Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.2, No. 2: Oct. 2011
Evaluation of insecticidal properties of Momordicacharantia in reducing oviposition and seed
damaged by Callosobruchus maculates (Fab.) walp.
1
J.M. ADENSINA, 1L.A. AFOLABI AND 2T.I. OFUYA
Agricultural Technology Department, Rufus Giwa Polytechnic, P.M.B. 1019, Owo, Ondo State, Nigeria
2
Crop, Soil and Pest Management Department, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria.
Email: moboladesina@yahoo.com
1
ABSTRACT
Studies were carried out in the laboratory of Agricultural Technology Department of Rufus Giwa Polytechnic, Owo,
Ondo State, Nigeria to determine the efficacy of leaf powder of Momordica charantiaagainst the storage pests
Callosobruchusmaculatuson stored cowpea. The experiment was laid out in completely Randomised Design (CRD) and
replicated three times. Leaf powder of M. charantia was added as admixtures to 20 g of grains at the following rates:
0.5g, 1.0g, 1.5g and 2,0g to assess contact toxicity, damage assessment, progeny production. The results obtained shows
that the plant material was toxic to the insect. The leaf powder of M. charantia applied at 2.0g greatly (P<0.05) caused
reduction in the number of eggs laid, percentage eggs hatched and significantly inhibited adult emergence and seed
damaged by the beetlescompared to other concentrations. The result revealed that M. charantia powder can be used in
guarding against storage pest infestation in storing cowpea seed.
Keywords: Admixtures, concentrations, efficacy, inhibit, leaf powder, reduction.
Agricultural produce cannot all be consumed at once; there
is need for proper storage. One major problem encountered
by farmers during storage of farm produce is insect pest
infestation. This often leads to losses in both quality and
quantity of the produce (Ogunleye, 2000).Synthetic
insecticides are still being employed for the control of
storage insect pests. However, the short coming associated
with the use of conventional elucidates the need for
alternative pest management strategies that would protect
the farmers and their produce, in addition to being
affordable and available when needed. In Nigeria, nature has
bestowed on us an array of insecticidal or medicinal plants
across the various ecological zones, which could play a
fundamental role in pest management strategies. Various
natural plant products have been used with a good degree of
success as protectants against a number of stored products’
insect pests (Ewete and Alamu, 1999).This work therefore
aims to evaluate the effectiveness of Momordicacharantiain
controlling of the storage pest C. maculatus. M.charantiais a
tree belonging to the family Curcubiaceae and it’s a native
of tropical Africa with leaves digitately alternate. The
medicinal uses of M.charantiahave long been known
(Etukudo 2003) but the insecticidal properties are yet to the
exploited.
Collection of seeds
Clean unifested cowpea drum variety used for the study
were obtained from the Teaching and Commercial Farm of
the Rufus Giwa Polytechnic, Owo. Thegrains were put in a
deep freezer for 72 hours to rid them of insidious
infestation(if any) and were later air-dried in the air drying
in the laboratory to prevent moldiness (Lajideet. al.,1998).
Disinfected cowpea seeds were then weighed using digital
weighing balance model TS 400D (precision standard) into
20g in triplicate for each concentration and then stored in
cool dry place (Iloba and Ekrakene, 2006).
Collection and preparation of plant materials
Leaves of M. charantiawere obtained from the polytechnic
community and air dried under a room temperature for about
15days.Thereafter, the dried leaves were grounded into
powder using hammer mill (Epidi et.al 2009).
Toxicity Effects of M. charantiaon C. maculatus
The plant powders were tested at 0.5g, 1.0g, 1.5g, 2.0g per
20g of uninfested cowpea seeds in separate glass petri-dish
(9.0cm) plates. There was also a control treatment involving
no addition of plant powder on the seeds. Each petri-dish
was tumbled several times to ensure homogenous mixing of
powder with grains (Adesina, 2010). Ten unsexed insects of
C. maculatus were introduced into each petri-dish. Adult
mortality was monitored and counted 48 hours after
infestation.Percentage adult mortality was calculated by
using the method by Omotosho and Oso (2 004):
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was carried out in the Department of Agricultural
Technology, Rufus Giwa Polytechnic, Owo, Ondo State
Nigeria (latitude 50 12’ N and longitude 50 36’ E), in the
year 2011.
Percentage mortality
Culturing of insects
The adult C. maculatus used for the experiment was
obtained from cowpea that was bought from Oja – Oba
market, Owo, Ondo State. The cowpea were put in a kilner
jar covered with Muslin which prevent the insects from
escaping and also allow for aeration. The jar was kept at
room temperature for the insects to breed and multiply and
the emerged insects were used for the experiment.
=
No. of dead insect
---------------------- x
Total No. of Insect
100
-----1
Insects were considered dead on failure to respond to three
probings using a blunt dissecting probe (Obeng-oforieet.al.,
1997). The numbers of eggs laid by the female beetles on
the seeds were counted 14 days after infestation; this was
used to calculate the percentage egg hatching (Abdullah et.
al., 2011).
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.2, No. 2: Oct. 2011
100
-----Total eggs in each petri-dish
1
At the end of the experiment i.e. 35days after,the number of
adult emergence were recorded, damaged seeds and
undamaged seeds were counted and used to determine the
percentage
punctured
grains(LawOgbomo
and
Enobakhare, 2007).
Total eggshatched
Percentage egg hatching
=
Percentage punctured grains
=
----------------------
x
No. of punctured grain per treatment
----------------------
total no of grain per treatment
x
100
-----1
Experimental Design and Data Analysis
The experimental design adopted for the experiment was
Completely Randomized Design (CRD) and each treatment
was replicated three (3) times. Data collected were subjected
to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using Microsoft Excel
2003. Whilst egg counts, damaged and undamaged seeds
were subjected to square root transformation, percentages
were arcsine transformed before analysis and treatment
means were separated using Least Significant Difference
(LSD) at p< 0.05.
Figure 1: Effect of leaf powder of M. charantiaon adult
mortality, oviposition and percentage egg hatching of
adult emergence and percentage seeds damage by C.
maculatus
Discussion
This present work revealed that the plant powder this not
significantly killed adult beetles and this result
supportsEpidi, et al (2008) findings that leaf powders of
Vitexgrandifoliaand Dracaena arborea did not significantly
suppress the survival of C. maculatus.The reduction in the
rate of oviposition by C. maculatusis consistent with
Adesina, 2010 who reported that storing cowpea seeds by
admixture with plant powders would fill the intergranular air
space and so prevent free movement of adults for mating
and oviposition, so also the low percentage egg hatching
observed in the study can be deduced that the plant powder
contains ovicidal properties that greatly inhibit percentage
egg hatching and subsequently suppress F1 progeny
emergence and reduce seed damage.This finding confirms
earlier report of Maurya, 2009 that M. charantiafruit wall
act as an effective biolarvicide against mosquitoes. This
effectiveness is due to the fact that C. maculatuslay their
eggs on the seed coat thus bringing the eggs and larvae in
close contact with the plant powder (Adedire and Lajide,
2001).This shows that the plant possesses insecticidal
properties. The result is in tandem with Adesina, 2010 that
the lowerer the rate of adult emergence, the lowerer the
percentage seed punctured by the seed beetles.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Effect of leaf powder of M. charantiaon adult mortality,
oviposition and percentage egg hatching of adult emergence
and percentage seeds damage by C. maculatuswas presented
in figure 1. Result obtained from the study shows that
survival of adultC. maculatus48hr post treatment was
highest in cowpea treated with 0.5 and 2.0g
concentrations(30.99%) respectively. Survival rate of the
adult beetles among the different concentrationsevaluateddid
not differ significantly within the treatment means. The
mean number of eggs laid by C. maculatusrevealed that the
leaf powder applied at 2.0g greatly caused reduction in the
number of eggs laid by the weevils (2.07) and this was
significantly different (P< 0.05) compared with 0.5g (6.40)
and control treatments (12.40). While percentage egg
hatching was lowest in grains admixed treated with 2.0g
concentration of the leaf powder (21.27) and highest in the
control (30.90). The control was significantly (p>0.05)
higher than all levels of M. charantiatreatment
concentrations. Adult emergence was highest in control
(27.93) and at 2.0g dosage, adult weevil did not emerge and
this reflected on the percentage seed damage on the treated
grains, seed damage was least at 2.0g (6.15%), followed by
1.5g (7.04%) and highest seed punctured was recorded in
control.
The finding shows that leaf powder of M. charantia has a
great potential for use as admixture with cowpea grains in
storage at small holding farmers’ level to reduce insect pest
infestation damage. Furthermore, there is need to determine
the chemical constituents of the plant so as to evaluate the
mammalian toxicity of the plant.
Table 1. Percentage means mortality of C.maculatus 48hours after treatment of infested grains with different concentration of M.
Charantia
g powder/20g of grain
C. maculatus mortality
0.0g
0.g
0.5g
30.99
1.0g
28.78
1.5g
30.78
2.0g
30.99
LSD (0.05%)
NS
NB value were arc sine transformed
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.2, No. 2: Oct. 2011
Table 2. Mean number of eggs laid by C.maculatus14 days after treatment of infested grains with different
concentration of M. Charantia.
g powder/20g of grain
mean no of egg laid
0.0g
12.40
0.5g
6.40
1.0g
3.48
1.5g
3.32
2.0g
2.07
LSD (0.05%)
2.41
NB value were square root transformed
Table 3. Percentage mean egg hatching of C. maculatustreated with different concentration of M. charantia.
g powder/20g of grain
% mean egg hatching
0.0g
30.9
0.5g
27.53
1.0g
26.15
1.5g
24.97
2.0g
21.27
LSD (0.05%)
2.41
NB value were arc sine transformed
Table 4. Means adult emergence of C. maculatusin grains treated with different concentration of M. charantia.
g powder/20g of grain
mean no of emerging
adults
0.0g
27.93
0.5g
24.83
1.0g
21.43
1.5g
17.35
2.0g
0.00
LSD (0.05%)
5.99
NB value were square root transformed
Table 5. Percentage means of punctured seed treated with different concentration of M. charantia.
g powder/20g of grain
% punctured seeds
0.0g
31.55
0.5g
15.65
1.0g
16.38
1.5g
7.04
2.0g
6.15
LSD (0.05%)
19.02
NB value were arc sine transformed
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Callosobruchusmaculatus (F) (Coleopteran: Bruchidae) on
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(1998) Insecticidal activity of powders of some Nigerian
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Aminu-Kano, M. (eds) 1998. Entomology in the Nigeria
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Nigeria.ESNOccasional Publication pp. 227 -235.
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(2007) Comparison of four botanical powders in the control
of Callosobruchusmaculatus(Fab.) (Coleoptera: Bruchidae)
and Sitophiluszeamais (Mots) (Coleoptera: Crculionidae).
Proceeding Akure HumboltKellong 3rdSAAT Annual
Conference, Fed. University of Tech., Akure, Nigeria 16 th –
19th April, 2007, pp. 56-59.
Law – Ogbomo, K.E and Emobakhare, D.A (2007). The
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.2, No. 2: Oct. 2011
Standardize various parameters for Agrobacterium-mediated genetic transformation for tomato
(Solanum lycopersicum L.)
RIZWAN RASHID AND S. S. BAL
Department of Vegetable Crops. Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141004, India
Email:rizwan60@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The study was conducted to standardize various parameters for Agrobacterium-mediated genetic transformation of
tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L). Agrobacterium-mediated transformation factors for tomato explants viz. cotyledon
were optimized using β-glucuronidase (GUS) as a reporter. The Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain GV3101 contained
npt II (plant selectable marker gene providing resistance to kanamycin) under the control of nopaline marker gene
providing promoter (pNOS) and the Cry 1 Ac coding region containing a plant intron linked to the cauliflower mosaic
35 S (CaMV 35 S) promoter, was used for co-cultivation with explants from genotype Punjab Upma. The various
parameters for transformation were optimized including bacterial concentration, co-cultivation period, acetosyringone
concentration and pre- selection of explants on different concentration of kanamycin antibiotic. Results for bacterial
concentration and co-cultivation were obtained based on the percentage of GUS expression and explants mortality
percentage, while for acetosyringone concentration result were based on GUS expression percentage. Agrobacterium
tumefaciens strain GV 3101 at concentration (OD 600 =1.0) diluted culture (1:20) for 20 minutes, followed by cocultivation and 2 days co-cultivation period showed the maximum Gus expression and minimum explants mortality in
explants of tomato. For acetosyringone concentration 25 (µM) showing higher transformation percentage. The
transgenic plants were selected on the medium containing 30 mg/l kanamycin. The protocol developed showed very
high efficiency of transformation for tomato genotype Punjab Upma.
Keywords: Agrobacterium-mediated, transformation parameters, tomato and β- glucuronidase.
Plant transformation has become an essential tool for plant
molecular biologists and creating transgenic plants is a
major focus in many plant breeding programs. Targets
include enhancement in productivity by increasing
resistance to abiotic and biotic stresses as well as
fundamental studies such as identification and
characterization of key regulatory genes. Plant
transformation methods in use employ Agrobacterium,
microprojectile
bombardment,
microinjection
and
electroporation of protoplasts (Otoni et al) However,
Agrobacterium-mediated transformation has advantages
over other transformation methods. The transgenic plants
obtained from Agrobacterium-mediated method are
generally fertile and the foreign genes are often transmitted
to progeny in a Mendelian manner (Rhodora and Thomas,
1996). Agrobacterium has the ability to transfer particular
DNA segment (T-DNA) into the nucleus of the plant cells
which stably integrate into the genome of the host cell were
it transcribe and express itself (Wei et al). Agrobacterium
mediated transformation is simple, cheap and transfers low
copy number of transgenes (Hansen et al). Agrobacterium
causes crown gall diseases at the stem root junction. In
response of a wound, the plants exude sugars and phenolics
for healing. These sugars and phenolics attract the bacterium
through the process of chemotaxis. These phenolic
compounds also induce transcription of virulence genes.
These virulent genes are located on a specific plasmid
known as tumour inducing (Ti) plasmid, which also contains
the transferred DNA (T-DNA).This T-DNA region is
inserted into the host genome. Development of transgenic
tomato for insect-pest resistance using Agrobacterium
mediated genetic transformation has been successfully
achieved (Mandokar
et al; Kumar and Kumar
2004).Similarly for diseases resistance, improved quality
and delayed ripening .Reporter genes have been used as
convenient markers to visualize gene expression and protein
localization in vivo in a wide spectrum of prokaryotes and
eukaryotes (Jefferson 1987). Commonly used reporters
include genes encoding chloramphenicol acetyl transferase
(CAT), green fluorescent protein (GFP) luciferase (LUC),
and glucuronidase (GUS). In this study, the Agrobacterium
mediated transformation system for tomato explants was
optimized by using GUS as a reporter. The effects of
parameters such as bacterial concentration, co-cultivation
period and acetosyringone concentration on transformation
efficiency were studied. These parameters are known to
influence the transformation efficiency and the optimized
conditions are host species dependent.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The investigation was carried out at “Tissue Culture and
Genetic Transformation” Laboratory in the School of
Agricultural Biotechnology, Punjab Agricultural University,
Ludhaina during 2006-2009. In this study, seeds of two
tomato genotype Punjab Upma were used. Seeds were
surface sterilized in 2% sodium hypochlorite for 20 minutes
in laminar air flow and rinsed 3 times with sterile distilled
water. Seeds were then germinated on MS medium
supplemented with 100 mg/l myo-inositol and 30 g/l
sucrose. All cultures were maintained at 25 ± 2 0 C under 16
h light (2500 lux) and 8 h dark periods. Cotyledons were
excised from 15-20 day old in vitro germinated seedlings of
tomato. Explants were tested for their sensitivity to
hygromycin in order to determine the lethal dose of
hygromycin for the selection of transformants. Explants
were subjected to the regeneration medium with25 mg/l, 50
mg/l, 75 mg/l and 100 mg/l of hygromycin. Agrobacterium
tumefaciens strain GV 3101carrying plasmid Ppzp200 was
5
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.2, No. 2: Oct. 2011
used in the genetic transformation study. The GUS 35S poly
A under the control of cauliflower mosaic 35 S (CaMV 35
S) promoter. The Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain GV3101
contained npt II (plant selectable marker gene providing
resistance to kanamycin) under the control of nopaline
marker gene providing promoter (pNOS) and the Cry 1 Ac
coding region containing a plant intron linked to the
cauliflower mosaic 35 S (CaMV 35 S) promoter All the
components were dissolved in Milli Q water with constant
stirring and final volume was made to one litre by adding
more Milli Q water. PH of the medium was adjusted to 7.0
with 1N NaOH solution. For liquid medium, measured
volume of 100 ml was dispensed in jam jars and autoclaved.
However, agar was added for solidification of the medium
and boiled on hot plate and dispensed in jam jars (100ml
each) and autoclaved. When the temperature of the medium
became lukewarm, Rifampicin, Spectinomycin and
Gentamycin was added at working concentrations of 250µl
(20mg/ml), 50µl (100mg/ml) and 40µl (100mg/ml) in 100ml
of the medium, which was then used for bacterial
inoculations aseptically by adding a colony of
Agrobacterium containing plasmid with gene constructs.
Agrobacterium strain GV 3101 was maintained at 280C on
the solid YEB medium supplemented with selective
antibiotics such as rifampcin, gentamycin and
spectinomycin.YEB (Yeast Extract Beef) compositions with
bacterial inoculations (Cry1Ac and GUS constructs
separately) was left for 36 hours in incubator shaker at 28°C
with constant shaking at 120 rpm. The cotyledons from days
20 old seedlings and leaves from 25-30 days old seedlings
were injured with the sterilized blade under aseptic
conditions Explants were placed in sterilize distil water to
avoid desiccation. Bacterial broths at different dilutions
(undiluted, 1:15 and 1:20) in liquid MS medium were taken
in petri dish. Explants were dipped in diluted broth for (10,
20 and 30 minutes).After that the explants were kept on
sterilized filter paper in order to get rid off excessive
bacteria. The tissues will be sub-cultured on medium
containing concentration of 500 mg/l cefotaxime to kill the
adhering bacteria. Tissues will be grown on the selection
medium containing kanamycin at different concentrations 20
mg/l for 2 cycles of 2 weeks each and the resistant tissues
will be regenerated into plants. In order to improve the
efficiency of transformation different concentrations of
acetosyringone 0, 25, 35, 45 and 55 μM of acetosyringone
were added in the co-cultivation medium. These cocultivated explants were then transferred on the selection
medium. Efficiency of transformation was recorded after
four weeks GUS assay of explants was carried out by
putting them in X-gluc solution at 370C in the dark to know
the frequency of GUS expression. The observations were
recorded transformation efficiency, Gus expression and
minimum explants mortality of explants
cotyledon explants. Several transformation parameters were
studied to obtain high frequency transformation in tomato.
Antibiotic sensitivity test
It was observed that when no kanamycin was added in the
medium explants remained green . The experiment was
studied the resistance threshold limit transformed tissues to
the antibiotics like kanamycin. In case of Agrobacterium
mediated transformation cotyledon explants of genotype
Punjab Upma were excised from in vitro grown seedlings
and placed on MS medium supplemented with 0.5 mg/l kin
+ 0.5 mg/l BAP + kanamycin (20, 30 and 40 mg/l) doses of
the selective agent and percent of explants survive was
48.57, 31.25 and 13.23 at 20, 30 and 40 mg/l respectively as
shown in Table 1.
Table 1
Evaluation of kanamycin at different
concentration as a selective
agent for genetic
transformation of tomato
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table 2 Effect of bacterial incolum density on per cent
mortality and GUS
expression in explants of tomato
genotype Punjab Upma
Concentration
of kanamycin
used (mg/l)
0
20
30
40
No. of
explants
cultured on
kanamycin
67
70
64
68
No. of
explants
showing
% survival
of explants
67
34
20
9
100.00±0.80
48.57±0.56
31.25±0.77
13.23±0.77
Clearly from data in the table was too mild 20 kanamycin to
effect any selection, whereas 40 mg/l kanamycin causes
proportion of necrosis of explants. Therefore 30 mg/l
kanamycin dose results in 31.25% were found to be
optimum for selection of transformed explants. Control was
without antibiotics. Gupta (2000) studied the selective
medium by adding different concentration of Kanamycin (0,
10, 20, 30, 40, 50 mg/l). It was observed that fresh weight of
explant decreased on increasing the concentration of
kanamycin from 50 mg/l. Maximum increase in fresh
Agrobacterium tumefaciens LBA 4404 strain containing a
reporter/marker β glucuonidase in both bacteria and plant
was used for co-cultivation experiment to transfer GUS and
NPT-II gene on tomato cells. After co-cultivation
transformed cells/explants were able to grow on selective
regeneration medium (50 mg/l Kanamycin + 500 mg/l
cefotaxime).
Effect of bacterial inoculum density on per cent
transformation
Agrobacterium tumafaciens strain GV3101 was grown for
20-24 hours in YEB medium containing antibiotics like
rifampcin, gentamycin and spectinomycin at 28 0 C on
shaker. The undiluted Agrobacterium strain GV3101
containing Cry1Ac (OD600=1) resulted in overgrowth of the
bacteria and severe necrosis of explants shown in Table 2.
Agrobacterium mediated genetic transformation
Genetic transformation of crops using Agrobacterium
mediated involves simple, cost effective and efficient
procedure stable transformation. In present study, genetic
transformation in tomato using Agrobacterium strain and
Bacterial inoculum
density
Undiluted culture
6
Explants
mortality (%)
100±0.80
GUS
expression (%)
nil
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.2, No. 2: Oct. 2011
1:15
1:20
55.29±0.59
23.15±0.67
these concentrations after the coinfection with
Agrobacterium suspension for 20 minutes. After cocultivation explants were transferred to the selection
medium containing 500 mg/l cefaxime. Results showing the
efficiency of transformation after using different
concentrations of acetosyringone in the co-cultivation
medium are summarized in Table 4.
