
Gender Mainstreaming
on
Gender
mainstreaming
is
strategy to achieve gender equality
through policy and program which
accommodate women and men
problem, experience, aspiration, and
need
(Mulyaningsih,et.al,2004:3).
This is a good will from government
to improve the condition of women in
these regions. This program is
suitable with the strategy to
empower women which cited in
Broad guidelines of State Policy, the
government established institutions
responsible for gender equality and
justice.
These
institutions
formulated policies and implemented
it in order to cover the problems face
by women. The governments conduct
this program by:
a) Develop
information
system
about children and women. This
program is important because
without comprehensive data
about women, it is impossible to
compose policy and program
which will improve women and
children condition. By developing
information
system
about
children and women, also enable
organization
outside
these
regions to recognize women and
children condition in this regions,
which in long run could be
government’s
partner
on
conducting
women’s
empowerment program.
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b)
Enhance media expose for
women issues. This program aim
to make people aware of women
issues.
4.
Increase Women’s Role on
achieving family prosperity
This program is aim to improve
women’s participation within family.
This program can meet definition of
empowerment by Rowlands (1998)
which focus on development and she
defines as process whereby women
become able to organize themselves
to increase their own self-reliance,
to assert their independent right to
make choices and to control
resources which will assist in
challenging and eliminating their own
sub ordination. By participating on
achieving family prosperity, women
increased their self-reliance and
become more independent on making
decision for themselves and family.
Furthermore it will eliminate their
own sub ordination.
CONCLUSION
From the whole programs
conduct by local government in
Lampung Province. I argue that the
program of ; 1)Enhancing women’s
role on development process 2)
Improve the quality of life and
protection for women, and 3)
Increase Women’s Role on achieving
family prosperity, are relevant with
“empowerment” concept that argued
by Rowlands and Narayan. The
program
above
consist
of
“participation” that strongly support
by Rowlands and Narayan.
According
to
Rowlands,
participation will eliminate women
sub ordination and will improve their
independent
and
self
reliance
(Rowlands,
cited
in
Dawson,
1998:190,191). While according to
ADMINISTRATIO
Narayan, participation will improve
the investment of individual and
organization which will lead to
improvement
on
development
outcomes (Narayan, 2002:14).
Through the statistic data
about presence condition of women
in every sample area, this research
find that the women’s empowerment
programs conducted by government
of every local government are trying
to cover women’s problem within
these areas. Governments made the
programs based on the necessity of
women in their area. Then, if we
refer to the strategy to empower
women which cited in Broad
guidelines of State Policy, the
government established institutions
which responsible for gender equality
and justice (Women’s Empowerment
Bureau).
These
institutions
formulated policies and implemented
it in order to cover the problems face
by women. Furthermore, those
programs try to improve the position
and the role of women at nation
state. But as those programs made by
state government and made by “topdown” process and without the
involvement of women in those areas
on making the decision so there is
possibility the program is not
effective.
As Rowlands argues:
Bringing people who are outside the
decision making process, into it. So
they can represent their needs and
interests to be accommodate within
the policy, as also argues by Krishna
in his article “Enhancing Political
Participation in Democracies: What is
the Role of Social Capital?.”
Internal and external factors,
as cited in Policies guideline for
improving the quality life of women
which provide by Ministry of Women’s
empowerment, Republic of Indonesia
also
could
be
obstacles
for
government to achieve maximal
outcome from the implementation of
those programs.
My first recommendation for
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Meiliyana, The Role Of Government On Women’s Empowerment
Local Government in Lampung
Province,
they
should
provide
comprehensive data about women
and men condition in their areas and
renew the data annually. So
researcher or other organization that
concern to that situation can have
comprehensive
data.
For
the
implementation of the program, I
recommend, if the government takes
the model of empowerment that
propose by Narayan, which focus on
institutional reform, it can help
Indonesian government to maximize
the implementation and the outcome
of the programs.
The focus of
reform is on; 1) design the
mechanism to support poor people’s
access to information; 2) support
mechanism
for
inclusion
and
participation; 3) create mechanism
of accountability; 4) investing in poor
people’s organizational capacity to
solve problems. If institutions set up
supports for the equal participation
of women and men, programs and
policies established by government
will be more sustainable. I also
recommend for combination of
Narayan’s Model and supporting other
type of women’s organization in
addition to government’s, such as
NGO’s. So it will fit to the second
strategy of empowering women
which cited in Broad guidelines of
State Policy, which is “improvements
in
the
quality,
role
and
independence
of
women’s
organization”s (Parawansa, 2001).
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Political
Participation
in
Democracies: What is the Role
of
Social
Capital?”,
ADMINISTRATIO
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