Plagiarism Assignment
Read the following excerpt from the literature review of my Educational Psychology thesis
(Smith, 1984):
Theories of Planning
Cohen and Feigenbaum (1982) define problem solving as the process of developing a sequence of actions to achieve a goal. Planning, then, is the process of deciding on a course of action before actually acting. Anderson (1983) wrote "If it can be shown that a system reorders a preferred sequence of actions in anticipation of goal conflict, then that system is engaging in planning" (p.107). The plan which results has a hierarchical structure leading from decreasingly abstract representations of the plan to an ordering of the primitive operations which when executed will lead to solution.
In attempting to model human planning, artificial intelligence researchers have created planning systems which operate based on several different sets of assumptions. As explained by
McCutchen (1984), "these planners differ according to the number of levels of abstraction permitted in the problem representation. That is, how much of the problem solving is done in the abstract, before local details are specified?" (p.227).
Cohen and Feigenbaum (1982) describe four types of planning:
(1) Nonhierarchical.
Nonhierarchical plans have a hierarchy of goals, but no hierarchy of representations. Problem reduction and means-ends analysis are two examples of non-hierarchical planning strategies. For instance, in the case of problem reduction, the Tower of Hanoi problem is typically solved recursively by the realization that the N disk Tower of Hanoi has as a subgoal the solution to an
N-1 disk tower.
(2) Hierarchical.
Hierarchical plans have a hierarchy of goals and of representations. The highest representation is an abstraction of the plan and the lowest is a detailed plan. This is similar to a successive refinement strategy. For example, the problem of buying a piano could be refined into "locate piano, get money, buy piano." "Locate piano" could be further refined into "find names of musical instrument dealers, go to dealers, check prices and quality of pianos, choose a piano."
Each level is a short-hand representation of the level below.
(3) Scriptbased.
Scriptbased planning systems contain plan outlines, one of which is chosen for a problem. Once an outline is chosen, variables in the outline are bound to values specific to that problem. This can also be thought of as the retrieval of known solutions to the problem. For instance, the plan to go to lunch may be best implemented through retrieval of an already learned lunch script.

(4) Opportunistic.
The opportunistic planning system uses the blackboard model, in which low-level outcomes drive decisions providing both topdown and bottomup processing. a) In the first paragraph, problem solving is defined.
Whose words are used in the definition? (Question 1)
Whose ideas are used? (Question 2) b) Later in that paragraph the words "If it can be shown that a system reorders a preferred sequence of actions in anticipation of goal conflict, then that system is engaging in planning" appear.
Whose words are these? (Question 3)
Whose idea is it? (Question 4) c) The second half of the excerpt consists of descriptions of four types of planning.
Who developed the idea to categorize planning this way? (Question 5)
Whose words are used to describe the four categories? (Question 6)
3) Read the following excerpt from Robert Nye's Three Psychologies: Perspectives from Freud,
Skinner, and Rogers.
Freud was a strict determinist who believed strongly that all behavior is caused; actions, as well as thoughts and feelings, do not occur accidentally or by chance. Making slips of the tongue, dreaming, hallucinating, forgetting, choosing, wishing, striving for success, repeating certain behaviors again and again, refusing to admit mistakes, being hostile towards others, writing novels, painting pictures, and on and on - all these behaviors and all other behaviors were assumed to be capable of explanation (Nye, 1992, p.10). a) Whose words are these? (Question 7) b) Provide a paraphrase of this excerpt. You need to capture the idea expressed, but do not repeat every item on the list! Be sure to cite your source, though. (Question 8)

4) Read the following excerpt from Barbara Ehrenreich's Fear of Falling: The Inner Life of the
Middle Class .
Historians differ on when the consumer culture came to dominate American culture. Some say it was in the twenties, when advertising became a major industry and the middle class bought radios to hear the ads and cars to get to the stores. Some say it was in the late nineteenth century, when the first department stores appeared in American cities and a class of wealthy, idle women arose to shop in them. But there is no question that the consumer culture had begun to crowd out all other cultural possibilities by the years following World War II (Ehrenreich, 1989, p.35). a) Provide a paraphrase of this excerpt with correct citation. (Question 9)
5) Read the following excerpt from Robert Bolles' The Story of Psychology: A Thematic History .
The Discourse presented not only some of Descartes' mathematical ideas but also much of his philosophical thinking. Here is where we find him wondering if anything is really the way it appears, and wondering what one can believe in, in view of all the illusions we know of. His famous answer to this dilemma, the philosopher's dilemma, was that he could believe in his own doubts, his own thoughts. He said, " I think, therefore I am ." (Bolles, 1993, p.26) a) Provide a paraphrase of this excerpt with correct citation. (Question 10)