Table 4 Comparison of the efficiency of transformation
by using different concentrations of acetosyringone in
the medium.
39.25±0.50
45.23±0.93
The diluted cultured (1:15) and (1:20) for 20 minutes
checked the over growth and necrosis of explants upto
55.69 and 23.15%.The diluted cultured (1:20) for 20
minutes and 2 days co-cultivation period resulted less
mortality of explants which was around 23.15%.The
dilution with MS medium takes longer time for bacterial
growth. The per cent GUS expression varied significantly
among the treatments. The maximum GUS expression was
recorded in the dilution in the 1:20 when treated with 20
minutes and the GUS expression was 45.23%.
Concentration of
acetosyringone
(µM)
Effect of duration of Agrobacterium treatment on per
cent transformation.
0
25
35
45
55
Duration period of play an important role in genetic
transformation in tomato. Cotyledon explants were
treated with Agrobacterium (OD600 =1.0) diluted culture
(1:20) for different duration as presented in Table 3.
Table 3 Effect of duration of Agrobacterium treatment
on per cent mortality and GUS expression in explants of
tomato genotype Punjab Upma.
Duration in
minutes
10
20
30
Explants
mortality (%)
4.21±0.39
21.56±0.37
8.23±1.14
Efficiency of
transformation
(%)
GUS
expression
(%)
15±0.21
25±0.40
20±0.62
19±0.60
17±0.57
30±0.44
42±0.52
35±0.82
24±0.68
22±0.65
Acetosyringone has already been reported effective to
improve the efficiency of transformation in many crops like
carrot (Guivarch et al), apple (James et al; Wier et al) and
rice (Rashid et al) including tomato (Joao & Brown, 1993).
A concentration of 50- 200 μM acetosyringone in the cocultivation medium has been reported in the earlier studies
to improve the efficiency of transformation in tomato Wu et
al. They reported 50 μM acetosyringone to be effective for
the optimum efficiency of transformation in tomato. Our
results are contrary to the earlier studies conducted by
Moghaieb et al and Raj et al. They reported 100 μM and
200 μM respectively of acetosyringone for optimum
efficiency of transformation in tomato. This difference in the
efficiency of transformation at different concentrations of
acetosyringone may be due to the difference in the genotype
and bacterial strain.
GUS expression in Agrobacterium GV3101 treated and
kanamycin resistant were incubated in X-gluc solution for 34 hours at 370C in the dark to know the frequency of GUS
expression. Randomly selected 23 cotyledon explants were
put in X-gluc solution and 15 out of them were exhibited
blue colour, showing 47.82%. Also, Shahriari et al reported
the transformation rate was 17% for Kal-early to 35% for
Kal-G cultivars confirmed by Gus assay and PCR analysis.
The GUS expressing showed the development of blue colour
in the tissues whereas the non-trasnformed colour was
normal in colour clearly shows the appearance of the blue
colour in the transformed tissues. The positive explants were
destained with glacial acetic acid and ethanol in the ratio of
(1:3) which gives the clear view of GUS expression.
GUS expression
(%)
39.58±0.50
46.25±0.54
29.69±0.76
The explants mortality was recorded to be 68.21%,
75.29% and 25.36% when treated for 10, 20 and 30
minutes. The GUS expression was found maximum
when explants were treated for 20 minutes 46.25%. The
growth of non-transformed cells was controlled by
addition of kanamycin into the medium. All the
parameters which were standardized in preceding
experiments were used for transformation of gene into
the cotyledonary explants of tomato genotype Punjab
Upma. The explants co-cultivated for 2 days were
washed with cefatoxime 500 mg/l for 20 minutes in
order to kill the adherent bacterial growth and the
explants were transferred to selection medium
containing MS + BAP (0.5 mg/l) + kinetin (0.5 mg/l) +
kanamycin (30 mg/l ) + cefatoxime (500 mg/l).These
cultures were incubated at 25 0 C. The non-transformed
explants were completely turns into dead cells (Roy et
al) showed that pre- cultured leaf discs of tomato in bacterial
suspension for 3 minutes and reported the maximum
efficiency of transformation. Similarly, (Wu et al) reported
10 minutes inoculation duration in tomato.
Determination
of
optimum
concentration
of
acetosyringone:
Addition of acetosyringone in the co-cultivation medium
improves the efficiency of transformation. After optimizing
the co-cultivation period and co-cultivation time different
concentrations of acetosyringone (0, 25, 50, 75, 100 μM)
were also tested in the co-cultivation medium. Explants
were co- cultivated for two days on the medium containing
We standerizie the various parameters for highly improved
transformation efficiency in tomato variety Punjab Upma.
The optimized protocol is simple and reproducible, and may
be adapted for other tomato cultivar.
Nelson L, Shih R., Hoffman R., 1995. Aplastic anemia
induced by an adulterated herbal medication.Clin Toxicol,
33,467-470.
7
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.2, No. 2: Oct. 2011
REFERENCES
Agrobacterium- mediated transformation in tomato. Russian
J. Pl.Physio. 53280-532284.
Otoni WC, Picoli EA, Costa MG, Nogueira FT, Zerbini
FM 2003. Transgenic tomato; in Plant genetic engineering.
(5 Edn) R P Singh and P K Jaiwal Houston: Sci-Tech. Pub.
Co 41–131 pp.
Shahriari F, Hashemi H and Hosseini H 2006. Factors
influencing regeneration and genetic transformation of three
elite cultivars of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill).
Pak. J. of Bio.l Sci. 9: 2729-33.
Rhodora RA and Thomas KH 1996. Agrobacterium
tumefaciens mediated transformation of Japonica and Indica
rice varieties. Planta 199: 612-617.
Rashid H, Yoki S, Toriyama K and Hinata K 1996
Transgenic plant production mediated by Agrobacterium in
Indica rice. Pl. Cell Rep. 15: 727-730.
Wei L, Guangqin G and Guo CZ 2000. Agrobacteriummediated transformation: State of the art and future
prospect. Chinese Sci. Bull. 45, 1537-1546.
James D, Uratsu S, Cheng J, Negri P, Viss P and
Dandekar A 1993. Acetosyringone and osmoprotectants
like betaine or proline synergically enhance Agrobacterium
mediated transformation of apple. Pl. Cell Rep. 12: 559-563.
Hansen G, Shillito RD and Chilton MD 1997. T-strand
integration in maize protoplasts after codelivery of a T-DNA
substarte and virulence genes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA.
94: 117-126.
Moghaieb R, Saneoka H and Fujita K 2004. Shoot
regeneration from Gus- transformed tomato (Lycopersicon
esculentum) hairy root. Cell Mol. Bio Letter 9: 439-449.
Mandokar AD, Goyal RK, Shukla A, Bisaria S, Bhalla
R, Reddy VS, Chaurasia, Sharma RP, Altossar I and
Kumar A 2000. Transgenic tomato plants resistant to fuit
borer expressing (Helicoverpa armigera). Crop Prot. 19:
307-312.
Raj K, Singh R, Pandey S and Singh B 2005.
Agrobacterium mediated tomato transformation and
regeneration of transgenic lines expressing tomato leaf curl
virus coat protein gene for resistance against TLCV
infection. Curr. Sci. 88: 1674-1679.
Kumar H and Kumar V 2004. Tomato expressing Cry1Ab
insecticidial protein from Bacillus thuringiensis protected
against tomato fruit borer Helicoverpa armigera damage in
the laboratory, greenhouse and field. Crop Prot. 19: 307-12.
Weir B, Wang X, Upadhyaya N, Elliot A and Brettell R
2001. Agrobacterium tumefaciens transformation of wheat
using suspension cells as a model system and green
fluorescent protein as a visual marker. Australian J. of Pl.
Physio. 28: 807-818.
Jefferson RA 1989. The GUS reporter gene system. Nature
342: 837-838.
Gupta N 2000. Agrobacterium mediated gene transfer
studies in tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum. Mill) M.Sc
Dissertation Dr. Y S Parmar Horticulture University Solan
Himachal Pradesh, India.
Guivarch A, J Caissard, S. Brown, D. Marie, W.
Dewitte, H. Vanonckelen and D. Chriqui. 1993
Localization of target cells and improvement of
Agrobacterium mediated transformation efficiency by direct
acetosyringone pretreatment of carrot root disks.
Protoplasma.174: 10-18.
Roy R, Purty R, Agrawal V and Gupta S 2006.
Transformation of tomato cultivar ‘Pusa Ruby’with bspA
gene from Populus tremula for drought tolerance. Pl Cell
Tiss. Organ Cult. 84: 55-67.
Roy, R., R. Purty, V. Agrawal and S. Gupta. 2006.
Transformation of tomato cultivar ‘Pusa Ruby’with bspA
gene from Populus tremula for drought tolerance. Pl. Cell.
Tiss. Org. Cult. 84:55-67
Wu Y, Chen Y, Liang X and Wang X 2006. An
experimental assessment of the factors influencing
8
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.2, No. 2: Oct. 2011
Extension Services: Constraints faced by NGO and Farmers
1
GHADEI,K , 2PUSPENDRA KUMAR AND 3DINESH KUMAR SINGH
1
Asst Professor, 2&3 Research scholars, Department of extension education,
I. Ag. Sciences, BHU,Varanasi-221005
Email: kghadei@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
In this era of Private Extension many CBOs, NGOs and private bodies are devoted in extension services as a
complimentary to the public extension system. Ramakrishna Mission which was created by Swami Vivekananda has
also been emerged as a big NGO in world wide. Some Ashrams being influenced by the ideology of Ramakrishna
Mission are also carrying out Extension Services. This paper is based on the appraisal study of Ramakrishna Ashram.
Kalahandi. The aim of the paper is to study the constraints of NGO and of the farmers in providing and getting
extension services in Kalahandi, the backward district of India.
Key words: Group, constraints, Non-Government Organisation, agriculture sector.
The motto that Ramakrishna movement follows is that
Swami Vivekananda put before them, "Atmano
mokshartham jagaddhitaya cha" – means doing well to the
world with a spirit of worship and thus paving paths for
one's own salvation. The activities of Ramakrishna Mission
are quite established and recognized for which the Govt. of
India conferred Gandhi Peace Award in the year 1998 to
Ramakrishna Mission because of its yeoman service to
mankind Shree Ramakrishna Ashrama, M. Ramapur,
Kalahandi is set up by Swami Vairagyananda one of the
dedicated Monks of Ramakrishna Mission discipline with its
sole objectives of rendering services to the society,
irrespective of caste, creed and religion in Kalahandi District
of Orissa, being the most backward district in India which
suffered from frequent droughts, illiteracy, malnutrition,
large scale migration and low socio economic condition.
The Ramakrishna Ashram is a single NGO in Orissa, which
is actively engaged in agriculture sector. In spite of the
activities, it has some constraints for doing the extension
service. The constraints of the NGO has been discussed in
five heads namely infrastructure & financial constraints,
personal constraints, GO-NGO relations, management
constraints & social constraints Infrastructure & financial
constraints
Table 1 Infrastructure & financial constraints
Statements
Mean Rank
Score
Absence of marketing network for farm 1.46
I
produce
Lack of mobility
1.06
III
Lack of research & demonstration facility in 0.73
IV
terms of building & farm.
Financial constraints
1.40
II
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was conducted using “Ex-post facto research
design”. The district Kalahandi of Orissa state was selected
purposively for the present study because of the following
reasons. Kalahandi is the most backward and the poorest
district of Orissa and very often suffered from drought and
starvation. A number of 12 villages were selected randomly
from 23 villages where the Ashram is offering maximum
services to the people for experimental group. Same number
of villages was selected randomly for control group. A list
of all the 110 farmers from the above selected 12 villages
who have received training from the NGO was procured for
experimental group. Same number of respondents of control
group was selected and thus the total respondents were 220
for the purpose of the study. Suitable interview schedule
was prepared and pre-tested prior to active data collection.
In addition to structured interview the study also attempted
to generalize the findings from observations, office reports
and interviews from office bearer and field staff of the
organization under study.
While analysing the table it was found that in infrastructure
& financial constraints, the NGO staff have prioritised the
problem of marketing of farm produce as the first problem
before the NGO. In this case we can see the mean score 1.46
& rank I. Next to marketing financial problem also found in
rank II. Lack of mobility &lack of research & demonstration
farms are placed in rank III and IV respectively.
Personnel Constraints
Table 2
Personnel Constraints
Statements
Mean Rank
Score
Lack of experienced expert
1.3
I
In sufficient knowledge about local condition
1.27
II
Insensitive to tribal culture & their feeling
0.40 VIII
Lack of knowledge in preparation & supervision of
0.53
VII
projects
Lack of management skill
0.60
VI
Lack of discipline
1.00
III
Limited scope for updating knowledge
0.73
V
Lack of compatibility between extension staff &
0.87
IV
farmers
The data was collected from 30 NGO staff of the
Ramakrishna Ashram. The study was made assigning
3,2,1,0 respectively to the problems they perceived in the
scale of very much, much, not so much, not at all. The
problem or constraints were ranked on the basis of mean
score.
While examining the table 5.51 it was found that the
personnel problems, the lack of experienced expert &
insufficient knowledge about the local condition were
9
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.2, No. 2: Oct. 2011
ranked as I & II respectively. The problems listed in the
table are not so important as perceived by the NGO staff
them selves.
NGO staff. Regarding record keeping & management board
for the Ashram is not so much important for the Ashram &
that is why both the items placed in rank II & III
respectively.
GO-NGO Coordination
Social Problems
Table 3 GO-NGO Coordination constraints
Table 5
Statements
Mean Score Rank
Poor perception about NGO
0.93
II
Unfavourable attitude of Govt.
1.27
I
officials
Lack of coordination among local
1.27
I
NGOs
Statements
While examining the table it was revealed that the NGO
staffs have expressed their concern for unfavourable attitude
of Govt. officials & lack of coordination among the local
NGO for which rank I was assigned to those problems..
Poor perception about NGO came in 2nd rank.
Table 4 Management constraints
Lack of visionary management body.
Poor record keeping
Non visit of farmers to NGO
Mean
Score
Rank
Wide consumption of local liquors
0.80
II
Local political influence
0.87
I
It is evident from the table that the score in both cases are
close to each other or slightly variation in case of item no .2.
The local political influence puts more problem for extension
work for which it secured rank I and II given to item no. I,
regarding wide consumption of liquors hinders in the extension
work.
Management constraints
Statements
Social constraints
Table 6
Mean
Rank
Score
0.60
III
0.73
II
10.07
I
Summary Table of Constraints
Constraints
Mean
Score
Infrastructure & finance
Personnel
GO-NGO coordination
Management
Social
Rank
1.16
0.84
1.16
0.80
0.84
I
II
I
III
II
Looking at the above table it is very clear that non-visit of
the farmers to Ashram is a problem, which was faced by the
1.4
1.2
Mean Score
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Infrastructure &
finance
Personnel
GO-NGO
coordination
Management
Social
Constraints of NGO
Fig. 1
Looking at the summery table of constraints it is evident that
the constraints related to infrastructure with finance and
GO-NGO relationship ranked one (I) combinedly. The
personal & social problems were put in rank II putting less
importance on management constraints. It was also found from
the discussion with NGO staff, that they do not have any
management problem associated with the Ashram.
Based on the research founding & experience gained in the
field the following suggestions are made;
The planned training programme as implemented through
Ramakrishna Ashram may be extended to all those farmers
who have not yet been reached.
The training should accompany the development of other
socio-personnel factors like education, material possession,
social participation & communication behaviour.
Suggestions
10
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.2, No. 2: Oct. 2011
Need based programmes with people’s participation should
be encouraged.
As evident from study the tribal women has been a part of
the extension service. So their training & development
should equally be emphasized.
The services of reputed and disciplined NGOs like
Ramakrishna Ashram may be extended to other regions for
the benefit of poor farmers.
Wider bottleneck of region like lack or proper infrastructure,
irrigation, market facility should be gradually removed so
that the farmers may be benefited.
The farmers should get proper input at right time on
seasonal basis as pointed out by the farmers.
There should be proper forum & supervision by NGO to
increase the elective use of extension service.
REFERENCE
Chakravorty, S., Mandal, B., Das, C., Satish. S. 1993.
Ramakrishna Mission: Research extension training in
Farming System context. Non governmental organization
and the state in Asia,
unpublished Ph.D. thesis Submitted to Department of
Extension Education, I.Ag, Sciences, BHU, Vara
Jasu, A. K 2000. Extension approaches strength &
weakness of private expansion services, National Seminar
on Private Extension management Organised by MANAGE,
Hyderabad-pp3.
Ghosh P. Pandey, K.N. 2001. Role of NGOs in transfer of
Technology: an Appaisal of Dibyayan KVK, Ranchi, An
11
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.2, No. 2: Oct. 2011
Evaluation of different transfer of technology of KVKs by using the developed instrument
1
A.S.SHEIKH, 2D.S.BHATI AND 3WASEEM SHEIKH
Asso. Professor and Head of the Department, 2Assistant Professor, KVK Sriganganagar and 3SRF, SDAU,SK Nagar
Department of Veterinary and Animal Husbandry Extension, Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University
Sardarkrushinagar-385 506
Email:
1
ABSTRACT
The present study was conducted on three KVKs which were working under different host institutions in Rajasthan
viz., KVK Udaipur under NGO, KVK, Jodhpur under ICAR and KVK, Banswara under SAU. These KVKs were
selected purposively. Total 45 contact farmers were selected by randomly (15 from each KVK). The effectiveness of
KVKs in regard to transfer of technology was measured by developed scientific instrument. This instrument consisted
of five major activities viz., Agronomical, Horticultural, Animal Husbandry and allied field, Agricultural Engineering
and Home Science. There were three major techniques in KVKs viz., training, demonstration and advisory services for
transferring knowledge and skill to the farmers. The important summarized findings of training on transfer of
technology of five major activities. On agronomical aspects maximum training was organized on “Methods of using
insecticides and pesticides” (KVK Udaipur), “Seed treatment” (KVK Jodhpur and Banswara). Similarly on
Horticultural aspects maximum training was organized on “Nursery raising and transplanting” (KVK Udaipur and
Jodhpur), “Vegetable cultivation” (KVK, Banswara). On Animal Husbandry and allied field maximum training was
organized on “Increasing milk production” (KVK Udaipur and Jodhpur), “Cross breeding” (KVK, Banswara).All
KVKs organized training on “Smokeless Chula” in Agricultural Engineering and in Home Science maximum training
was organized on “Tailoring” ( KVK Udaipur) and “Cleanness of Home” (KVK, Jodhpur and Banswara) .
Overall results regarding transfer of technology bring to the fore that trainings were conducted frequently on
‘Agronomy’ followed by ‘Home Science,’ ‘Horticulture,’ ‘Animal Husbandry and allied field’ and ‘Agricultural
Engineering’ in descending order.
Key words: Krishi Vigyan Kendra, transfer of technology
The KVK is being meticulously developed as a practical
centre for rural training. The major purpose of evaluation is
to assist in programmed decision. Formal evaluation is
worth doing only, if they have a chance of affecting such
decision.
An additional consideration is the significance of the need.
A major extension effort involving large numbers of farmers
and substantial resources will be (with other things being
equal) more significant than smaller programmed centered
around a new farmer. Significance can also be gauged by
looking at the issues with which the evaluation is concerned
and assessing the likely impact of the evaluation on the
resolution of these issues. Thus, looking to huge budgetary
expenditure and the deployment of large numbers of
agriculture extension staff in the KVKs, it is essential that
the impact and extension approach must be critically
evaluated time to time and discrepancies be removed
.Productivity and accountability of extension can be greatly
advanced through evaluation of it programmed. The
effectiveness of programmes of KVKs should be evaluated
by standardized scale. In view of these facts, the present
study was conducted with the objective of evaluation of
different transfer of technology of KVKs of Rajasthan by
using the developed instrument. Thus, it is needless to highlight the importance of KVK in quick and regular transfer of
technology among the farmers.
METARIALS AND METHOD
The present study was conducted on three KVKs, which
were working under different host institution in Rajasthan
viz., KVK, Udaipur under NGOs, KVK, Jodhpur under
ICAR institutes (CAZRI) and KVK, Banswara under
Rajasthan Agricultural University. These KVKs were
established during the year 1983-1984. These KVKs
selected purposively because they together yield as nearly as
possible the same yield or proportion as the totality with
respect to those characteristics, which are already a matter of
statistical knowledge. Thus, for the study purpose Western
and Southern region of Rajasthan were under taken.
Keeping in view the high concentration of extension work
performed by selected KVKs in this zone.
Checklist of all the activities which could be carried under
the programmes was prepared with the help of literature and
discussion held with the experts. A final scale was
developed for measuring the effectiveness of KVK on
scientific line for this purpose. Fifteen contact farmers from
each KVK were selected randomly. Thus, a sample of 45
contact farmers was drawn for the study purpose. An
interview schedule was constructed for study purpose
keeping in view the objective of the study.
The
scale was pre tested before administrating into actual
respondents. Personal interview method was adopted by the
investigator to record the responses. Data so collected were
tabulated and analyzed in light of the objective .The mean
score of each item was calculated by multiplying the
responses to the weight given to each items/statement and
12
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.2, No. 2: Oct. 2011
then by dividing it with the total number of respondents.
Interferences were drawn after subjecting the data in
statistical analysis.
Demonstration and Advisory services for transferring
knowledge and skill to the farmers.
The important findings of trainings on five major heads have
been given in Table 1.
Organizing training is the main objective of the KVK. A
KVK can be said effective if it is organising trainings
frequently on different aspects of related to agriculture.
Table 1 expresses the frequency of trainings organized by
different KVKs as per views of the respondents.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Instrument consisted of five major activities viz.,
Agronomical, Horticultural, Animal husbandry and allied
fields, Agricultural Engineering and Home Science. There
were three major techniques in KVKs viz., Training,
Table 1: Frequency of training organized by KVKs as perceived by farmers
Sr.
No.
1.
[I]
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
[II]
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Activity / Item
Month Six
month
3.
4.
KVK, Udaipur
Training once in a
Year Never M.S.
2.
5.
AGRONOMY :
(a) Soil
Soil testing
10
Soil reclamation
(b) Soil conservation
Land conservation
11
4
Land leveling
5
10
Graded bunding
Development of
shelter belts
Bench terracing
2
13
Soil survey & mapping
(c) Seed
Seed treatment
4
11
Use of seed culture
2
13
Storage of imp. Seed
2
10
3
(d) Fertilizer
Method of fertilizer
7
8
application
Preparation of FYM &
6
9
compost
Green manuring
3
12
Soil fertility
3
12
management
( e) Crop production
Dryland farming
12
Improved practices for
3
12
irrigated area3
Improved practices of
3
12
un-irrigated area
( f) Plant protection
Control of rats
12
Handling of plant
6
9
protection equipment
Control of whitegrub
3
12
Methods of using
10
5
insecticide & pesticide
Control of katra
12
( g) Water
Water conservation
2
8
3
Irrigation & drainage
10
5
Average (I)
3
8
2
HORTICULTURE :
(a) Fruit, vegetable and flower production
Fruit production
10
5
technology of beer
Vegetable cultivation
15
Pruning & training
13
2
Plant prorogation
by cutting,
budding, grafting
etc.
Fruit production
technology of
pomegranate
Nursery raising &
transplanting
Planning & layout
of garden
Fruit production
technology of
Rank
Number of farmers under each response category
KVK, Jodhpur
KVK, Banswara
Training once in a
Training once in a
Month Six
Year Never M.S.
Rank Month Six
Year Never M.S.
month
month
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
Rank
6.
7.
8.
20.
5
15
0.67
0.00
21.0
23.5
-
1
4
10
2
4
9
0.80
0.67
10.5
13.0
-
-
-
15
15
0.00
0.00
20.5
20.5
15
1.73
1.33
0.00
14.0
19.0
23.5
-
9
-
3
4
-
3
11
15
1.40
0.27
0.00
4.0
19.0
23.0
-
-
-
15
15
15
0.00
0.00
0.00
20.5
20.5
20.5
15
0.00
23.5
-
-
9
6
0.60
14.5
-
-
-
15
0.00
20.5
15
1.13
0.00
20.0
23.5
-
-
-
15
15
0.00
0.00
23.0
23.0
-
2
13
15
-
0.00
1.13
20.5
15.0
-
2.27
2.13
1.93
6.0
7.0
13.0
-
14
10
10
-
1
5
5
1.87
1.33
1.33
1.0
1.5
1.5
-
15
15
13
2
-
2.00
2.00
1.87
9.5
9.5
13.5
-
2.47
3.0
-
4
11
-
1.27
7.0
5
10
-
-
2.33
4.5
-
2.40
4.5
-
-
6
9
0.40
17.5
3
12
-
-
2.20
6.0
-
2.20
10.0
-
-
-
15
0.00
23.0
-
-
-
15
0.00
20.5
-
2.20
10.0
-
3
5
7
0.73
12.0
-
15
-
-
2.00
9.5
3
1.60
17.3
-
-
13
2
0.87
9.0
-
15
-
-
2.00
9.5
-
2.20
10.0
-
-
3
12
0.20
20.0
8
7
-
-
2.53
2.0
-
2.20
10.0
-
-
15
-
1.00
8.0
-
15
-
-
2.00
9.5
3
1.60
17..3
-
3
6
6
0.80
10.5
-
13
2
-
1.87
13.5
-
2.40
4.5
-
11
4
-
1.73
2.0
10
3
-
2
2.40
3.0
-
2.20
10.0
-
2
3
10
0.47
16.0
-
-
-
15
0.00
20.5
-
2.67
1.5
-
10
5
-
1.67
3.0
10
5
-
-
2.67
1.0
3
1.60
17.3
-
-
-
15
0.00
23.0
-
-
-
15
0.00
20.5
2
3
1.67
2.67
1.70
15.0
1.5
0
3
9
6
5
6
9
7
0.60
0.40
0.70
14. 5
17. 5
5
2
15
10
7
1
6
2.00
2.33
1.33
9.5
4.5
-
1.67
10.0
12
-
3
-
2.60
3.0
-
-
15
-
1.00
10.0
-
2.20
1.87
3.5
6.5
-
10
-
5
15
-
1.67
1.00
6.5
12.0
15
-
10
5
-
3.00
1.67
1.5
5.0
-
-
15
-
1.00
13.5
-
12
3
-
1.80
5.0
-
10
5
-
1.67
5.0
-
-
13
2
0.87
15.0
11
4
-
-
2.73
2.0
-
-
10
5
0.67
13.0
10
5
-
-
2.67
1.5
14
1
-
-
2.93
1.0
10
5
-
-
2.67
3.0
10
5
-
-
2.67
1.5
-
-
15
-
1.00
12.0
-
-
8
7
0.53
14.0
-
13
2
-
1.87
6.5
4
-
11
-
1.53
8.0
-
-
5
10
0.33
15.0
13
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.2, No. 2: Oct. 2011
Sr.
No.
1.
Activity / Item
2.
Month Six
month
3.
4.
KVK, Udaipur
Training once in a
Year Never M.S.
5.
6.
7.
19.
20.
Aolna
Kitchen gardening
3
12
2.20
Fruit production
technology of
12
3
1.80
lemon
Seed production
15
0.00
technology
Flower cultivation
3
12
1.20
(b) Preservation and processing of fruit and vegetable
Fruit & vegetable
15
0.00
preservation
Food preservation
15
1.00
(c) Forestry
Farm forestry
13
2
1.87
Plantation of new
15
0.00
tree
Plantation of fodder
13
2
1.87
tree
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Energy plantation
10
3
2
1.53
Bee keeping
15
0.00
Average (II)
1
7
4
3
1.40
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND ALLIED FIELD :
(a) Breeding
Artificial
15
0.00
insemination
Cross breeding
12
3
1.80
Castration of scrub
15
1.00
animals
(b) Feeding
Preparation of feed
10
5
2.67
mixture
Fodder crop &
varieties
15
2.00
recommended for
Kharif & rabi
Preparation of
nutrition receipt for
15
2.00
balance nut.
Urea feeding to
15
2.00
animals
Silage making
15
0.00
(c) Animal production
Effective poultry
15
1.0
production
Sheep & goat
15
2.0
rearing
Preparation of
economic shelter
15
2.0
belts for animals
How to purchase &
15
2.0
select better animals
Shearing & grading
10
5
1.33
of wool
Rabbit rearing
15
0.00
Piggery
15
0.00
development
Seri-culture
15
0.00
Fisheries
15
0.00
Mushroom
15
0.00
cultivation
(d) Animal health
First aid of animals
15
2.00
Animal vaccination
15
2.00
21.
Animal hygiene
22.
(e) Milk production
Increasing milk
production
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
1.
18.
19.
[III]
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
Rank
8.
Number of farmers under each response category
KVK, Jodhpur
KVK, Banswara
Training once in a
Training once in a
Month Six
Year Never M.S.
Rank Month Six
Year Never M.S.
month
month
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
Rank
20.
3.5
10
-
2
3
2.13
4.0
15
-
-
-
3.00
1.5
9.0
-
-
-
15
0.00
17.5
-
10
5
-
1.67
5.0
17.5
-
-
-
15
0.00
17.5
-
-
10
5
1.00
10.0
12.0
-
-
-
15
0.00
17.5
-
5
10
-
1.33
7.0
17.5
-
-
15
-
1.00
12.0
-
-
-
15
0.00
17.5
13.5
-
10
5
-
1.67
6.5
-
-
-
15
0.00
17.5
6.5
-
-
15
-
1.00
12.0
-
-
15
-
1.00
10.0
17.5
-
-
15
-
1.00
12.0
-
-
15
-
1.00
10.0
6.5
-
-
15
-
1.00
12.0
-
-
15
-
1.00
10.0
8.
11.0
17.5
9.
3
10.
2
11.
15
7
12.
15
3
13.
1.00
0.00
1.42
14.
12.0
17.5
15.
2
16.
2
17.
6
18.
15
15
5
19.
0.00
0.00
1.15
20.
17.5
17.5
21.0
-
-
2
13
0.13
18.0
-
-
-
15
0.00
20.0
13.0
-
12
3
-
1.80
4.5
15
-
-
-
3.00
1.0
5.7
-
7
4
4
1.20
13.0
-
-
10
5
0.67
13.0
3.0
15
-
-
-
3.00
3.0
-
15
-
-
2.00
6.0
8.0
-
-
15
-
1.00
14.5
-
15
-
-
2.00
6.0
8.0
15
-
-
-
3.00
3.0
-
15
-
-
2.00
6.0
8.0
-
10
-
5
1.33
11.0
-
15
-
-
2.00
6.0
21.0
-
5
10
-
1.33
11.0
-
15
-
-
2.00
6.0
5.7
-
-
-
15
0.00
21.5
-
-
9
6
0.60
15.0
8.0
-
12
3
-
1.80
4.5
-
-
10
5
0.67
13.0
8.0
-
5
10
-
1.33
11.0
-
-
-
15
0.00
20.0
8.0
-
5
5
5
1.00
14.5
-
-
12
3
0.80
11.0
14.0
-
5
-
10
0.67
17.0
-
-
-
15
0.00
20.0
21.0
-
-
-
15
0.00
21.5
-
-
-
15
0.00
20.0
21.0
-
-
-
15
0.00
21.5
-
-
-
15
0.00
20.0
21.0
21.0
-
-
-
15
15
0.00
0.00
21.5
21.5
-
-
-
15
15
0.00
0.00
20.0
20.0
21.0
-
-
-
15
0.00
21.5
-
-
-
15
0.00
20.0
8.0
8.0
-
10
10
5
5
-
1.67
1.67
7.5
7.5
-
15
15
-
-
2.00
2.00
6.0
6.0
-
15
-
-
2.00
8.0
-
10
5
-
1.67
7.5
-
15
-
-
2.00
6.0
15
-
-
-
3.00
1.5
15
-
-
-
3.00
3.0
-
15
-
-
2.00
6.0
14
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.2, No. 2: Oct. 2011
Sr.
No.
1.
23.
24.
[IV]
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
[V]
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Activity / Item
2.
Month Six
month
3.
4.
KVK, Udaipur
Training once in a
Year Never M.S.
5.
Preparation of
15
byproducts of milk
Hygienic milking
15
production
2
7
2
Average (III)
AGRICULTURE ENGINEERING :
(a) Farm Implements
Repairing and
maintaining of
pump set, oil
10
engine, electric
motor, tractor etc.
Pump & irrigation
10
equipments
General repairs of
15
sprayer & dusters
Operation of land
9
leveling equipments
Farm power &
8
mechanization
Sprinkler, irrigation
15
engineering
Processing
equipments of
agriculture
production
Farm carpentry
(b) Home Equipment
Preparation &
working of smoke
15
less Chula
Working with solar
heater
Working with
12
Gobar gas plant
(c) Cottage industries of
Agriculture
Animal Husbandry
Forest
0
1
6
Average IV
HOME SCIENCE :
(a) Vocational Training
Knitting &
15
embroidery
Tailoring
15
Working with
charkha
Bag making from
jute
Flower making
from paper
(v) Home Science Project
Care to be taken at
the time of
12
3
pregnancy
Balance diet
12
3
First aid
6
Child & family
12
3
welfare
Better cooking with
10
5
local product
Cleanness of home
15
Community health
8
7
& cleanness
Vegetable
processing by
10
5
dehydration
Home decoration
5
10
Vegetable
-
Rank
6.
7.
8.
-
1.00
5.7
1.5
-
3.00
5
1.37
5
0.67
5
Number of farmers under each response category
KVK, Jodhpur
KVK, Banswara
Training once in a
Training once in a
Month Six
Year Never M.S.
Rank Month Six
Year Never M.S.
month
month
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
-
-
12
3
0.80
16.0
7.5
-
10
5
-
1.67
2
4
4
6
1.14
5.5
-
-
-
15
0.00
0.67
5.5
-
-
-
15
-
1.00
2.5
-
-
-
6
0.67
7.0
-
-
7
0.53
8.0
-
-
1.00
2.5
15
0.00
15
-
-
Rank
20.
-
15
0.00
20.0
13.0
-
10
-
5
0.67
1
6
2
7
1.01
8.5
-
-
9
6
0.60
7.0
0.00
8.5
-
12
-
3
1.60
4.0
15
0.00
8.5
-
-
10
5
0.67
6.0
-
15
0.00
8.5
-
-
12
3
0.80
5.0
-
-
15
0.00
8.5
-
10
5
-
1.67
2.5
-
-
-
15
0.00
8.5
-
-
-
15
0.00
11.0
11.5
-
-
-
15
0.00
8.5
-
10
5
-
1.67
2.5
0.00
11.5
-
-
-
15
0.00
8.5
-
-
-
15
0.00
11.0
-
2.0
1.0
-
-
15
-
1.00
1.0
10
5
-
-
2.33
1.0
15
0.00
11.5
-
-
-
15
0.00
8.5
-
-
-
15
0.00
11.0
3
0.80
4.0
-
-
-
15
0.00
8.5
-
-
-
15
0.00
11.0
15
15
15
8
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.52
11.5
11.5
11.5
0
0
1
15
15
15
15
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.07
8.5
8.5
8.5
1
3
3
15
15
15
9
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.67
11.0
11.0
11.0
-
1.00
10.0
-
10
-
5
1.33
8.0
-
10
5
-
1.67
9.0
-
3.00
1.5
-
-
10
5
0.67
11.5
-
15
-
-
2.00
7.5
15
0.00
13.5
-
-
-
15
0.00
14.0
-
-
-
15
0.00
12.5
15
0.00
13.5
-
-
-
15
0.00
14.0
-
-
-
15
0.00
12.5
15
0.00
13.5
-
-
10
5
0.67
11.5
-
-
-
15
0.00
12.5
-
2.80
4.0
12
-
3
-
2.60
3.5
15
-
-
-
3.00
3.5
9
2.80
0.40
4.0
11.0
12
-
3
3
12
-
2.60
1.20
3.5
9.0
15
-
-
-
15
3.00
0.00
3.5
12.5
-
2.80
4.0
-
10
5
-
1.67
6.5
15
-
-
-
3.00
3.5
-
2.67
6.0
15
-
-
-
3.00
1.5
15
-
-
-
3.00
3.5
-
3.00
1.5
15
-
-
-
3.00
1.5
15
-
-
-
3.00
3.5
-
2.53
7.0
-
1
14
-
1.07
10.0
15
-
-
-
3.00
3.5
-
1.67
8.0
2
12
1
-
2.07
5.0
-
15
-
-
2.00
7.5
15
1.33
0.00
9.0
13.5
-
10
-
5
-
15
1.67
0.00
6.5
14.0
-
-
-
15
15
0.00
0.00
12.5
12.5
15
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.2, No. 2: Oct. 2011
Sr.
No.
1.
Activity / Item
2.
processing by
canning
Average V
Month Six
month
3.
4.
6
2
KVK, Udaipur
Training once in a
Year Never M.S.
5.
6.
7.
2
5
1.60
Rank
8.
Number of farmers under each response category
KVK, Jodhpur
KVK, Banswara
Training once in a
Training once in a
Month Six
Year Never M.S.
Rank Month Six
Year Never M.S.
month
month
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
4
3
4
4
1.44
6
3
0
6
Rank
20.
1.58
However, training was not conducted at all those
activities whose mean score were zero and as such these
were ranked at the bottom place.
[v]
Home science activities
A careful study of the table bring to the fore that
‘Tailoring’ (3.00) as well as ‘cleanness of home’ (3.00) were
ranked top place. It signifies that trainings were conducted
more frequently on these two activities as compared to the
remaining other activities. ‘Care to be taken at the time of
pregnancy’ (2.80), ‘Balance diet’ (2.80), ‘Child and family
welfare’ (2.80) were combined ranked at second place
followed by ‘Better cooking with local products’ (2.67),
‘Community health and cleanness’ (2.53) and ‘Vegetable
processing by dehydration’ and so on.
However, trainings were not conducted at all on
‘Working with charkha,’ ‘Bag making from jute,’ ‘Flower
making from paper’ and ‘Vegetable processing by canning’
activities as per the opinion of all the respondents and as
such these were ranked at the bottom.
KVK, Jodhpur :
[i]
Agronomical activities
A close look to the mean score in table explains
that the trainings were conducted more frequently in ‘Seed
treatment’(1.87) which was ranked first followed by
‘Handling of plant protection equipment’(1.73), ‘Method of
using insecticides and pesticides’ (1.67)and so on.
However, the trainings were not conducted at all on
‘Graded bunding’, ‘Bench terracing’, ‘Soil survey and
mapping,’ ‘Green manuring’ and ‘Control of katra’ activities
and as such these were ranked at the last place.
[ii]
Horticultural activities
The training were conducted more frequently in
‘Nursery raising and transplanting’(2.93) which was given
top priority followed by ‘Fruit production technology of ber’
(2.60), ‘Kitchen gardening’(2.12) and so on.
However, the training were not conducted at all on
‘Fruit production technology of lemon’, ‘Seed production
technology’, ‘Flower cultivation’ and ‘Bee keeping’
activities and these were ranked at the last place.
[iii]
Animal husbandry and allied field activities
The training was conducted more frequently in
‘Preparation of feed mixture’ (3.00), ‘Preparation of
nutrition recipes for balance nutrition’ (3.00) as well as
increasing ‘Milk production’ (3.00). Since these three
activities were having highest same mean scores so these
were ranked combined at the top place. ‘Cross breeding’
(1.80) as well as ‘Sheep and goat rearing’ (1.80) were
ranked combined at the second place. ‘First aid of animals’
(1.67), ‘Animal vaccination’ (1.67) ‘Animal hygiene’ (1.67)
and ‘Hygiene milking production’ were ranked combined at
the third place.
KVK, Udaipur :
[i]
Agronomical activities
Looking to the mean score in Table 1 revealed that
in KVK, Udaipur amongst “Agronomical activities” – the
training were conducted frequently in ‘Methods of using
insecticide and pesticide’ (2.67) as well as ‘Irrigation and
drainage’ (2.67) and both the activities were ranked
combined at the top followed by ‘Method of fertilizer
application’ (2.47), ‘Preparation of FYM and Compost’
(2.40) and so on.
However, the training was not conducted at all on
‘Graded bunding,’ ‘Development of shelterbelts’ and ‘Soil
survey and mapping’ activities as per the opinion of all the
respondents and as such these were ranked at the bottom.
[ii]
Horticultural activities
Training were conducted more frequently in
‘Nursery raising and transplanting’ (2.67) as well as
‘Planning and layout of garden’ (2.67) and as such these
were combined ranked first place. ‘Vegetable cultivation’
(2.20) as well as ‘Kitchen gardening’ (2.20) were considered
equally important and were ranked second.
‘Pruning and Training’ (1.87), ‘Fruit production
technology of Aonla’ (1.87), ‘Farm forestry’ (1.87) and
‘Plantation of fodder tree’ (1.87). These four activities were
ranked combined at the third place followed by ‘Fruit
production technology of lemon’ (1.80); ‘Fruit, vegetable
and flower production’ (1.67) and so on.
However, training were not held on ‘Seed
production technology,’ ‘Fruit and vegetable preservation,’
‘Plantation of new tree,’ ‘Beekeeping’ activities as per the
opinion of the respondents and as such these were ranked at
the bottom.
[iii]
Animal husbandry and allied field activities
‘Increasing milk production’ (3.0) and ‘Hygienic
milking production’ (3.0) were ranked at the top places
followed by ‘Preparation of feed mixture’, ‘Fodder crop and
varieties recommended for rabi & kharif’ and ‘Sheep and
goat rearing.’
However, the trainings were not conducted on
‘Artificial insemination’,’ Rabbit rearing,’ ‘Piggery
development,’ ‘Sericulture,’ ‘Fisheries’ and ‘Mushroom
cultivation’ and as such these were ranked at the bottom.
[iv]
Agricultural engineering activities
Training were conducted more frequently in
‘Preparation and working of smokeless Chula’ (2.0) and it
was ranked first. ‘General repairs of sprayers and dusters’
(1.00) were considered equally important and combined
ranked second.
The third ranked was awarded to
working with Gobar gas plant.
16
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.2, No. 2: Oct. 2011
However, the trainings were not conducted at all on
those activities which having zero mean scores and ranked
at the bottom.
[iv]
Agricultural engineering activities
Trainings were conducted only on ‘Preparation and
working of smokeless Chula’ (1.00). It was interesting to
note that the trainings were not held on remaining activities.
[v]
Home science activities
The trainings were conducted more frequently in
‘Better cooking with local products’ (3.00) as well as
‘Cleanness of home’ (3.00). Since both the activities were
ranked combined at the top. ‘Care to be taken at the time of
pregnancy’((2.60) and ‘Balance diet’(2.60) were considered
as equally important and as such these were ranked at
second place followed by ‘Vegetable processing by
dehydration’ (2.07), ‘Child and family welfare’ (1.67) and
so on.
However, trainings were not conducted at all on
‘Working with charkha,’ ‘Bag making from jute’ and
‘Vegetable processing by canning.’ Thus, these were ranked
at the bottom.
KVK, Banswara :
[i]
Agronomical activities
Mean scores in Table 1 revealed that in KVK,
Banaswara trainings were conducted frequently in ‘Methods
of using insecticides and pesticides’ (2.67) hence, it was
ranked first followed by ‘Improved practices of irrigated
area’ (2.53), ‘Handling of plant protection equipment’ (2.40)
and so on.
However, trainings were not conducted at all on
‘Soil testing,’
‘Soil reclamation,’ ‘Land
conservation,’ ‘Land leveling,’ ‘Development of shelter
belts,’ ‘Bench terracing,’ ‘Green manuring,’ ‘Control of
whitegrub’ and ‘Control of katra’ activities and as such
these were ranked at the bottom.
[ii]
Horticultural activities
Trainings were conducted frequently in ‘Vegetable
cultivation’ (3.00) as well as ‘kitchen gardening’
(3.00).Since both the activities were ranked combined at the
top. ‘Nursery raising and transplanting’ (2.67) was ranked at
the second place. ‘Pruning and training’ (1.67), ‘Propagation
by cutting, budding and grafting’ etc. (1.67), ‘Fruit
production technology of lemon’ (1.67) were having same
mean score and as such these were ranked combined at the
third place.
However, trainings were not conducted at all on
‘Fruit and vegetable preservation’, ‘Food preservation’,
‘Energy plantation’ and ‘Bee keeping’ activities as per the
opinion of respondent and as such these were ranked at the
bottom.
[iii]
Animal husbandry and allied field activities
All the respondents reported that trainings were
conducted monthly on
‘Cross breeding’ (3.00) of
animals. This activity was ranked first, ‘Preparation of feed
mixture’ (2.00), ‘Fodder crop and varieties recommended
for rabi and kharif’ (2.00), ‘Urea feeding to animals’ (2.00),
‘Silage making’ (2.00), ‘First aid of animals’ (2.00),
‘Animal vaccination’ (2.00), ‘Animal hygiene’ (2.00),
‘Increasing milk production’ (2.00) were having equal mean
score and as such these were ranked combined at the second
place.
Further, it may also be noted that many activities
were having zero mean score which have the indicative of
the fact that trainings were never conducted on these
aspects.
[iv]
Agricultural engineering activities
‘Preparation and working on smokeless Chula’ was
having the highest mean score (2.33). It means trainings
were conducted frequently on this aspect. ‘Farm power and
machinery’ (1.67) as well as ‘Processing equipment of
agricultural production’ (1.67) were ranked combined at
second place followed by ‘Pump and irrigation equipments’
(0.80), ‘General repairs of sprayers and dusters’ (0.67) and
‘Repairing and maintenance of pumpset and oil engine’
(0.60).
About remaining aspects the respondents viewed
that the trainings were never conducted.
[v]
Home science activities
The trainings were conducted frequently on ‘Care
to be taken at the time of pregnancy’ (3.00), ‘Balance diet’
(3.00), ‘Child and family welfare’ (3.00), ‘Better cooking
with local products’ (3.00), ‘Cleanness of home’ (3.00) and
‘Community health and cleanness’ (3.00). Since all these
activities were ranked combined at the top place. ‘Tailoring’
(2.00) as well as ‘Vegetable processing by dehydration’
(2.00) were considered equal in getting training by the
respondents and as such these were ranked combined at
second place, whereas, ‘Knitting and embroidery’ (1.67)
was ranked at third place.
However, trainings were never conducted on
‘Working with charkha,’
‘Bag making from jute,’
‘Flower making from paper; ‘First-aid,’ ‘Home decoration’
and ‘Vegetable processing by canning’ as per the opinion of
all the respondents and as such these were ranked at last
place.
17
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.2, No. 2: Oct. 2011
OVERALL SUBJECTWISE FREQUENCY OF TRAININGS ORGANISED BY KVK AS PERCEIVED BY
FARMERS
Table 2 : Analysis of overall subject wise frequency of trainings organized by KVKs as perceived by farmers
Activity /
Item
2.
Agronomy
Horticulture
Animal
Husbandry
and allied
fields
Agriculture
Engineering
Home
science
Number of farmers under each response category
KVK, Jodhpur
Training once in a
KVK, Udaipur
Training once in a
15
days
Month
Six
month
Year
Never
3.
8
5
4.
3
1
5.
8
7
6.
2
4
4
2
7
0
0
7
6
KVK, Banswara
Training once in a
M.S.
Rank
15
days
Month
Six
month
Year
Never
M.S.
Rank
15
days
Month
Six
month
Year
Never
M.S.
Rank
7.
3
3
8.
1.70
1.40
9.
I
III
10.
0
5
11.
0
3
12.
3
2
13.
5
7
14.
7
3
15.
0.70
1.42
16.
IV
II
17.
2
2
18.
2
2
19.
7
2
20.
1
6
21.
6
5
22.
1.33
1.15
23.
II
III
2
5
1.37
IV
6
2
4
4
6
1.14
III
1
1
6
2
7
1.01
IV
1
6
8
0.52
V
0
0
0
1
15
0.07
V
0
1
3
3
9
0.67
V
2
2
5
1.60
II
4
4
3
4
4
1.44
I
3
6
3
0
6
1.58
I
and ‘Agronomical’ activities (0.70) and ‘Agricultural
engineering activities was placed at the bottom.
It may be deduced from above analysis that the trainings
were conducted frequently in ‘Home science’ activities
while, the trainings were conducted less frequently in
‘Agricultural engineering’ activities.
KVK, Banswara :
A close look to the pooled mean score in Table 2. It
was revealed that amongst five major subjects the trainings
were conducted more frequently in ‘Home Science’
activities (1.58) which was given top priority followed by
‘Agronomy’ (1.33), ‘Horticulture’ (1.51), ‘Animal
husbandry and allied fields’ (1.01) and ‘Agricultural
engineering’ activities (0.67).
From the above findings, it may be concluded that
the trainings were conducted more frequently on ‘Home
science’ activities while, the trainings were conducted less
frequently in ‘Agricultural Engineering’ activities.
Data in Table 2 reflects the overall subject-wise frequency
of training organized by KVKs as perceived by farmers.
KVK, Udaipur :
Looking to the pooled mean score, it was revealed
that the ‘Agronomy’ (1.70) was given top priority amongst
five subjects. The next in the order was ‘Home science’
(1.60) followed by ‘Horticulture’ (1.40), ‘Animal husbandry
and allied fields’ (1.37) and ‘Agricultural engineering’
(0.52).
The interference can be drawn that the farmers got
trainings more frequently on agronomical activities as
compared to rest of the four major activities.
KVK, Jodhpur :
An examination of data in Table 2 explains that
training about the ‘Home science’ (1.44) was given top
priority and was ranked first. The second place was given to
‘Horticulture’ activities (1.42). The third and fourth ranks
were given in ‘Animal husbandry and allied fields’ (1.14)
REFERENCES
Dash, A.K. and Mishra, M. 2004. “Krishi Vigyan Kendras,
The Light House for Rural People” Orissa Review. : pp. 5256.
Vijapur in Gujarat State. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, Gujarat
Agricultural University, Anand.
Mishra, A.S. and Bhatt, P.N. 1988. Evaluation of officer
training in soil and water conservation. Indian J.Ext.Edu. 24
(3&4) : 71-74.
Dwivedi, S.N. 1985. Possibilities of increased income
through training of farm
women, farm youth and school
dropout at KVKs held at Conoor, Tamil Nadu, Oct.6-8,
ICAR, New Delhi. : pp. 12-13.
Patel, A.R. 1991. Evaluation of an institutional training
programme conducted by KVK Deesa in Banaskantha
District of Gujarat State. M.S. (Agri.) Thesis, Gujarat
Agricultural
University,
Sardarkrushinagar
Joshi, G.G. 1979. An evaluation of the institutional training
programme conducted
by the farmers training centre,
18
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.2, No. 2: Oct. 2011
Studies on Intrauterine Development Index of Surti Buffalo
1
O. P. PATHODIYA, 2B.S. KHADDA AND 3S. P. TAILOR
1
Head, Department of Animal Production, 2SMS (Animal Science) and 3Assoc. Prof. Animal Production
Department of Animal Production, Rajasthan College of Agriculture, MPUA&T, Udaipur (Rajasthan.)
ABSTRACT
Data pertaining to 1091 lactation records of Surti buffaloes sired by 43 bulls were used for the present study. The effect
of period of calving and sire were found significant on intrauterine development index (IUDI) while season of calving
and parity was non-significant. The heritability estimates for IUDI was 0.157±0.06. The genetic and phenotypic
association of IUDI with production traits were positive and low to moderate the phenotypic correlation among IUDI
and MY/LL was positive and non-significant while genetic correlation of there traits was high and positive. The
environmental correlations of IUDI with production and efficiency traits were low and negative.
Key words: - Surti Buffaloes, Intrauterine development index, Production and efficiency traits, Prenatal growth, Gestation
period, Birth weight.
Intrauterine development index (IUDI) is one of economic
traits of dairy animals which measure the prenatal growth
rate during the gestation period and it is defined as the ratio
of birth weight of calf and the gestation period of its dam.
Gestation length, birth weight and IUDI are the trait, which
are expressed immediately after the birth of offspring and
can be used as an aid for selection of animals as related to
their economic performance. So far, most of the research
work has been conducted either on production and
reproduction traits of buffalo but less emphasis was given on
the intrauterine development index therefore, attempt was
made to study the effect of various genetic and non genetic
factors and also to estimate genetic and phenotypic
parameters of intrauterine development index with overall
production and efficiency traits.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The least square mean for IUDI in Surti buffalo was
observed 80.14±1.01 gm/day. The values were lower than
that reported by Sarma and Rao (1988) in Murrah buffaloes.
The effect of period of calving and sires was found to be
significant on IUDI.
However, the effect of season of
calving and parity were found non-significant. Sarma and
Rao (1988) also reported significant effect of sires on IUDI
in Murrah buffalo. The IUDI was higher during V and VI
period; hence fifth and six periods would be classified as
ideal for production performance (table 1).
Table 1 Least squares means and standard errors for
Intrauterine Development Index
Effects
METERIALS AND METHOD
A total 1091 lactation records of Surti buffaloes Sired by 43
bulls, maintained at Net-Work project on buffaloes,
Livestock Research Station, Vallabhnagar were used for
present study. Intrauterine development index (IUDI) =
Birth weight (gms)/gestation period (days) was calculated as
per Sarma and Rao 1988. The LSMLMW Pc-2 version
package designed by Harvey (1990) was used for estimating
the effects of genetic and non-genetic factors. Eighteen
years were grouped into 6 periods. Further each year was
subdivided into three seasons. The production and efficiency
traits considered for the present study were lactation milk
yield (LMY), 305 day's lactation milk yield (305 LMY),
lactation length (LL), peak yield (PY), milk yield per day
lactation length (MY/LL) and milk yield per day calving
interval (MY/CI). The animals were kept under optimum
feeding and managemental conditions. Heritability and
genetic correlation's were estimated by paternal half sib
(PHS) correlation method, while the standard error were
computed after by Swiger et al (1964) and Robertson (1959)
respectively. The phenotypic correlations were calculated by
using standard statistical procedure (Snedecor and Cochran
1968). The residual variances and covariance were used for
estimating environmental correlations.
Overall
Period
I
(1977-79)
II
(1980-82)
III
(1983-85)
IV
(1986-88)
V
(1989-91)
VI
(1992-94)
Season
Summer
(March- June)
Rainy
(July-Oct.)
Winter
(Nov. - Feb.)
Parity
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
19
No. of
observation
1091
IUDI
(gm/day)
80.14±1.01
69
177
220
264
263
98
77.40±2.60abc
74.51±1.81a
76.20±1.38ab
81.01±1.35b
84.84±1.77e
86.86±2.61e
158
80.08±1.45a
599
334
81.24±1.05a
79.09±1.15a
372
254
166
105
76
118
79.21±1.40a
78.77±1.33a
81.12±1.40a
81.77±1.62a
80.75±1.87a
79.20±1.89a
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.2, No. 2: Oct. 2011
Means with different superscripts differs significantly at 5%
level of significance
The results obtained indicated that changes in climate
condition, human factors and management factors from
period to period might cause such variation.
The heritability estimates for IUDI was found to be
0.157±0.066 in Surti buffalo. Contrary, Sarma and Rao
(1988) estimated high heritability (0.5±0.004) for IUDI in
Murrah buffaloes. The results indicating that the additive
genetic variability for IUDI was low and this could be due to
the fact that the sire used were either almost equal in their
genetic potential or small in number and there was
considerable amount of environmental differences which
could not be accounted in the analysis.
The phenotypic correlation of MY/CI with IUDI was
positive and significant, while it was positive and nonsignificant between IUDI and MY/LL. Genetic correlation
between IUDI and MY/LL was high and positive (table 2).
The results indicated that selection for higher IUDI, which is
measured at time of calving, would improve overall Milk
Yield per day of lactation length.
Table 2 Genetic and phenotypic correlations of production and
efficiency traits with intrauterine development index
Parameters
LMY
305 LMY
LL
PY
MY/LL
MY/CI
Genetic
0.668±0.308
0.543±0.266
0.567±0.335
0.375±0.535
0.490±0.370
0.268±0.278
Phenotypic
0.018±0.030
0.061±0.030
-0.004±0.030
0.073±0.030+
0.044±0.030
0.063±0.030+
The phenotypic association of IUDI with LMY,
305 LMY and PY were positive and low while negative and
low phenotypic associate was observed with LL. Sarma and
Rao (1988) also observed positive correlation of IUDI with
LMY. The genetic correlation of IUDI with production traits
were also positive and moderate to high indicating that
selection for higher IUDI would increase milk yield per day
of overall lactation length and calving interval. The
environmental correlations of IUDI with overall production
and efficiency traits were found low and negative except
with peak yield (0.050). The present study indicates that
IUDI can be used as for preliminary selection criteria to
select animals at an early stage or just after the birth of
offspring. Study also shows that selection for higher IUDI
would improve overall milk production of Surti buffaloes.
REFERENCE
Harvey WR. 1990. User's Guide for LSMLMW PC-2
Version
Mixed Model Least Squares and Maximum
Likelihood Computer Program. Ohio
Univ. Columbus,
U.S.A.
Buffaloes. A Note Paper Presented in II World
Buffalo
Congress Held at New Delhi between 12-16 Dec.1988, 3:
38-39.
Snedecor C W and Cocharn
Methods. The IOWA
Robertson A. 1959. The Sampling Variance of the
Genetic Correlation
W C. 1968. Statistical
State University Amesa, IOWA , U.S.A.
Coefficient. Biometrics, 15: 460-485.
Swiger L A, Harvey W R, Everson D O and Gregery K
E. 1964. The Variance of Interclass Correlation Involving
Groups with One Observation. Biometrics, 20: 818-826.
Sarma S S and Rao A V N. 1988.
Intrauterine
Development
Index
and Related Traits in Murrah
20
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.2, No. 2: Oct. 2011
Role Performance of Tribal Farmwomen in Domestic and Agricultural activities in Gujarat State
NIKULSINH M. CHAUHAN
Programme Coordinator, KVK, RRRS, NAU, Vyara, Gujarat, India.
Email: nikulsinh_m@yahoo.in
ABSTRACT
Farmwomen are the backbone of Indian agriculture. Growing food has been an interminable saga of her life. Like
other rural women, tribal farmwomen also play an important role in agriculture. Farmwomen play vital role within
home as housewives in managing the domestic affairs and they work as co-partners in the farming profession. No field
operation is beyond the reach of women. They are at their best in sowing, transplanting, weeding, manuring,
harvesting, winnowing, threshing, storing, marketing and rearing livestock etc Government of India GOI (2008),.
Besides this they are the manager to the household activities. They take important decisions in the home and outside the
home Antoniades and Papayiannis. (2000). Scientific achievements and modernization are yet to make an impact on
them. Keeping this fact in view the present investigation on role of tribal farmwomen in agriculture in Navsari district
was undertaken with following objectives. (i) To study the socio-economic characteristics of the tribal farmwomen. (ii)
To study the participation of the tribal farmwomen in agriculture, animal husbandry and household activities and the
relationship between selected independent variables with crop and animal husbandry practices. (iii) To study the tribal
farmwomen's involvement in decision making in farm management, animal husbandry and home management. Based
on the study it was seen that Farmwomen’s participation in pre-sowing and sowing operations revealed that the highest
respondents engaged with sowing followed by stubble collection, clode crushing , manuring and seedbed preparation.
Incase of interculturing operations the participation of the farmwomen were observed the highest in weeding followed
by gap filling, application of fertilizer, bird scaring, irrigation, bunding and hoeing with hand. Same was reported by
Chauhan and Chauhan, (2009), Vijay Avinashilingam et al. (2010) and Chayal and Dhaka, (2010).In harvesting and
post harvesting operations, the highest participation was obtained in nipping / picking and threshing followed by
harvesting, winnowing, storage, making threshing yard, bagging, packing and marketing of agriculture products. A
similar trend was also reported by Fremont (2001).In animal husbandry practices the frequency of participation of
farmwomen was seen the highest in cutting and bringing a fodder followed by compost making, watering, feeding,
milking to animals, cleaning of cattle shed and so on, Chauhan (2009) also reported the same. Farmwomen took a selfdecision for decoration of house (79.17 %) and selection and preparation of food (70.83 %) in case of home
management. Farm management was dominated by husband decision and majority of the farm management decision
was taken by their husbands, animal husbandry management was completely dominated by women's self decision. The
results are also in the line of Khanduri and Rawat (2004). The relationship between independent variables like age,
education, herd size, land holding, family size and number of children of the respondents and their participation in crop
husbandry was observed positively significant. Whereas the negative relationship was observed incase of occupation,
type of family and age at marriage. Praveena et al (2005) have reported the same results. The relation between
independent variables of the respondents and their participation in animal husbandry was found negative for all of the
independent variables except type of family only.
Key words: Farm women, participation, tribal, farming.
Even cultural anthropological literature suggests that
agriculture is invention of women. Farming in India is
mainly a family occupation. Most of the family members are
acutely engaged in farming. At present when the farm
technology is changing at faster speed a farmer has to adopt
this in order to become a competitive and efficient farmer.
The change in farming has increased manifold. The farming
capabilities for taking timely and judicious decisions by the
farm families have a direct bearing on the agricultural
development in country. It is well known fact that decision
is the heart of management. Much of success of farm
families depends upon how well the family members
develop skills in decision making. In India as per 2001
census out of the total 496 million of rural female population
23.9 % are workers and about 87 % female workers are
found in agriculture. There has been little realization about
the contribution of women in the economic activities of a
country. This was a position in most of counties till recently
and India is no exception.
Farmwomen play vital role within home as housewives in
managing the domestic affairs and they work as co-partners
in the farming profession. No operation in field is beyond
them. They are best in sowing, transplanting, weeding,
manuring, harvesting, winnowing, threshing, storing,
marketing and rearing livestock etc. Besides they are the
manager to the household activities. They take important
decision in home and outside the home. Scientific
achievements and modernization are yet to make an impact
on them.
Agriculture is a predominant sector, which provides
employment in rural areas. The female population
constitutes nearly half of the total population. It is a well
recognised fact that more than 60 % of agricultural
operations have been traditionally handled by women. In
21
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.2, No. 2: Oct. 2011
hilly areas where men migrate to agricultural operations
including crop planning and marketing of produce. In other
area men are reluctant to share control with women. The
contribution of women to the farm sector has largely been
ignored and inadequately understood in the Indian context.
Though women play different roles in their home activities
as wives, as mothers and as homemakers, they also play a
pivotal role in agriculture and livestock management. They
still continued to share number of farm operations with men
from early ages of invention of agriculture to the present day
of modern agriculture.
Looking the significant role of tribal women in agriculture
and allied activities, the study on rural woman's role in farm
management was undertaken keeping in view of the
increasing importance of involvement of rural women in
agricultural production programmes. Studies in this field so
far have exhibited a little concern on rural woman's role in
Gujarat state. Hence this study was conducted with an
objective of ascertaining the role expectations and role
performance of rural women in farm management.
Table.1 The role of tribal farmwomen in pre-sowing and
sowing operation
n = 120
Pre-sowing and sowing operation
Sowing / transplanting
Stubble collection
Clode crushing
Manuring
Seedbed preparation / nursery
Rank
I
II
III
IV
V
1.1.3
Participation of the tribal farmwomen in
interculturing operation
Frequency of participation by farmwomen in
various interculturing operations was measured with the
help of 4 point rating scale. Most frequently, frequently,
least frequent and no participation with scale value of 4, 3, 2
and 1, respectively. The same was reported by Chayal and
Dhaka, (2010).
Table.2 Distribution of tribal farmwomen according to
their participation in interculturing operation
N = 120
Interculturing operation
Weeding
Gap filling
Application of fertilizer
Bird scaring
Irrigation
Bunding
Hoeing with hand
METARIALS AND METHODS
The present investigation was carried out in the
Navsari district of the Gujarat state, which is one of the
tribal districts of the state. In selecting the district the main
consideration was the agriculture as the main occupation of
people living in such villages. From the Navsari district, the
six villages namely Adada, Aat, Chhapra, Hansapor,
Matwad and Mogar were randomly selected for the study.
From total selected 6 tribal dominated villages, 120
respondents were selected. Further, from the same list of
tribal farm families, the tribal women who were decision
makers and within the age group of 20-55 years were
screened out. Finally by using random sampling technique,
20 respondents from each village were selected, thus a
random sample of 120 respondents was selected for the
study. The structured interview schedule keeping in view the
objectives of the study was prepared in English. An
interview schedule was used for the final data collection.
Data were collected by arranging personal interview from
the total selected 120 tribal farmwomen. As the study was
concerned to find out the role performance of farmwomen in
agriculture, ex-post-facto research design was used for this
study. The statistical tools such as frequency, percent and
correlation coefficient were used to interpret the data.
1.1
home,
Mean value
2.63
2.51
2.40
2.02
1.32
Mean value
3.16
2.22
2.14
1.69
1.24
1.09
1.07
Rank
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
The data presented in Table 2 revealed that
the highest participation of the tribal farmwomen was
observed in weeding, followed by gap filling, application of
fertilizer, bird scaring, irrigation, bunding and hoeing with
hand, respectively.
1.2.1.3 Participation of tribal farmwomen in harvesting
and post-harvesting operation
Data collected from the respondents
regarding frequency of participation in harvesting and post
harvesting operations were given in Table 3.
Table:3 Participation of tribal farmwomen according to
their participation in harvesting and post-harvesting
operations
n = 120
Harvesting
and
post-harvesting
operations
Nipping / picking and threshing
Harvesting
Winnowing
Storage
Making threshing yard
Bagging / packing
Marketing of agricultural produce
participation of tribal farmwomen in
crop and livestock management practices
1.1.2
Participation of tribal farmwomen in
agriculture
1.1.2.1 Participation of tribal farmwomen in
pre-sowing and sowing operation
The perusal of the data in Table 1 revealed
that the highest participation of tribal farmwomen was
observed in sowing / transplanting followed by stubble
collection, clode crushing, manuring and seedbed
preparation / nursery.
Mean
value
3.22
2.93
2.34
2.12
1.93
1.54
1.29
Rank
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
Perusal of the data presented in Table 3
indicated that the highest participation of the tribal
farmwomen was observed in nipping / picking and threshing
followed by harvesting, winnowing, storage, making
threshing yard, bagging / packing and marketing of
agricultural produce, respectively. The roles of tribal
farmwomen in all the operations were observed up to the
importance level. Mrinali, et al. (2004) reported the same
scenario.
22
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.2, No. 2: Oct. 2011
1.2.2
PARTICIPATION
OF
THE
TRIBAL
FARMWOMEN
IN
ANIMAL
HUSBANDRY
PRACTICES
TO UNDERSTAND REAL PICTURE ABOUT
TRIBAL FAMILY, DATA WERE COLLECTED AND
RESULTS ARE PRESENTED IN TABLE 13 AND
THEY
ARE
EXPLAINED
IN
FOLLOWING
PARAGRAPHS.
The highest mean score of participation of tribal
farmwomen was obtained incase of cutting and bringing a
fodder. The next animal husbandry related operation
performed by tribal farmwomen was compost making
followed by watering and feeding to animals, milking,
cleaning of cattle shed, selling of milk and its product,
bathing of animals, preparation of milk products, grazing of
animals, taking animal for bull and veterinary services. It
can be concluded that the role of tribal farmwomen in most
of the animal husbandry related operations were seen
important. The possible reason for higher participation of
women in animal husbandry would be that the most of the
tribal farmwomen were possessing more than 2 animals.
Agriculture and animal husbandry are the two sides of the
same coin. The economy of the farming communities is
basal on agriculture as well as on animal husbandry. Thus,
to increase family income tribal farmwomen might have
taken keen interest in most of the animal husbandry related
operations. Other reason to have higher participation of
tribal farmwomen in most of the animal keeping activities
might be that animal husbandry related work has been
giving predominantly to the female members of the family
in rural areas by the male members from beginning.
Table 4: Participation of the tribal farmwomen
according to their participation in animal husbandry
practices
n = 120
Mean
Animal husbandry operations
Rank
value
Cutting and bringing a fodder
3.62
I
Compost making
3.61
II
Watering and feeding to animals
3.40
III
Milking
3.22
IV
Clearing cattle shed
3.01
V
Selling of milk and its products
2.23
VI
Bathing animals
2.04
VII
Preparation of milk products
1.64
VIII
Grazing
1.63
IX
Taking animal for bull service
1.57
X
Taking animal for veterinary
1.48
XI
service
1.3
INVOLVEMENTS
OF
THE
TRIBAL
FARMWOMEN IN THE PROCESS OF DECISION
MAKING
OF
FARM
MANAGEMENT, HOME MANAGEMENT AND
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
To determine the decision making pattern,
the decision makers were categorized into four groups
“Decision by herself”, “Decision by her husband” “Joint
decision by herself and any other member of her family
including husband” “Decision not needed to take’. The
similar result was also reported by Vijay Avinashilingam et
al. (2010).
Table 5: Tribal farmwomen involvement in the process of decision making for home management
n = 120
Number
Per cent
Number
Per
cent
Along with family
(Joint decision)
Per
Number
cent
Construction new house
00
00
30
25.00
85
Decoration of house
Children's education
Children's occupation
Children's marriage
House repair
Purchasing of household articles
Selling and purchasing of ornaments
Selection and preparation of food
Borrowing
money
for
home
management
Repayment of loan
Manner of saving
95
02
02
03
05
08
06
85
79.17
1.67
1.67
2.50
4.17
6.67
5.00
70.83
05
70
55
10
95
62
23
05
4.17
58.33
45.83
8.33
79.17
51.67
19.17
4.17
20
40
48
98
20
50
91
30
07
5.83
93
77.50
20
04
02
3.33
1.67
80
66.67
12
10.00
24
20.00
75
62.50
43
35.83
--repairing, borrowing money for house management,
repayment of loan, manner of saving and purchase of
household articles. Joint decision made by tribal farmwomen
and any members of their family were children's marriage,
selling and purchasing of ornaments, construction of new
house and manner of saving, Table-5.
Only self
Husband
Home management
1.3.1
IN
INVOLVEMENT OF TRIBAL FARMWOMEN
THE
PROCESS
OF
DECISION
MAKING ABOUT HOME MANAGEMENT
It can be concluded that the tribal
farmwomen were independently taking a decision for
decoration of house and selection and preparation of food,
while husband dominated decisions were matters of house
23
Not related
Number
Per
cent
70.83
05
4.17
16.67
33.33
40.00
81.67
16.67
41.67
75.83
25.00
00
08
15
09
-----
-6.67
12.50
7.50
-----
16.67
--
--
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.2, No. 2: Oct. 2011
1.3.2
THE
TRIBAL FARMWOMEN'S INVOLVEMENT IN
PROCESS
OF
DECISION
MAKING ABOUT THE FARM MANAGEMENT
Data collected from the respondents
regarding their involvement in the process of decisionmaking about farm management are given in Table 15.
It is evident from the data that in majority of
the decisions regarding farm management were husband
dominated such as when to irrigate the fields (87.50 per
cent) Quantity and type of fertilizers to be used in the farm
(85.10 per cent), introduction of new crop variety (82.50 per
cent), buying farm machinery / equipment (80.00 per cent),
using plant protection measures (76.67 per cent), borrowing
money for farm operation (70.00 per cent),installing oil
engine, electric motor and pumps (66.67 per cent), selection
of seed (65.00 per cent) deciding area to be sown under each
crop (62.50 per cent) and son on, respectively. The joint
decision made by tribal farmwomen and other members of
family were hiring farm laborers (66.67 per cent), buying
and selling of land (71.67 per cent) and selling of surplus
farm produce (58.33 per cent), respectively.
It can
be concluded that the most of the farm decisions were made
by husband of tribal farmwomen followed few decisions
made jointly by the tribal farmwomen after discussion with
any of their family members. It can be further concluded
that tribal farmwomen had a recessive role in decisionmaking process regarding farm management.
Table 6: Tribal farmwomen involvement in the process of decision making for farm management
n = 120
Only self
Farm management
Deciding area to be sown under
different crops
Introduction of a new crop variety
Selection of seed
When to irrigate fields
quantity and type of fertilizers used on
the farm
Using plant protection measures
Hiring farm labours
Buying farm machinery / equipment
Installing oil engine and electric motor
Buying and selling of land
Borrowing money for farm operations
Selling of surplus farm produce
Husband
Alongwith family
(Joint decision)
Not related
Number
Per cent
Number
Per cent
Number
Per cent
Number
05
4.17
75
62.50
40
33.33
--
04
03
01
3.33
2.50
0.83
99
78
105
82.50
65.00
87.50
17
39
06
14.17
32.50
5.00
--08
6.67
--
--
102
85.00
12
10.00
06
5.00
01
-02
---03
0.83
92
25
96
80
34
84
47
76.67
20.83
80.00
66.67
28.33
70.00
39.17
05
80
22
40
86
36
70
4.17
66.67
18.33
33.33
71.67
30.00
58.33
22
15
------
18.33
12.50
------
1.67
---2.50
Perusal of the data presented in table 15 concluded that the
decision regarding animal husbandry was dominated by
tribal farmwomen themselves as well as by joint decision
with family members. The husband remained recessive in
decision making about animal husbandry. Majority of the
farmwomen were taking self-decision regarding fodder and
marketing of milk and milk products. The joint decisions
taken were selection of animal breed, sale and purchasing of
animal as well keeping size of herd, some of the decisions
were not needed to take by them because some of them had
no animal or some of them were not selling milk and its
products.
Per cent
1.3.3
Farmwomen's involvement in the process of
decision making for animal husbandry
The results indicate that the selection of
fodder and feed was dominantly decided by farmwomen
(81.67 per cent) followed by sale of milk and its product
(52.50 per cent). The decisions regarding sale and purchase
of animal (65.00 per cent), selection of animal breed (60.00
per cent) and keeping size of herd (40.00 per cent) were
taken jointly by family members, Table-6. The same was
reported by Chauhan, (2008).
Table 7: Tribal farmwomen involvement in the process of decision making for animals husbandry
n = 120
Animal husbandry
Selection of animal breed
Selection of fodder and feed
Sale and purchase of animals
Sale and milk and its products
Keeping size of herd
Only self
Number
07
98
13
63
42
Husband
Per cent
5.83
81.67
10.83
52.50
35.00
Number
29
04
15
08
15
24
Per cent
24.17
3.33
12.50
6.67
12.50
Along with family
(Joint decision)
Number Per cent
72
60.00
06
5.00
78
65.00
18
15.00
48
40.00
Not related
Number
12
12
14
31
15
Per cent
10.00
10.00
11.67
25.83
12.50
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.2, No. 2: Oct. 2011
1.3.4
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SELECTED
INDEPENDENT VARIABLES AND CROP AND
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
Major findings
The major findings are summarized below.
Socio-economic characteristics of the tribal farmwomen
Slightly less than half the tribal farmwomen (48.33 per cent)
were from middle age group, Half of the tribal farmwomen
were found with primary level of education, followed by
39.16 per cent with no any formal education and only 10 per
cent were educated up to high school and higher secondary
level,a very large majority of the tribal farmwomen had
(89.17 per cent) had household + farming along with animal
husbandry as their main occupation,majority (70.83 per
cent) of the tribal farmwomen had small to medium size of
herd. Major segments (34.17 per cent) of the tribal
farmwomen had marginal size of land holding, followed by
small (28.33 per cent) and medium (22.50 per cent) size of
land holding. Majority (54.17 per cent) of the tribal
farmwomen had 3 to 5 number of children followed by
25.83 per cent had 2 children and only 14.17 per cent of
farmwomen had more than 5 children. Slightly more than
half (52.50 per cent)of the tribal farmwomen had medium
size of family, followed by small (33.33 per cent) and only
14.17 per cent had large size of family. Majority (63.33 per
cent) of the tribal farmwomen had nuclear type of family.
More than half (56.67 per cent) of the farm-women were
married at the age of 18 year followed by 43.33 per cent
married after the age of 18 year.
Participation of tribal farmwomen in agriculture: The
highest participation of tribal farmwomen was seen in
sowing/transplanting followed by stubble collection, clod
crushing, manuring and seedbed preparation/nursery
management. The highest participation of the tribal
farmwomen was observed in weeding followed by gap
filling, application of fertilizer, bird scaring, irrigation,
bunding and hoeing with hand, respectively.The highest
participation of the respondents were in nipping/picking and
threshing followed by harvesting, winnowing, storage,
making threshing yard, bagging/packing and marketing of
agricultural produce, respectively. The highest mean score
of participation of tribal farmwomen was obtained in case of
cutting and bringing a fodder. Other participation of tribal
farmwomen was seen in compost making followed by
watering and feeding to animal, milking, cleaning of cattle
shed, selling of milk and its products, bathing of animals,
preparation of milk products, grazing of animals, taking
animal for bull and veterinary services.
Involvement of the tribal farmwomen in decisionmaking
The tribal farmwomen were taking self decision incase of
decoration taking of house (79.17 per cent) and selection
and preparation of food (70.83 per cent). The husband
dominated decision making events were house repair (79.17
per cent) followed by borrowing money for home
management, repayment of loan, manner of saving,
repayment of loan, manner of saving, children's education,
children's occupation and construction, children's
occupation and construction of new house, respectively.
Joint decision was dominated in case of children's
marriage (81.67 per cent) followed by selling and
purchasing of ornaments, construction of new house and
manner of saving, respectively.The majority of the decisions
TABLE 8: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INDEPENDENT
VARIABLE OF THE RESPONDENTS AND THEIR
PARTICIPATION IN CROP HUSBANDRY
N = 120
Correlation coefficient
Independent variables
('r' value)
Personal variables
Age
0.8430
**
Education
0.7409
**
Economical variables
Occupation
- 0.5553
*
Herd size
0.7854
**
Land holding
0.7774
**
Social variables
Family size
0.8074
**
Type of family
- 0.6284
**
Number of children
0.4918
*
Age of marriage
- 0.8709
*
* Significant at 5 %, ** highly at significant at 1 %.
Out of nine independent variables only three variable viz
occupation, Type of family and age at marriage were found
negative where as Six variables like- age, education, herd
size, land holding, family size and number of children were
observed positively and significantly with their participation
in crop husbandry practices. Everact, H. (1994) reported the
same results.
1.3.5 Independent
variables of the respondents
and their
participation in animal husbandry
TABLE9:
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE OF THE RESPONDENTS
AND
THEIR
PARTICIPATION
IN
ANIMAL
HUSBANDRY
N = 120
Correlation coefficient
Independent variables
('r' value)
Personal variables
Age
- 0.8888*
Education
- 0.8411*
Economical variables
Occupation
- 0.3014*
Herd size
- 0.9464*
Land holding
- 0.8881*
Social variables
Family size
- 0.9322*
Type of family
+ 0.8646*
Number of children
- 0.8036*
Age of marriage
- 0.8709*
* Significant at 5 %
Data presented in Table 18 indicated that out of nine
independent variables only type of the family found
significant with their participation in animal husbandry.
Remaining all of the independent variables had negative and
significant relationship with their participation in animal
husbandry. Bisht et al (2000) reported the results on this
line.
25
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.2, No. 2: Oct. 2011
regarding farm management were not performed by tribal
farmwomen , thus they were husband dominated decisions
such as, when to irrigate the fields (87.50 per cent), quantity
and type of fertilizers to be used in the farm (85.00 per cent)
introduction of new crop variety, buying farm
machinery/equipment, using plant protection measures,
borrowing money for farm operation, installing oil engine,
electric motor and pumps, selection of seed, deciding area to
be sown under each crop etc. The joint decision was made
only incase of hiring farm laborers (66.67 per cent), buying
and selling of land and selling of surplus farm produce. It
can be concluded that the tribal farmwomen did not play
dominant role in making important decisions of farm
management.The decisions about selection of fodder and
feed was dominated by tribal farmwomen(81.67 per cent)
followed by sale of milk and its products. The jointly taken
decisions were sale and purchase of animals (65.00 per cent)
followed by selection of animal breed and keeping size of
herd. It can be concluded that the important decisions
regarding animal husbandry were dominated by tribal
farmwomen them selves. The husbands remain recessive in
decision-making regarding animal husbandry.
Correlation study of crop husbandry
The positive significant relationship was seen
between the role of tribal farmwomen in crop husbandry and
their age, education, herd size, land holding, family size and
number of children. Whereas, the negative relationship was
observed among occupation, type of family, age at marriage
and their role in crop husbandry. The relationship between
all independent variables and the role of tribal farmwomen
was observed negative except type of family.
Implication of the study
Some important implications emerging from the
findings of the study are presented below.
(1) It was seen that many agricultural, animal
husbandry related and house hold activities were performed
by the tribal women, but when questions comes to take
decisions regarding all these matter, their roles were seen
skimpy. As tribal farmwomen are the key units of the family
of the tribals’ community and they have skill in talking good
decisions regarding all economic activities of the family,
their participation in decision talking process needs to be
encouraged by those people who are involved in the
development of tribals.
(2) Special measures need to be taken to increase
the enrolments of girls in schools and to impart non-formal
education for the dropouts, so that they would be able to
keep accounts and made wage distribution to labours.
(3) There is need to strengthen informal tribal
education programme as means to the develop farm and
home by providing modern agricultural technologies. The
tribal farmwomen should be given training for another
productive work outside the home especially for marginal
and small size of holding. The family planning programme
should be made more popular in this area.
(4) The opportunities for productive employment
should be enhanced by establishing agro-based industries,
which might be organized in form of co-operatives. The
tribal farmwomen should be allowed to take active part in
decision-making process. These decisions will be more
rational and practical oriented.
Eye opening points for policy makers
Recommendations:1.
The roles performed by the rural women in home,
crop and livestock administration and the factors affecting
to them are of paramount importance to the planners,
decision makers, researchers, educationist, governments,
NGOs, farming communities and extension workers
occupied in the process of rural development.
2.
Prime importance in decision making regarding
home, crop and live stock management should be given to
tribal farm women for betterment of rural tribes in general
and farming occupation as a whole.
3.
More milk co-operatives should be started in Tribal
areas and the management should be handed over to tribal
farm women for superior development of dairy industries
and farming occupation as a in one piece.
4.
The government should establish a community
internet centre (CICs) at village level to satisfy the
knowledge hunger of tribes and decorate them to fight in
open global market.
5.
More emphasis should be given to create an able
tribal women resource for sustainable agricultural growth.
6.
Tribal women should be the target groups for next
phase of green revolution on sustainable base.
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.2, No. 2: Oct. 2011
Genetic parameters of Lactational performance traits in Hariana cattle
1
S. SINGH, 2Z. S. RANA, 2R. KUMAR, 2B.L. PANDER AND 1C.S. SHARMA
1
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Sangaria, Hanumangarh (Raj) – 335063
2
Department of Animal Breeding, Collage of Animal Sciences,
CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar - 125 004 (INDIA)
Key words: Cattle, dairy, trait, parameter, lactation.
The ability to produce and reproduce for many years is a
desirable trait in dairy cattle since it takes 3-4 years of
production for a cow to repay her cost of rearing; a long
productive life is financially beneficial and also allows the
genetically superior animals to leave more offspring. In fact,
the economy of dairy industry mainly rely upon the
performance parameters of dairy animals, therefore, it
becomes more relevant to tackle out the means for
ameliorating the performance efficiencies by developing
certain guidelines for selection. Indeed, the knowledge of
genetic variability with respect to each trait and co variability existing among traits of different lactations are a
beacon light for planning appropriate selection and breeding
strategies for the genetic improvement of dairy animals.
Therefore the present investigation was planned with a view
to study genetic and phenotypic correlations of mature
lactational traits with that of earlier lactations Hariana cattle.
assumed to be normally and independently distributed with
mean zero and variance σe2.
The least – squares and maximum likelihood computer
program of Harvey (1987) was used to standardize the data
for significant effects on lactational traits. Genetic
correlations among different traits were calculated from sire
components of variances and covariances. The standard
error of genetic correlation was estimated by using the
formula given by Robertson (1959). Phenotypic correlations
among various traits were calculated from variance –
covariance analysis. The standard error of phenotypic
correlation was computed using the formula given by
Snedecor and Cochran (1968).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Correlations between first and fourth lactation traits.
The results presented in Table 1 revealed that first lactation
MY, LL and PY had high positive genetic correlation with
fourth lactation MY, LL and PY except the relationship of
first lactation length with fourth lactation MY and PY. First
lactation DP, CI and SP had high negative genetic
correlation with fourth lactation MY, LL and DP barring
fourth lactation length associationship with first SP and CI.
First lactation MY and LL had positive correlations with all
the fourth lactation performance traits except with fourth dry
period. First DP, SP and CI had high positive genetic
correlations with fourth DP, SP and CI except the genetic
correlation of first dry period with fourth CI and SP. First
lactation MY and PY had positive phenotypic correlations
with all the performance traits of fourth lactation except
with fourth dry period. First LL had low positive phenotypic
correlations with all the fourth lactation performance traits
except with fourth lactation length. First lactation SP and CI
had low to moderate positive phenotypic correlations with
all the fourth lactation performance traits except with fourth
lactation PY. Likewise, first DP, SP and CI had low to
moderate associationship with fourth DP, SP and CI. Fourth
PY had negative correlations with first DP, CI and SP.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
In order to achieve the objective, the data pertinent to
lifetime traits on 762 Hariana cows calving during period
1966 to 2000, progeny of 23 sires maintained at Government
Livestock Farm, Hisar were considered. The duration of 35
years was divided into 7 periods of five years each. The four
seasons were delineated as summer (April-June), rainy
(July-September), autumn (October-November) and winter
(December-March) on the basis of geo-climatic conditions
prevailing in the region. The traits recorded were: lactation
milk yield (MY), lactation length (LL), peak yield (PY), dry
period (DP), calving interval (CI) and service period (SP).
Sires with at least five progenies were considered for this
study. Records of cows with some specific or non – specific
diseases, reproductive disorder and physical injury were
excluded from the present investigation. The least-squares
solutions were obtained using the model given below:
Yijkl = µ + Si + Pj + SEk + b (Aijkl -A) + eijkl
Where: Yijkl = is the lth record of individual of ith sire in jth
period and kth season; µ = is the overall population mean; Si
= is the fixed effect of ith sire; Pj = is the fixed effect of jth
period of calving (first period = 1966 – 70, second period =
1971 – 75, third period = 1976 – 80, fourth period = 1981 –
85, fifth period = 1986 – 90, sixth period = 1991 – 95 and
seventh period = 1996 - 2000); SEk = is the fixed effect of
kth season of calving; b is linear regression coefficients of
age at first calving (AFC) on the trait (s); Aijkl = is the age at
first calving; Ā = is the mean for age at first calving; and e ijkl
= is the random error associated with each observation and
Correlations between second and fourth lactation traits.
Second lactation MY and PY had high positive genetic
correlation with fourth lactation MY and PY, while these
traits had negative association with fourth lactation DP, SP
and CI (Table 2). Second LL had low to moderate genetic
correlation with fourth lactation MY, LL and PY whereas
fourth DP, SP and CI had negative genetic correlation with
second LL. Moreover, second DP, SP and CI had high
positive genetic correlation with fourth DP, SP and CI
28
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.2, No. 2: Oct. 2011
barring low positive genetic relationship of second DP with
fourth CI. Second lactation MY, LL and PY had significant
positive phenotypic correlations with fourth MY, LL and PY
while all other second lactation traits had positive
phenotypic correlations with all the performance traits of
fourth lactation except that of association of fourth DP with
MY, LL and PY of second lactation. Second calving interval
had low to moderate positive phenotypic associationship
with all the fourth lactation performance traits. However,
second DP, SP and CI had moderate significant positive
phenotypic correlations with fourth CI and SP. Fourth DP
had negative correlations with second MY, LL and PY while
fourth PY had negative correlations with second DP and SP.
Correlations between third and fourth lactation traits.
As in earlier discussion, the genetic correlations among MY
and PY between preceding lactation and succeeding
lactation were obtained as high and positive (Table 3).
Table 1.Genetic and phenotypic correlation of performance traits between first lactation and fourth lactation
Traits
0.85±0.10
MY4
0.78±0.30
0.698±0.14
DP4
-0.56±0.33
0.02±0.32
0.01±0.33
P
0.46±0.04**
0.26±0.31
0.36±0.05**
0.85±0.40
0.36±0.05**
0.05±0.31
-0.03±0.05
-0.02±0.46
0.21±0.05*
0.37±0.36
0.22±0.05*
0.30±0.39
P
0.19±0.05
0.81±0.04
0.23±0.05*
0.56±0.35
0.10±0.05
0.96±0.05
0.02±0.05
0.69±0.30
0.15±0.05
-0.19±0.30
0.15±0.05
-0.17±0.31
P
0.43±0.04**
-0.64±0.21
0.24±0.05*
-0.61±0.41
0.43±0.04**
-0.58±0.20
0.03±0.05
0.57±0.32
0.14±0.05
0.19±0.32
0.16±0.05
0.15±0.34
P
-0.06±0.05
-0.71±0.31
0.02±0.05
-0.06±0.60
-0.13±0.05
-0.88±0.28
0.21±0.05*
0.77±0.41
0.20±0.05*
0.73±0.32
0.19±0.05
0.50±0.39
P
0.07±0.05
-0.70±0.23
0.18±0.05
-0.25±0.48
-0.05±0.05
-0.74±0.22
0.20±0.05
0.80±0.32
0.28±0.05**
0.63±0.27
0.27±0.05**
0.47±0.33
P
0.05±0.05
0.18±0.05
-0.08±0.05
0.20±0.05*
0.30±0.05**
0.28±0.05**
MY1 G
LL1
G
PY1
G
DP1
G
CP1
G
SP1
G
* P<0.05
LL4
PY4
CI4
SP4
** P<0.01
Table 2.Genetic and phenotypic correlation of performance traits between second and fourth lactation
Traits
MY4
MY2 G
LL2
G
PY2
G
DP2
G
CP2
G
SP2
G
LL4
PY4
DP4
CI4
SP4
0.83±0.10
0.58±0.34
0.75±0.12
0.90±0.28
-0.30±0.29
-0.31±0.30
P
0.52±0.04**
0.23±0.27
0.34±0.05**
0.34±0.41
0.49±0.04**
0.11±0.26
-0.06±0.05
-0.64±0.35
0.14±0.05
-0.23±0.32
0.17±0.05
-0.21±0.34
P
0.29±0.05**
0.92±0.07
0.27±0.05**
0.20±0.39
0.20±0.05
0.91±0.05
-0.06±0.05
-0.79±0.29
0.09±0.05
-0.40±0.27
0.12±0.05
-0.38±0.29
P
0.50±0.04**
-0.49±0.31
0.21±0.05*
-0.26±0.54
0.59±0.04**
-0.51±0.30
-0.07±0.05
0.41±0.43
0.06±0.05
0.12±0.41
0.09±0.05
0.06±0.43
P
-0.04±0.05
-0.57±0.36
0.06±0.05
0.77±0.44
-0.14±0.05
-0.31±0.32
0.22±0.05*
0.43±0.46
0.22±0.05*
0.60±0.33
0.23±0.05**
0.68±0.32
P
0.19±0.05
-0.65±0.33
0.24±0.05*
0.53±0.55
0.04±0.05
-0.84±0.32
0.13±0.05
0.50±0.49
0.26±0.05**
0.53±0.39
0.28±0.05**
0.53±0.41
P
0.12±0.05
0.22±0.05*
-0.01±0.05
0.15±0.05
0.27±0.05**
0.28±0.05**
* P<0.05
** P<0.01
Table3. Genetic and phenotypic correlation of performance traits between third and fourth lactation
Traits
MY4
0.93±0.06
LL4
0.92±0.36
PY4
0.82±0.09
-0.94±0.28
CI4
-0.42±0.27
P
0.59±0.04**
-0.04±0.33
0.34±0.05**
0.33±0.46
0.54±0.04**
-0.26±0.30
-0.36±0.29
-0.10±0.05
-0.29±0.46
0.12±0.05
-0.04±0.40
0.13±0.05
0.04±0.41
P
0.36±0.05**
0.97±0.04
0.41±0.04**
0.32±0.37
0.16±0.05
0.97±0.02
-0.04±0.05
-0.78±0.28
0.22±0.05*
-0.40±0.27
0.23±0.05*
-0.34±0.28
P
0.58±0.04**
-0.78±0.17
0.20±0.05*
-0.16±0.43
0.67±0.04**
-0.75±0.16
0.12±0.05
0.94±0.23
-0.01±0.04
0.59±0.25
0.02±0.04
0.53±0.28
P
-0.10±0.04
-0.81±0.17
0.02±0.04
-0.07±0.48
-0.17±0.04
-0.91±0.15
0.20±0.04*
0.90±0.28
0.20±0.05*
0.57±0.27
0.16±0.04
0.57±0.28
P
0.18±0.04
-0.65±0.22
0.31±0.05**
0.04±0.49
-0.01±0.04
-0.83±0.17
0.14±0.04
0.90±0.28
0.34±0.05**
0.71±0.23
0.31±0.04**
0.71±0.25
P
0.16±0.04
0.28±0.05**
-0.02±0.04
0.15±0.04
0.32±0.05**
0.30±0.04**
MY3 G
LL3
G
PY3
G
DP3
G
CP3
G
SP3
G
* P<0.05
** P<0.01
29
DP4
SP4
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.2, No. 2: Oct. 2011
Moreover, third MY, LL and PY had negative genetic
correlations with fourth lactation DP, SP and CI barring low
and positive association of third LL with fourth SP. Also,
third DP, CI and SP had high and negative genetic
correlations with fourth lactation MY and PY, while these
traits had high positive genetic correlations with fourth DP,
CI and SP. Moreover, third DP, SP and CI had positive
phenotypic correlations with all the traits except that of
fourth lactation PY and that of third DP with fourth MY and
PY which were low and negative. As earlier, third DP, SP
and CI had low to moderate phenotypic correlations with
fourth DP, CI and SP.
The genetic and phenotypic correlation between lactation
traits indicated that PY has high genetic and significant
1
phenotypic correlations with MY of each lactation and
negative genetic and phenotypic correlations with DP of
each lactation. This suggested that selection on the basis of
PY1 will also bring out genetic improvement in MY of each
lactation. This will not only reduce the generation interval
by early selection but also reduce the unproductive life of
the animal by reducing DP.
REFERENCES
Harvey, W.R. 1987. Least-squares Maximum Likelihood
Computer Program. PC version – 1
Steel R.G.D. and Torrie J. H. 1981. Principle and
Procedures of Statistics, 2nd edn
Robertson, A. 1959. Biometrics. 15: 469-485.
30
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.2, No. 2: Oct. 2011
Transfer of Technology through Community Radio
MS. ARPITA SHARMA
Reseach Scholar
Dept. of Agricultural Communication, College of Agriculture,
G. B. Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar – 263145 (Uttarakhand)
Email:
ABSTRACT
Majority of Indian population is dependent on Agriculture as a main occupation. Agriculture was the key development
that led to the rise of human civilization, with the husbandry of domesticated animals and plants (i.e. crops) creating
food surpluses that enabled the development of more densely populated and stratified societies. Agriculture has played
a key role in the development of human civilization. There is no doubt that modern farm technologies evolved by
systematic research, has tremendously helped the farmers to increase farm product, yet it is also true that big, educated
and cosmopolite farmers were able to get the maximum benefits of new technology. In India majority of the farmers are
small and marginal. They are poor, illiterate and have no or little access to the source of information. In order to
upliftment of the poor farmers technology dissemination is necessary. New ICT technologies, such as e-agriculture,
whereby agricultural information can be presented in multimedia formats to improve knowledge sharing in local
cultural context, should be promoted” Farmers commission recommended “the Government to review its policy
towards Community Radio, since a combination of the Internet and cell phone and community radio will help to take
timely information to farmers even in the remotest parts of the country and judiciously harness ‘ air waves or
frequencies which are public property.’ It suggests that the extension and provision of community radio licenses should
be streamlined and operationalised so as to reach the target community in the shortest period. Various previous
researches have confirmed that community radio is a scientific information communication tool for dissemination of the
technology among the large segment of the rural people.
Key Words: Technology Dissemination, rural people, Community Radio
Indian economy, second largest growing economy of the
world after China largely depends on the growth of
Agriculture. Agriculture has always been considered as
principal engine of Indian economy. It is estimated that 50
per cent of Indian population is directly engaged in
agriculture and 15 per cent is indirectly associated with this
sector and serve as major source of livelihood for about 70
per cent of Indian population residing in villages. This sector
contributes 18.5 per cent to its GDP. The history of
civilization has witnessed changes in agriculture sector. The
purpose, methods, technology, and demand all have
gradually changed over the period. Agriculture has always
been a highly knowledge-intensive sector requiring
continuous information flow. Farmers' quest for authentic,
credible and usable information both from established
systems and traditional practices is ever increasing in this
fluctuating global environment, to operate efficiently and
compete economically. The rapid changes happening around
with WTO/globalization, uncontrolled urbanization,
uncertainty in climate change, discerning consumer segment
and continued farm crisis emphasize the importance of
timely, appropriate and need based information and
knowledge to meet myriad developmental challenges.
In recent times advances in Information and Communication
Technologies (ICTs) are revolutionizing agriculture
extension by offering various technological options such as
television, internet, mobile, telephony etc. Experience with
rural radio has shown the potential for agricultural extension
to benefit from both the reach and the relevance that local
broadcasting
can
achieve
through
participatory
communication approaches. The local community needs
which are often neglected by the mainstream media could be
adequately addressed by community radio. Community
radio can be used to disseminate better technology for
example the campaign in Malaysia, in collaboration with
FAO’s Inter Country Programme on Integrated Pest
Management in Rice, radio was used to discourage the use
of a particular chemical, Zinc Phosphide, in preference to a
safer alternative.
Transfer of Technology
Transfer in common parlance means change of place or
physical movement or mechanical transport. Does the phrase
“Transfer of Technology” means merely taking a new idea
or procedure or product from extension or research
institution to farmers’ filed. People are not passive recipient
to apply a technology just by because it was brought or told.
Thus transfer of information does not lead to acceptance.
People have their value, belief, opinion and attitude and
established way of doing thing. New technology has to
compete and work within the context and environment of
people. Extent of acceptance is influenced by a variety of
personal as well as social, environmental and resource
factors. Acceptance demand new learning and adjustment.
Thus TOT is not push button shifting of technology. People
are rational. They adopt new technology if they are
convinced about its utility. The technology must be
compatible with social and cultural systems. In view of the
discussions about technologies and their acceptance in social
system. It can be concluded that TOT refers top the entire
31
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.2, No. 2: Oct. 2011
process
of
technology
development,
processing,
disseminating and integration through research, extension
and farming systems (in case of Agriculture) keeping in
view the resources, organizational limitations and
capabilities of the three systems to solve the problem of
society. This means that TOT is not a linear process with
distinct parts and roles of research, extension and farming
system. It is a collaborative effort between the three
parterres. Each of the three functions of technology
development, processing and dissemination has to be done
in consultation with each other.
Community Radio
“Community radio is not only an empowerment tool, but
importantly, a platform for people to represent themselves.
Community radio allows people to shape their opinions.”
Community radio emphasises that it is not commercial and
does not share what it would call the perspective and
paternalistic attitude of public-service broadcasting. The
key difference is that community radio aspires to treat its
listeners as subjects and participants. Community radio
works in the cultural context of the community it serves; it
deals with the local issues in the local language(s); it is
relevant to local problems and concerns and its aim is to
help the community to develop socially, economically and
culturally. The essence of Community Radio is participation
of the community in managing the station, deciding on
programming and producing content.
Conventional Agricultural research and technology transfer
efforts were more concerned with increasing production.
The researches were conducted on large farms with the help
of heavy doses of external inputs. Technique of genetics and
plant breeding were employed to enhance the productivity.
These high yielding stains required heavy doses of
chemicals for soil and plant nutrition as well protection.
Assured irrigation was critical for their success. As a result
the new high yielding varieties of rice and wheat increased
production manifolds. They stimulated development of
irrigation and other infrastructure for providing much
needed supply of inputs for new cultivation. Thus, the
benefits of these technologies were more evident among
larger farmers and more developed regions. Resource poor
subsistence farmers and risk-prone (flood affected, dry land
etc.) areas were least affected. According to TAC/CGIAR
1988 “ Sustainable
Agriculture is the successful
management of resources for Agriculture to satisfy changing
human needs while maintaining or enhancing the quality of
the environment and conserving natural resources.” Thus,
sustainability of Agriculture calls for conservation
enhancement of ecology, economy and social change along
with increase in production.
Community Radio is one of the powerful medium to
disseminate the information related to any technology. It is
participatory in nature. It gives the information to all
segments of the people small as well as marginal farmers.
Through this participation Community Radio stations are
embedded and rooted in a community and provide
programmes that have strong local relevancy for its
audience, the community. The stations provide information
about the direct surroundings and discuss subjects that are
not covered on national stations, as they have no commercial
values or nationwide relevance. Community radio is built
around the core idea that communication works when it is
grounded in the meaningful experience of the local
community and it harvests the creativity of the groups to
serve. The main feature of community media is the active
participation of the community in the process of content
production in all categories- news, entertainment,
information, cultural arts and communication with an
emphasis on local issues and concerns. The community also
actively participates in the management of the media and
takes decision in the scheduling and content of the
programmes. It is essentially a non-profit enterprise owned
by the community. “Community radio has empowered
different categories and marginalized communities.
Through the initial stages of setting up the radio station,
we were successful in breaking the barriers of caste that
still
exist
in
these
regions.”-(
www.radioandmusic.com/.../community-radio-voice-getsstronger)
Community Radio Differ from Radio
Radio
Community Radio
Community
owned
and
State
owned
and
controlled
control
Local priorities and issues
National priorities
Local idiom and dialects
National/Regional
language
Large geographic area Small focused area
Decentralised
(functional
Centralised
autonomy)
One
–
way Two – way communication
(proximity
encourages
communication
participation)
Assumes homogeneity Preserves cultural identify
of audience
Development through Community Radio
“Development work at times can be like sleepwalking in
fog,” Ms. Denise Gray-Felder, president of the
Communication for Social Change Consortium, told Africa
Renewal. Knowledge and information are essential for
people to successfully respond to the opportunities and
challenges of social, economic and technological changes.
But to be useful, knowledge and information must be
effectively communicated to people. Their transmitters may
reach only a few miles, but community radio stations are
enabling isolated communities across Africa to voice their
own concerns. On air, ordinary citizens discuss issues that
are central to them, such as gender relations and combatting
HIV/AIDS. They share farming tips and income generation
ideas and explore ways to improve education. Positive
change is also happening at a personal level. Radio projects
bring opportunities for community members to learn new
skills, thus improving prospects for employment at
commercial stations. In southern Mali, local technicians,
facilitators and producers, as well as board members, took a
training course run by a rural radio centre in Burkina Faso.
Participants learned to operate equipment, produce
programmes and manage a station. International
organizations such as the Agence de la Francophonie and
32
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.2, No. 2: Oct. 2011
the Panos Institute have also conducted community media
workshops.( Madamombe 2005).
Community Radio is a powerful communication tool.
India’s post-independence experiments with ICT use in
agricultural development started with radio. A network of
All India Radio (AIR) stations were established across the
country that broadcast agricultural programmes in regional
languages. AIR (now Prasar Bharathi) has been playing a
significant role since many years - bringing new
technological information on agriculture and other allied
subjects to the farmers. With the recent liberalization of the
broadcasting licensing policy, Community Radio has
received a new impetus in India. This form of participatory
communication has proved to be very successful as a tool
for social and economic development at grass root level. The
local community needs which are often neglected by the
mainstream media could be adequately addressed by
community radio. Even farmer to farmer extension can be
easily made possible through adequate capacity building as
the HAM radio experience underway in Tamil Nadu and
Andhra Pradesh shows. Mali has one of the strongest
community radio networks in Africa. After the fall of the
last one-party regime in 1991 and the end to an outright state
monopoly of the means of communications, the information
media blossomed. Today, Mali has more than 110 private
radio stations; 86 of them are community radios, mostly
rurally based.
Community radio is an alternative media is the counter
balance to profit-motive corporate media. What community
media emphasizes is to facilitating empowerment of people
with their active participation in the process not as passive
consumers/listeners. Because it has specific objectives to
promote people’s agenda first—local knowledge, cultures,
human rights and social justice, environmental issues and
community problems as well as the issues related to
development. Without people’s involvement with the process
i.e. in planning, managing, designing, marketing and
ownership pattern, efforts will all be vain, the practices of
governance and democracy will only be rhetoric, not will be in
practice. Community radio for social development can
promote participatory relationship with the social sector and
business. Sector that result for promoting public participation
and governance.
Conclusion:
“Knowledge” and more broadly “Information” enables
farmers to bring about improvement to their enviornment
and Agricultural activites as well as creates new income and
employemtn opportunities. However, the new information
highway has some patholes in it. Relevant information may
exist but it may be inaccessible. Community radio is
powerful tool in TOT through persuasive message.
Community Radio is truly a people's Radio that perceives
listeners not only as receivers and consumers, but also as
active participants and creative producers of content.
Community Radio covers all developmental and rights
based issues and updates listeners on the latest developments
in environmental, policy related and other issues.
Community Radio has the responsibility to help sustain the
diversity of the local cultures and languages and thus should
be supported through legislative, administrative, and
financial measures. Community Radio offers an opportunity
for development, but not a panacea. For the potential
benefits of Community Radio to be realized in developing
countries, many prerequisites need to be put in place:
prompt deregulation, effective competition among service
providers, free movement and adoption of technologies,
targeted and competitive subsidies to reduce the access gap,
and institutional arrangements to increase the use of
Community Radio in the provision of public goods. Given
the diverse potential benefits of Community Radio,
especially in the provision of public goods, subsidies
traditionally used for poverty alleviation could be adapted to
create incentives for the use of Community Radio.
REFERENCE
Asirvatham, T. & Vellani, S. 2001. Community Radio in
India, The Journal of Development Communication.
Sharma A. 2009. Effectiveness of media mix in imparting
nutritional education among rural women in district Udham
Singh Nagar of Uttarakhand. Unpublished M.Sc. thesis.
G.B.P.U.A.&T, Pantnagar.
Fraser, C. & Estrada, R. S. 2001. “Community Radio
handbook”; UNESCO, Paris.
Sharma A. 2010. Community Radio for Rural
Development. 2010-11 Budget Yojana (A Development
Monthly). March-2010. Vol.54.pp.60-63.
Iyer A. (2009). Community Radio - the voice gets
stronger.
www.radioandmusic.com/.../community-radiovoice-gets-stronger.
Sharma A. 2009. “Effectiveness of Media Mix in imparting
Nutritional Education among Rural women in District
Udham Singh Nagar of Uttarakhand”. Unpublished thesis.
G.B.P.U.A&T Pantnagar.
Madamombe I. 2005. Community radio: a voice for the
poor. Better local communications can boost
development, democracy. Africa Renewal, Vol.19 #2 (April
2005), page 4.
Sharma, A. and Ansari M.A. 2010. Community Radio as
an Information tool for Rural Advancement.
Indian
Farmers’ Digest. Aug 2010. Vol.43, No.8. pp.39.
Singh R. 2000. Radio as a tool for development of rural
population. Journal of Adult Education. Vol. 66, No. 3.
pp.83-91.
Singh R. 2009. Community radio: A tool for participatory
Agricultural Development. Indian Journal of Adult
Education. Vol. 70, No. 4.pp.83-91.
Ullah, M.S. & Chowdhury, A.A. 2005. Community Radio
Movement in Bangladesh: In Search of Lobbying Strategies,
The Journal of Development Communication.
33
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
Socio-Economic Characteristics of Wheat Growers in Bidar District of North Karnataka
KAMALA KANT, NAZAM KHAN AND N.R. GANGADHARAPPA
Department of Agricultural Extension, University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bangalore
E-mail: kant.kamala@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The study was conducted in Humnabad taluk of Bidar district of north Karnataka, revealed that 33 per cent of the
respondents participated in meeting regularly followed by training programs (10%), whereas 29 per cent of the farmers
participated in meeting and field days occasionally followed by demonstration (26%) and field visits (25%). In case of
mass media participation, radio was the most common media, which was possessed by 68 per cent of the respondents.
While 8.82 per cent of the respondents were listening agricultural programmes regularly. Only 29 per cent and 5 per
cent of the respondents were the members and office bearers of Service Co-operative and their extent of participation
was found to be 20 per cent regularly. Ten per cent of the respondents were the members of Marketing Primary Cooperative Society and 11 per cent office bearers whereas, extent of participation regularly only 1 per cent.
Key words: Respondents, Participation and Demonstration
\
Wheat is grown in India over an area of about 27.99 million
ha. with a production of 75.81 million tones. The normal
National productivity is about 2708 kg/ha. The major Wheat
producing States are Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana,
Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Bihar, Maharashtra, Gujarat,
Karnataka, West Bengal, Uttaranchal, Himachal Pradesh
and Jammu & Kashmir. These States contribute about
99.5% of total Wheat production in the country. Remaining
States, namely, Jharkhand, Assam, Chhattisgarh, Delhi and
other North Eastern States contribute only about 0.5 % of
the total Wheat production in the country. Among food
grains, Wheat stands next to Rice, both in area and
production. The share of Wheat in total food grain
production is around 35.5% and share in area is about 21.8%
of the total area under food grains (Subbaiah Choudary &
Ahamed Ali, 2005). In Karnataka, wheat is grown in an area
of 2, 41991 ha with the production of 2, 06296 tones with an
average productivity 1.76 t/ha. It is much lower as compared
to national average (2.7 t/ha) as well as some other state like
Uttar Pradesh (2.65 t/ha), Punjab (4.23 t/ha), Haryana (3.87
t/ha) and Rajasthan. This big gap in yield level indicates
clearly that there is a direct need for the knowledge and
adoption of improved agricultural technology to increase the
yield level of wheat (2.74 t/ha) (Karnataka at a glance, 20052006). In Bidar district, it is grown as an important cereal
crop spread over 7373 ha with an annual production of 4546
tones and average productivity of about 1.62 t/ha (Karnataka
at a glance, 2005-2006). Farmers are generally not aware of
market information like supply, demand, prices prevailing in
the market, market charges, etc., which are crucial for
decision making at right time. Now with the development of
information technology, wheat producers can get the market
information quickly relating to various markets within the
state or outside the state. At present, there is no organized
market extension system to improve the awareness of
farmers in order to orient them towards market driven
production, and educate them about the benefits of adoption
of recommended cultivation practices.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was conducted in Bidar district of North
Karnataka State during 2007. This district was selected
purposively, because more area is under wheat cultivation.
In Bidar district, the area under wheat cultivation was
highest in Humnabad taluk (Karnataka at a glance, 20052006). Hence, this taluk was selected purposively. A
preliminary survey was conducted in some villages of
Humnabad taluk under Bidar district to gather primary
knowledge about wheat cultivation practices. After
preliminary visit, ten villages, namely Hankuni,
Welkhenddi, Itga, Phatmapur, Musturi, Udbal, Kudambal,
Chituguppa, Hudgi and Changlera were selected based on
the area and number of farmers growing wheat. From these,
ten wheat growers from each village were selected
randomly, thus the total sample size for the study became
100 respondents. The data were collected by personal
interview method and analyzed using Mean, Standard
Deviation, correlation and x2 square statistical tools.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Personal characteristics of wheat growers
Age
The results furnished in table 1 indicated that, 53 per cent of
the respondents were middle aged. Usually farmers of
middle age are enthusiastic and are having moderate
experience in farming and have more work efficiency than
older and younger ones. Further, middle aged farmers
possess more physical vigour and shoulder more family
responsibility than younger ones.
The results are in line with the finding of Gupta (1999).
34
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
Table 1: Personal characteristics of wheat growers
Characteristics
Category
Age
Young [upto 35 years]
Middle [36-50 years]
Old
[51 and above]
Education
Illiterate
Primary and Middle (school)
(1st to 7th standard)
High school
(8th to 10th standard
College ( PUC & above)
Marginal farmers
(upto 2.5 acre)
Small farmers
(2.5 to 5 acres)
Medium farmers
(5 to 10 acres)
Big farmers
(above 10 acres)
Low
[20,979]
Medium [20,979-1,67,360]
High
[1,67,360]
Nuclear
Joint
Land holding status
Annual income
Family type
(n = 100)
Respondents
Number
Per cent
13
53
34
27
24
13.00
53.00
34.00
27.00
24.00
25
25.00
24
2
24.00
2.00
26
26.00
45
45.00
27
27.00
21
65
14
53
47
21.00
65.00
14.00
53.00
47.00
enable to generating more income. Also wheat is one of the
cereal crops in the study area.
Education
It was observed that, 49 per cent of the respondents had
education above primary school. In general 73 per cent of
the respondents had education at different levels whereas,
only 27 per cent of the respondents were illiterates. The
possible reason might be the realization of importance of
formal education in one’s development by parents of
respondents, which might have motivated them to send their
children for schooling.
The above findings got support from the studies conducted
by Hanumanaikar (1995).
Family type
It was found that, 53 per cent of the respondents were from
nuclear family type. Because of the urbanization people
prefer to live in nuclear families for the sake of better
harmony and higher satisfaction by limited number of
members under one roof could be the possible reason to find
nuclear families.
This finding is in line with the findings of Channel (1995).
Participation in extension activities by wheat growers
Land holding status
The data in table 2 indicated that, 33 per cent of the
respondents participated in meeting regularly followed by
training programs (10%), whereas 29 per cent of the farmers
participated in meeting and field days occasionally followed
by demonstration (26%) and field visits (25%).
The result indicated that participation in extension activities
was very low and this might be due to lack of motivation
and interest of the respondents to participate in extension
activities.
This results is in line with the results of Gupta (1999) who
found that majority of respondents had not participated in
extension activities.
Majority (45%) of the respondents possessed medium
holdings followed by large land holding (27%). The possible
reasons that could be attributed for having medium land
holding by majority of the respondents might be that, the
agriculture is the main occupation of the family.
Annual income
Majority (65%) of the respondents income was between Rs.
20,979-1,67,360/- per annum followed by 21 per cent of the
respondents whose earning was 20,979/- annually. The
possible reason that could be attributed for their better socioeconomic conditions may be due to majority of the
respondents having medium to large land holding which
35
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
Table2: Participation of the wheat growers in various extension activities
Regular
Extension activities
(n = 100)
Extent of Respondents
Occasionally
Never
Freq.
Percent
Freq.
Percent
Freq.
Percent
Field days
Demonstrations
4
3
4.00
3.00
29
26
29.00
26.00
67
71
67.00
71.00
Training programmes
10
10.00
21
21.00
69
69.00
Field visits
8
8.00
25
25.00
67
67.00
Meeting
33
33.00
29
29.00
38
38.00
Multiple responses were possible.
Television the most popular mass media was
possessed by 61 per cent of the respondents. The possible
reason may be that, in present days television has become
more of a necessity thing rather than a luxury. At the same
time radio and television are considered as essential sources
of information.
One of the important print media is newspaper,
which was subscribed by 30 per cent of the respondents. The
reason expressed by the respondents for non subscription to
newspaper is lack of time and whenever they feel the
necessity of it they were going to neighbours house,
panchayat and nearby tea stall to read.
Mass media participation of wheat growers
The result in the table 3 revealed that, radio was the
most common media, which was possessed by 68 per cent of
the respondents. This might be due to the reason that a
common man can easily afford to possess radio. When the
radio listening behaviour was analyzed, 42.64 per cent of the
respondents were listening to news regularly. Only 8.82 per
cent of the respondents were listening agricultural
programmes regularly. The possible reason might be that in
general the agricultural programmes broadcasted were
perceived to be not need based and location specific. Thus
they are perceived to lack practicability and adoptability.
Table 3: Mass media participation of wheat growers
Media and
Programmes
(n = 100)
Possession / Subscription
Freq.
Radio
Agricultural programmes
News
General programmes
Television
Agricultural programmes
News
General programmes
68
News paper
30
Per cent
68
61
Freq.
Regular
Per cent
Frequency of utilisation
Occasional
Freq.
Per cent
Freq.
Never
Per cent
6
29
22
8.82
42.64
32.35
32
34
40
47.05
50
58.82
30
5
6
44.11
7.35
8.82
5
34
30
8.19
55.73
49.18
30
26
23
49.18
42.62
37.70
26
1
8
42.62
1.63
13.11
23
76.66
7
23.33
--
--
61
30
Political news
participation was found to be 20 per cent regularly. Ten per
cent of the respondents were the members of Marketing
Primary Co-operative Society and 11 per cent office bearers
whereas, extent of participation regularly only 1 per cent.
Social participation of wheat growers
The data in table 4 revealed that only 29 per cent
and 5 per cent of the respondents were the members and
office bearers of Service Co-operative and their extent of
Table4: Social participation of wheat growers
Name of organization
Service co-operative society
MPCS
Gram panchayat
TAPCMS
PLDB
APMC
Office bearer
5
11
7
3
7
2
5.00
11.00
7.00
3.00
7.00
2.00
(n=100)
Member
Freq.
29
10
9
4
10
4
Percent
29.00
10.00
9.00
4.00
10.00
4.00
Multiple responses were possible.
Finding revealed that participation in extension activities
was very low and this might be due to lack of motivation
and interest of the respondents to participate in extension
activities. One of the important print media is newspaper,
which was subscribed by 30 per cent of the respondents. The
Freq.
20
1
6
1
7
7
Regular
Percent
20.00
1.00
6.00
1.00
7.00
7.00
Extent of participation
Occasional
Freq.
Percent
23
23.00
10
10.00
20
20.00
3
3.00
6
6.00
22
22.00
Freq.
57
89
74
96
87
71
Never
Percent
57.00
89.00
74.00
96.00
87.00
71.00
reason expressed by the respondents for non subscription to
newspaper is lack of time and whenever they feel the
necessity of it they were going to neighbours house,
panchayat and nearby tea stall to read.
36
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
REFERENCES
Anonymous 2005. Karnataka at a glance 2005-2006.
Government of Karnataka, Bangalore.
Kashmir state. M.Sc. (Ag) Thesis (Unpub.), University of
Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad.
Channal, G.P. 1995. A study on knowledge and adoption
behaviour of shareholders and non-shareholders of cooperative sugar factories in Belgaum district. M.Sc. (Agri.)
Thesis (Unpub.), University of Agricultural Sciences,
Dharwad.
Hanumanaikar, R.H. 1995. A study on knowledge,
adoption and marketing behaviour of sunflower growers in
Dharwad district. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis (Unpub.), University
of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad.
Subbaiah Choudary, P.V. and Ahamed Ali, S.M. 2005.
Status Paper on Wheat, CIFA, Hyderabad, pp. 1-10.
Gupta, V. 1999. A study on the knowledge and adoption
behaviour of rice growers in Jammu district of Jammu and
37
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
Study on micronutrients in aonla (Emblica officinalis G.) orchards in semi arid zone of Rajasthan
1
M. K. JAT, S.K. CHOUDHARY1 AND 2H.S.PUROHIT
P.G. (Agril.) Student. Div.of Soil Sci. & Agril.Chemistry,College of Agriculture, SKRAU ,Bikaner – 335002
2
Assoc.Professor, Div. of Soil Sci. & Agril.Chemistry Rajasthan College of Agriculture, MPUAT, Udaipur-313001
Email:
1
ABSTRACT
Twenty representative Aonla orchards of Chomu Tehsil (district Jaipur) of Rajasthan were selected and depth wise
composite soil samples were collected from 0 to 30, 30 to 45 and 45 to 60 cm. The textural classes of the soils varied from
sandy loam to loamy sand. The calcium carbonate content in soils showed increasing trend with depth and it increased
significantly with increased in sand, available calcium, pH and magnesium. The soils of study areas were non-saline in
nature and EC values decreased with the increase of soil depth. The organic carbon content in soils has been found to
be low. Amongst micronutrients, available Fe, Zn and B contents in soils of most of the orchards have been found
deficient while, Cu and Mn were found deficient to medium. Analysis of aonla leaf samples showed that the
concentrations of Fe and Cu were found sufficient in majority of samples but the concentrations of Zn. Mn and B in
leaves falls under low range.
Key words: micronutrients, Aonla
The importance of fruits in providing nutrition particularly
vitamins and minerals in human diet is well known. The per
capita availability of fruits in the country is only 46 gram
per day which is one of the lowest in world as compared to
the requirement of 92 gram as prescribed by Indian Council
of Medical Research. The soil, which provides nutrients to
the plants, is considered key source for fruit production.
Soils of the study areas were poor in fertility status as they
are coarse textured having high pH, soluble salts, high
content of CaCO3. The mounting pressure on the nutrient
soil resources would cause their deficiency. Therefore,
exploration of micronutrient status of soil and plant is
needed to obtain desired production of Aonla.
It is clear from the data presented in (Table1) indicated that
the sand content in soils of Aonla orchards of Chomu tehsil
ranged between 72.60 to 83.00 per cent with mean values
77.28 per cent. The silt content in these soils varied between
8.80 to 13.60 per cent with mean value 11.10. Clay content
in Aonla orchards of Chomu tehsil soils ranged between 6.2
to 14.30 per cent. The mechanical composition revealed that
the textural classes of soils of the study areas were found to
vary from sandy loam to loamy sand. Soils of the tract were
mostly sandy in nature. The sand content decreased
regularly with soil depth in all the orchards, while, both silt
and clay contents increased with depth In general, soils of
the study area were sandy in nature, which generally
manifests in poor structural development, relatively low
moisture and nutrient retention capacity, high infiltration
rates and susceptibility to wind erosion. These results have
conformity with the findings of Kolarkar et al. (1989).
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Sixty representative composite surface and sub surface soil
samples (0-30, 30-45 and 45-60 cm) from twenty orchards
of Chomu tehsil were collected. The pH and electrical
conductivity of the soil samples were measures in 1: 2 soil
water suspension described by Richards (1954). The content
of organic carbon in the soil samples was determined using
the procedures described by Piper (1950) and calcium
carbonated was estimated by rapid titration method
described by Hutchinson and McLennan,(1914). Texture of
the soil samples was estimated by Bouyoucos (1962).
Available Zn, Fe, Cu and Mn contents in soil samples were
estimated on AAS described by Lindsay and Norvell(1978)
and available boron content in soil samples were determined
with help of Colorimetric method given by Berger and
Truog (1939). And plant analysis was digestion for method
uses wet digestion of plant sample with H2SO4 and H2O2
using the procedures Di-acid digestion and estimated Zn, Fe,
Cu and Mn contents in plant samples were estimated on
AAS described by (Johnson and Ulrich 1959), and Boron
content in plant samples were determined with help of
Estimation with AAS by dry ashing technique (Hatcher and
Wilcox 1950)
Table 1: Mechanical composition of soils (per cent)
Sand
Silt
Clay
Minimum
72.60
8.80
6.20
Maximum
83.00
13.60
14.30
Average
77.28
11.10
11.13
Further data presented table -2 reseals that CaCO3 content
in soils of orchards of Chomu tehsil showed increasing trend
with depth. Increase in the CaCO3 content with depth
indicates that the calcium leached down from surface soils
to sub surface soils and accumulated in the form of calcium
carbonate as secondary carbonate. Similar results were also
observed for arid and semi arid regions by Mediratta et al.
(1985).
Organic carbon content showed a regular
decreasing trend with soil depth. As per rating given the
soils having < 0.5 per cent have been categorized in low
organic carbon. The extremely low organic carbon content
of these soils could be counted to occasional addition of
organic materials, lack of natural vegetation and poor
moisture retention capacity of soils coupled with high
temperature resulting enhanced oxidation of organic matter
content. These results are in close agreement with the
findings of Kanthaliya and Bhatt (1991).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
ANALYSIS OF SOILS
38
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
The pH of soils at different orchards showed an
irregular trend with depth. The results of investigation are in
close proximity with the findings of Bhatnagar (2001).
Further it is clear from the table-3 that average nutrients
contents i.e. Iron, zinc, copper, manganese and boron were
recorded maximum at 0 to30 cm. soil depth and gradually
decreased with increasing soil depth up to 45 to 60 cm in all
orchards of Chomu tehsil. All the surface soil sample were
found deficient to marginal in available iron, zinc, copper,
manganese and boron. The systemic decreasing trend with
all the available nutrients in soil with increasing that might
be due to high pH, CaCO3 light texture soil and very low in
organic carbon content. The CaCO3 present get converted to
bicarbonate ions and this condition known as “lime induced
chlorosis” (Singh et al. 1988 )
Similar results were
reported by Padmaja et al. (2000)
Table 2: Physico-chemical characteristics of soils of
orchards of Chomu Tehsil
2.00
7.00
4.01
0.19
0.44
0.34
7.60
8.61
8.02
0.12
0.91
3.50
8.00
4.80
0.16
0.42
0.32
7.68
8.50
8.02
0.13
0.96
45 – 60
cm
3.80
9.00
5.43
0.15
0.41
0.29
7.71
8.65
8.04
0.14
0.95
0.51
0.51
0.50
0-30 cm
CaCO3
(per cent)
Organic carbon
(%)
pH2 (1:2 soil water
suspension)
EC2
(dS m-1)
Minimum
Maximum
Average
Minimum
Maximum
Average
Minimum
Maximum
Aver
Minimum
Maximum
Average
30-45 cm
ANALYSIS OF PLANTS
It is clear from the data presented in table-4 reveals that the
iron content of aonla leaf varied from 80.72 to149.85 mg kg 1
It is summarized from the data that all samples were
sufficient in iron content. This might be due to its regular
foliar applications by the growers on standing plants.
Similar results were reported by Kumar (2007). While zinc
content of aonla leaf was observed minimum to maximum
value of 5.40-10.70 mg kg-1 all the samples studied were
found low in zinc content. The fairly low zinc content in the
aonla leaf samples might be attributed to the zincphosphorus interaction in soils. Kumar (2007). The copper
content of aonla leaves varied from 5.27 to 11.24 mg kg-1
while Manganese content of aonla leaf varied from 3.21 to
10.78 24 mg kg-1. And Boron content of leaf varied from
19.00 to 32.00 mg kg-1 mostly samples studied were found
sufficient in boron content. This result of present study is in
accordance to Sharma and Bhandari (1995). might be due to
moderate availability of copper in studied orchard soils.
Gathala et al. (2004)
Data pertaining to the electrical conductivity of
soils revealed that the electrical conductivity decreased with
the increasing of soil depth. All soil samples of orchards of
Chomu tehsil having electrical conductivity values less than
1dS m-1. The low value of electrical conductivity indicates
that the accumulation of the salts in these soils was less.
Similar type of findings was also observed by Ahlawat et al.
(1985).
Table 3: Nutrients contents in orchards soils of Chomu
Tehsil
0-30 cm
Iron (mg kg-1)
Zinc (mg kg-1)
Copper (mg kg-1)
Manganese
(mg kg-1)
Boron (mg kg-1)
Minimum
Maximum
Average
Minimum
Maximum
Average
Minimum
Maximum
Average
Minimum
Maximum
Average
Minimum
Maximum
Average
3.25
6.03
4.58
0.26
1.18
0.73
0.15
0.56
0.38
1.61
6.43
4.40
0.36
0.69
0.54
30-45 cm
2.97
5.97
4.36
0.23
1.14
0.70
0.12
0.51
0.35
1.52
6.34
4.30
0.33
0.65
0.50
45 – 60
cm
2.92
5.81
4.27
0.21
1.12
0.67
0.10
0.50
0.33
1.51
6.28
4.26
0.32
0.63
0.48
Table 4. Nutritional Status of aonla leaves of Chomu tehsil
of Jaipur district
Minimum
80.72
Iron (mg kg-1)
Zinc (mg kg-1)
Maximum
149.85
Average
112.21
5.40
10.70
8.13
5.27
11.24
8.74
Manganese (mg kg )
3.21
10.78
7.49
Boron (mg kg-1)
19.00
32.00
25.90
-1
Copper (mg kg )
-1
REFERENCES
Ahlawat, V.P.; Dahiya, S.S. and Yamdagni, R. (1985)
Nutritional survey of mango orchards in Haryana. Ha ryana
J. Hort. Sci., 14: 146-150.
Gathala, M.K., Yadav, B.L. and Singh, S.D. (2004).
Mineral nutrient status of pomegranate orchards in Jaipur
district of Rajasthan. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci. 52: 206-208.
Berger, K.C. and Truog. (1939) Boron determination in
soils and plants using quienalizarin reaction. Ind. Eng.
Chem. II 540-545.
Hutchinson, H.B. and McLennan, K.J. (1914) Agric. Sci.;
6: 323 – 327
Hatcher, J.T. and Wilcox, L.V. (1950). Colorimetric
determination of boron using carmine. Anal. Chem. 22: 567
– 569.
Bhatnagar, P. (2000) Nutritional survey of orchards in
Bikaner district. Unpublished Ph.D. (Ag.) Thesis, Rajasthan
Agricultural University, Bikaner.
Johnson, C.M. and Ulrich, A. (1959). Analytical method
for use in Plant Analysis. Calofornia Agr. Esp. Sta. Bull.,
766.
Bouyoucaus, H.J. (1962) A hydrometer method for the
determination of textural classes of soils.Tech. Bul.132,
Michigan State Co. Agr. Exp. Stn.1– 38.
39
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
Kanthaliya, P.C. and Bhatt, P.L. (1991) Relation between
organic carbon and available nutrients in some soils of subhumid zone. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci., 4:781-782.
Padmaja, G., Pratap, M. and Rameshwar, A. (2000).
Nutrient status of mango orchards in Ranga Reddy district
of Andhra Pradesh. J. of Research ANG RAU, 63-65.
Kumar, R. (2007). Response of soil nutrient status on leaf
nutrient content and Fruit yield of Aonla. M.Sc. (Ag.)
Thesis, Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaner
Piper, C.S. (1950) Soil and Plant analysis. The University
of Adelaide, Australia.
Richards, L.A. (1954) Diagnosis and improvement of
saline and alkali soils. U.S.D.A., Handbook No. 60,
Washington, D.C.
Lindsay, W.L. and Norvell, W.A. (1978) Development of
DTPA soil test for zinc, manganese and copper. Soil
Sci.Soc.Am. 2 J., 4: 421-428.
Sharma, J.C. and Bhandari, A.R. 1995. Mineral nutrient
status of Apple orchards in Himachal Pradesh. J. Indian Soc.
Soil Sci. 43 : 236-241
Mediratta, J.C. Bansal, K.N. and Gupta, G.P. (1985)
Characterization of some affected soils of Haesi command
area of M.P. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci.: 214-217.
40
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
Economics of organic tomato production
ABHIJITH KUMAR, V. P., L. GIRIJA DEVI AND V. L. GEETHAKUMARI
Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum syn. Solanum lycopersicum ) is considered as an important commercial and dietary
vegetable crop. As it is a short duration crop and gives high yield, it is important from economic point of view. Tomato
fruit is a rich source of minerals, vitamins, organic acids, essential amino acids and dietary fibres. Tomatoes are an
excellent source of ascorbic acid, a nutrient known for its antioxidant action. It is a rich source of vitamin A also. The
fibre in tomato lowers the cholesterol and also helps in removing carcinogenic compounds from the colon. Because of all
these, it is a need to produce this crop devoid of any chemicals and it is in this context, the concept of organic farming
especially for vegetable gaining importance. It is in this context, a study on organic tomato cultivation for assessing the
yield and quality aspects of organic tomato with its economics of production was undertaken.
variety tried was “Vellayani Vijai”, a new variety released
from the College of Agriculture, Vellayani.
The following common treatments were also included.
► 3 % Neem seed oil-garlic emulsion spray from
transplanting onwards at frequent intervals.
► Pseudomonas spraying at frequent intervals @ 10 g litre -1
► Trichoderma incorporation in the soil at the time of
transplanting
► Mulching at the initial stage uniformly
► Uniform irrigation as and when required.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A field experiment was conducted in the Instructional Farm
of College of Agriculture, Vellayani, Trivandrum, Kerala
during 2009-2010 to study the organic nutrition of tomato
with four levels of nutrients as N1-Full recommended dose
as organic ( 200 kg N as FYM and enriched vermicompost
at 1:1 ratio), N2- 75 % of recommended dose only and as
organic (150 kg N as FYM and enriched vermicompost at
1:1 ratio), N3- 50 % recommended dose only and as organic
(100 kg N as FYM and enriched vermicompost at 1:1 ratio)
and N4- Package of Practices Recommendations of Kerala
Agricultural University ( FYM -25 t ha-1 and NPK @
75:40:25 kg ha-1). Spacing was also included as a treatment
(S1- 60 cm x 60 cm, S2-60 cm x 45 cm and S3-60 cm x 30
cm).
The experiment was conducted in a factorial randomised
block design (RBD) with three replications. The tomato
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results of the study revealed that the effect of nutrient
levels and spacing were significant with respect to fruit
yield, shelf life of fruits and quality parameters (Tables 1 &
2). The economic analysis of the data also revealed the
significance of nutrient levels and spacing (Table 3).
Table1. Effect of nutrient levels and spacing on fruit yield and shelf life
Treatments
Nutrients (N)
N1
N2
N3
N4
S.E.
C.D.
Spacing (S)
S1
S2
S3
S.E.
C.D.
Interaction
N1S1
N1S2
N1S3
N2S1
N2S2
N2S3
N3S1
N3S2
N3S3
N4S1
N4S2
N4S3
S.E.
C.D.
Fruit yield
(g plant-1)
Fruit yield
(t ha-1)
Storage days in open
air
Storage days in 30
micron plastic cover
Storage days in
paper cover
387.13
285.75
214.89
557.47
3.048
8.939
17.18
12.92
9.61
27.75
0.145
0.424
6.65
8.05
6.04
4.35
0.076
0.223
9.82
9.48
9.29
9.45
0.049
0.144
13.77
12.39
12.54
13.94
0.085
0.249
425.54
368.42
289.97
2.639
7.741
15.71
16.48
18.40
0.125
0.368
5.26
5.73
7.82
0.067
0.193
7.12
10.25
11.16
0.043
0.125
11.75
14.01
13.72
0.073
0.215
438.94
398.64
323.81
337.97
295.90
223.38
262.04
223.28
159.34
663.19
555.88
453.35
5.279
15.482
16.75
16.95
17.85
12.56
12.84
13.35
8.91
9.84
10.07
24.64
26.29
32.32
0.251
0.735
4.62
6.17
9.17
7.66
7.60
8.88
4.51
5.03
8.57
4.25
4.12
4.68
0.131
0.386
6.49
10.61
12.36
9.06
9.22
10.16
5.65
10.78
11.44
7.28
10.41
10.67
0.085
0.250
11.82
14.20
15.30
11.20
14.51
11.47
10.52
13.49
13.61
13.48
13.84
14.51
0.147
0.431
41
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
The highest fruit yield was in N4 (Control-POP
recommendation) followed by N1( Full organic substitution)
and N2 ( 75 % of recommended dose) and the lowest in N3 (
50 % of recommended dose). The fruits were also found the
heaviest and plump in N4 followed by N1 and N2 and the
lightest and smallest in N3. NPK application plus FYM
recorded higher fruit yield and fruit weight plant-1 of tomato
crop as reported by Krishna and Krishnappa (2002). The
application of recommended rates of N, P and K (100, 75
and 55 kg ha-1respectively) with FYM and vermicompost
(250 and 12.5 quintals ha-1respectively) was superior in
terms of average fruit weight in tomato cv. Naveen (Shukla
et al., 2006). Higher fruit weight in case of superior organic
treatment could be due to the presence of azospirillum and
phosphobacteria enriched vermicompost. Rodge and Yadlod
(2009) observed that the heaviest tomato fruits were
obtained in case of integrated application of 50 %
recommended fertilizer dose plus 50 % FYM. Raut et al.
(2003) reported higher fruit yields in tomato with integrated
supply of NPK plus FYM. He also reported that the higher
number of fruits plant-1was recorded with azospirillum plus
phosphate solubilising bacteria. Moreover, FYM applied for
organic treatments was subjected to trichoderma mass
multiplication as common treatment. Pseudomonas putida
and Trichoderma atroviride were shown to improve
greenhouse tomato yields in organic medium (Valerie et al.,
2007). These could be the reasons for the higher yields in
case of superior organic treatments. Kumaran et al. (1998)
found out that the number of fruits plant-1was the best with
organic plus inorganic fertilizer, azospirillum and
phosphobacteria.
The widest spaced (S1) plants gave the highest fruit yield
(425.54 g plant-1) followed by the wider spaced (S2), (289.97
g plant-1) and the closely spaced plants (S3), the lowest.
Close spacing has been shown to have a detrimental effect
on fruit set apparently because of an inadequate supply of
photosynthates due to shading (Timm, 1973). Low light
intensities, short photoperiods and high night temperature
are important limiting factors to fruit set (Wittwer and
Honma, 1979). Papadopoulos and Ormrod (1990) reported
that the total marketable yield plant-1declined linearly with
successive increase in plant density. At closer spacing of
tomato, the crop should be adequately fertilized to get
higher yields as reported by Mehta et al. (2000). The
interaction effects were also significant with the highest fruit
yield in N4S1 followed by N4S2 and the lowest in N3S3 which
was significantly inferior to all other combinations.
Similarly the widest spaced plants (S1) produced the
heaviest and plump fruits (22.72 g) followed by the wider
spaced (S2) and the lightest and smallest fruits by the closely
spaced (S3) plants (20.51 g). Detrimental effect on fruit set
apparently because of an inadequate supply of
photosynthates due to shading is reported by Timm (1973).
The wider spacing of plants helped in setting heavier fruits
and lighter fruits by closer planting. Saglam et al. (1995)
reported that wider spacing for tomato gave heavier fruits
plant-1than closer spacing. Closer spacing or high density
planting led to increased shading and hence there occurred
light reduction in the canopy. The interaction effects were
significant with N4S1 producing the heaviest and plump
fruits (28.10 g) followed by N4S2 and N4S3 and N3S3
producing the lightest and smallest fruits (17.91 g).
Table 2. Effect of nutrient levels and spacing on fruit quality
Treatments
Nutrients (N)
N1
N2
N3
N4
S.E.
C.D.
Spacing (S)
S1
S2
S3
S.E.
C.D.
Interaction
N1S1
N1S2
N1S3
N2S1
N2S2
N2S3
N3S1
N3S2
N3S3
N4S1
N4S2
N4S3
S.E.
C.D.
Vitamine C (mg
100-1 g fruit)
TSS content of
mature green
fruits (0B)
TSS content of
red ripe fruits
(0B)
Lycopene (mg
100-1 g fruit)
Average fruit
weight
(g)
Average fruit
girth
(cm)
26.18
23.89
20.91
19.47
0.361
1.058
5.03
4.61
4.19
4.89
0.021
0.062
5.26
4.87
4.49
5.00
0.030
0.088
7.33
6.63
4.64
7.25
0.131
0.384
21.49
20.19
18.69
25.88
0.085
0.251
11.56
11.49
11.08
12.92
0.026
0.077
22.08
22.74
23.02
0.312
NS
4.69
4.67
4.67
0.018
NS
4.95
4.89
4.87
0.026
NS
6.68
6.51
6.20
0.113
NS
22.72
21.47
20.51
0.074
0.217
12.2
11.76
11.33
0.023
0.067
25.60
26.12
26.82
23.64
23.31
24.73
19.88
21.99
20.85
19.19
19.53
19.68
0.625
NS
5.13
5.03
4.93
4.53
4.63
4.67
4.13
4.20
4.23
4.97
4.83
4.87
0.036
0.108
5.30
5.27
5.20
4.90
4.87
4.83
4.53
4.47
4.47
5.07
4.97
4.97
0.052
NS
8.69
7.25
6.04
6.48
7.06
6.37
5.20
4.70
4.03
6.36
7.05
8.34
0.227
0.666
22.39
21.24
20.85
20.82
20.22
19.54
19.55
18.61
17.91
28.1
25.82
23.74
0.148
0.435
12.09
11.52
11.08
11.82
11.57
11.09
11.39
11.27
10.58
13.48
12.68
12.58
0.045
0.133
42
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
The shelf life of tomato was the longest in N2 (8.05 days)
under open storage condition followed by N1 (6.65 days)
and N3 (6.04 days) and the shortest in N4 (4.35 days). The
organic treatments had FYM and rockphosphate enriched
vermicompost with azospirillum and phosphobacter in 1:1
proportion. Sreedevi et al. (2005) reported that among the
organically and chemically cultivated tomato crops,
vermicompost applied tomato crop had longer shelf life
when stored at room temperature in kharif season. The shelf
life was the longest in closely spaced plants (S3) (7.82 days)
followed by the wider spaced (S2) and the widest spaced
(S1), the shortest (5.26 days). The interaction effects were
significant with the longest shelf life in N1S3 and N2S3 (9.17
and 8.88 days respectively) which were on par followed by
N3S3 (8.57 days) and the shortest in N4S2 (4.12 days).
In 30 micron plastic cover it was in N1, the storage period
the longest (9.82 days) followed by N2 and N4 and the
shortest in N3 (9.29 days). When the fruits were kept in 30
micron plastic cover, full organic substitution was used to
mass multiply trichoderma with FYM in the organic
treatment. Enriched vermicompost took half the proportion
of organic treatment. Sable et al. (2007) reported that the
presence of neem cake and vermicompost enhanced for
nitrogen supply to the tomato plants recorded higher shelf
life for the fruits. The shelf life was the longest in closely
spaced (S3) plants (11.16 days) followed by the wider
spaced (S2) and the widest (S1), the shortest (7.12 days). The
interaction effects were significant and the longest in N 1S3
(12.36 days) followed by N3S3 (11.44 days) and the shortest
in N3S1 (5.65 days).
In paper cover, the longest storage life was in N4 (13.94
days) followed by N1 which were on par and the shortest in
N2 (12.39 days) and was on par with N3. These results were
in proximity with the reports of Patil et al. (2004) who
substantiated that the storage life of fruits was the highest
for 50 % recommended fertilizer dose plus 50 % FYM, 50
% recommended fertilizer dose plus 50 % vermicompost
and 100 % organic fertilizers (which included 25 % FYM
and 25 % vermicompost) and were 6.91, 7.00 and 6.22 days
respectively. The widely spaced (S2) plants retained the
storage period for long (14.01 days) compared to the widest
spaced (S1) and closely spaced (S3) plants (11.75 and 13.72
days respectively). The interaction effects were significant
with the longest shelf life in N1S3 (15.30 days) followed by
N2S2, N4S3 and N1S2 respectively which were on par with
each other and the shortest in N3S1 (10.52 days).
The results of the organoleptic tests revealed the superiority
of full organic nutrient source (N1) in taste and colour, while
the superiority of integrated nutrient management (N4) in
size of fruits.
The quality parameters such as vitamin C, total soluble
solids (TSS) and lycopene content were significantly
influenced by nutrient levels and were the highest in N1.
Prabhakaran (2008) proved that application of organic
nitrogen sources to the soil and for tomato improved the
quality parameters of tomato. Higher lycopene content for
organically grown tomatoes were also reported by Kumaran
et al. (1998). Increased lycopene content in fruits could also
be due to enhanced potassium uptake in case of organic
treatments recorded in this experiment. The colour
development in fruits depends on the lycopene synthesis.
Organic treatment with vermicompost and azospirillum
enhanced the lycopene content of fruits according to Kannan
et al. (2006). The influence of potassium levels upon the
lycopene content of tomato was reported by Serio et al.
(2007) and Zdravkovic et al. (2007). It was found that
application of organic nitrogen sources increased vitamin C
content of tomato over no manure control (Prabhakaran and
Pitchai, 2002). Raut et al. reported high vitamin C content in
fruits when FYM plus azospirillum were applied together.
Sable et al. (2007) observed more vitamin C content in
treatments where 50 % nitrogen through neem cake and 50
% nitrogen through vermicompost as well as 25 % nitrogen
through neem cake and 75 % nitrogen through
vermicompost were given together.
Full organic nitrogen treatment (N1) recorded maximum
TSS content for both the green mature ones and fully red
ripe fruits followed by the control (POP recommendation).
The presence of rockphosphate enriched vermicompost in
presence of azospirillum and P solubiliser in the organic
treatments could have raised the TSS content of fruits as
reported by Patil and Madalageri (2003). Kannan et al.
(2006) reported that application of vermicompost in
combination with 2 kg azospirillum for tomato resulted in
the highest total solids (5.4 %). Rodriguez et al. (2007)
found out that addition of 50 % vermicompost to the growth
medium increased the soluble solids in tomato fruits. Pieper
and Barrett (2009 found that the total and soluble solids
were significantly higher and consistency was greater in
organic tomatoes. The control (POP recommendation)
recorded higher TSS content in fruits compared with the
inferior organic treatments. According to Rodge and Yadlod
(2009), the TSS content of fruits was significantly more in
case of integrated application of 50 % recommended
fertilizer dose plus 50 % FYM.
Full organic nitrogen substitution (N1) as well as N4
(control) recorded the highest lycopene content of fruits and
the lowest in N3. Potassium nutrition and uptake have
significant role in lycopene synthesis. Serio et al. (2007)
reported that with increased potassium level, the lycopene
content also increased linearly. Zdravkovic et al. (2007) also
reported that the content of lycopene increased in plants
treated with increased content of potassium. Potassium
uptake were the highest for the organic treatments compared
with N4 (control). But still, N4 had a positive impact on
lycopene synthesis in-spite of its low potassium uptake.
Kumaran et al. (1998) reported that quality parameters such
as lycopene were comparatively higher in organically grown
tomato plants. Enriched vermicompost in presence of
azospirillum would have raised the lycopene synthesis. It
was reported that vermicompost application to tomato crop
cultivated in kharif registered significantly higher lycopene
content compared to other organically grown tomato
(Sreedevi et al., 2005). Kannan et al. (2006) reported that
application of 75 % vermicompost in combination with 2 kg
azospirillum for tomato resulted in high lycopene content
(3.7 mg 100 g-1). Lycopene content of conventionally
cultivated tomato was found to be significantly lower. The
interaction effects were significant with the highest content
of TSS and lycopene in N1S1 (95.13 and 8.69 respectively)
and TSS content, the lowest in N3S1 (4.13) and lycopene, the
lowest in N3S3 (4.03).
43
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
Thus, it could be concluded that when all the quality
parameters of tomato were looked upon, the superior
organic treatment with neem cake- trichoderma mass
multiplied FYM and rockphosphate enriched vermicompost
(in presence of azospirillum and phosphate solubiliser)
recorded maximum improvement in fruit quality compared
to the control (POP recommendation).
Benefit: Cost ratio (B: C ratio)
The B: C ratio at normal market price and premium prices
were worked out. At the normal market price, the B: C ratio
was the highest in N4 (1.76) followed by N1 and N2 and the
lowest in N3 (0.61). The closely spaced (S3) plants recorded
the highest B: C ratio (1.17) followed by the wider spaced
(S2) with a B: C ratio of 1.04 and the widest spaced (S1), the
lowest (0.99). The interaction effects were significant with
the highest B: C ratio in N4S3 (2.05) followed by N4S2, N4S1
and N1S3 and the lowest in N3S1 (0.56). The treatments N3S3
and N3S2 were also recorded B: C ratios less than one.
Table 3. Effect of nutrient levels and spacing on the economics of tomato and tomato-amaranthus sequence
Treatments
Nutrients (N)
N1
N2
N3
N4
S.E.
C.D.
Spacing (S)
S1
S2
S3
S.E.
C.D.
Interaction
N1S1
N1S2
N1S3
N2S1
N2S2
N2S3
N3S1
N3S2
N3S3
N4S1
N4S2
N4S3
S.E.
C.D.
B:C ratio of tomato at
normal price
B:C ratio of tomato
at premium price
B:C ratio of
amaranthus at normal
price
Combined B:C ratio
at normal market
price
Combined B:C
ratio at
premium price
1.09
0.82
0.61
1.76
0.009
0.027
1.31
0.98
0.73
1.76
0.010
0.031
1.67
1.08
0.99
1.94
0.007
0.020
1.20
0.87
0.68
1.80
0.007
0.022
1.38
1.00
0.78
1.79
0.008
0.025
0.99
1.04
1.17
0.008
0.023
1.12
1.17
1.30
0.009
0.027
1.40
1.42
1.43
0.004
NS
1.08
1.12
1.22
0.006
0.019
1.17
1.22
1.32
0.007
0.021
1.06
1.07
1.13
0.80
0.81
0.85
0.56
0.62
0.64
1.56
1.67
2.05
0.016
0.047
1.27
1.29
1.36
0.96
0.98
1.02
0.68
0.75
0.77
1.56
1.67
2.05
0.018
0.053
1.65
1.68
1.68
1.06
1.08
1.10
0.99
0.99
0.98
1.90
1.95
1.96
0.011
NS
1.18
1.19
1.24
0.85
0.87
0.90
0.65
0.70
0.71
1.63
1.72
2.03
0.013
0.037
1.35
1.36
1.42
0.97
0.99
1.03
0.74
0.80
0.81
1.63
1.72
2.03
0.015
0.043
Assuming a 20 % hike for the organic produce in the market
(considered as the premium price), B: C ratio was
determined at the premium price. The effects of nutrient
levels and spacing were significant with the highest B: C
ratio in N4 (1.76) followed by N1 and N2 and the lowest in
N3 (0.73). The closely spaced plants (S3) recorded the
highest B: C ratio (1.30) followed by the wider spaced (S 2)
with a B: C ratio of 1.17 and the widest spaced (S1), the
lowest (1.10). The interaction effects were significant with
the highest B: C ratio in N4S3 (2.05) followed by N4S2, N4S1,
N1S3 and the lowest in N3S1 (0.68). The treatments N3S3 and
N3S2 were also recorded B: C ratios less than one.
Thus, it could be concluded that POP recommendation (N 4)
along with a closer planting at 60 cm x 30 cm (S3) spacing
could economize the farmers’ budget in tomato cultivation.
This combination could record a high B: C ratio of 2.05
even at an off season cultivation. The economic returns from
this crop would be again improved if it is raised at the
proper time preferably in October. Organic cultivation could
be envisaged upon with full organic nitrogen substitution via
FYM and enriched vermicompost in 1:1 proportion
combined with a closer spacing of 60 cm x 30 cm for better
farm economics, provided that a premium price is assured
for the produce. This combination also recorded a better B:
C ratio of 1.36 and is farmer satisfactory.
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45
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
Crop Productivity and Training Needs of Beneficiary Farmers in Watershed Development
Programme
1
SHAILENDRA SINGH, 2 V.K. KHADDAR, 3R.P. AHIRWAR, AND 3LEELAVATI
Research Associate, 2Professor, 3Assistant Professor, Departmental of Soil Science and Agriculture Chmeistry,
College of Agriculture, Indore, Madhya pradesh-452001
Email: shailendrathakurb4u@gmail.com
1
ABSTRACT
The study was carried out in NWDPRA Solsinda watershed in Indore district of Madhya Pradesh during 2006-07 to
assess the crop productivity and to identify the training needs of beneficiary farmers. Two hundred and ten participant
farmers were interviewed for the purpose. It was found that there was a significant increase in both Soybean and ragi
yield levels of participant farmers. Majority of the respondents expressed the need to train them on in situ moisture
conservation, selection of specific crops and varieties, pests and disease control etc. Lack of knowledge regarding the
watershed activities was the major constraint faced by the beneficiaries of watershed development programme.
Key Words: Watershed, Productivity, Training Needs, Soybean, Ragi
Watershed development refers to an integrated scientific
management of land, soil, water, vegetation, animals and
human population within a natural geographic unit. About
51% of India’s geographical area (329 million ha) is
categorized as degraded, most of which occurs in rainfed
agro-eco systems.
About 70% of the population is dependent on agriculture,
and two thirds of the cropped area is dependent on rainfall
without any protective irrigation (Wani et al. 2001).
Currently the average productivity of rainfed areas in the
SAT is around 800-1 000 kg ha-1. Several studies have
identified the main constraints for increased productivity in
the tropics as low rainwater use efficiency for crop
production (35-45%), inherent low soil fertility,
inappropriate soil, water and nutrient management practices,
low adoption of stress-tolerant cultivars of crops,
insufficient pest management options and poverty (inability
to invest for necessary inputs). Due to variations in seasonal
rains during the crop growing period, crops may face
drought and sometimes waterlogging due to torrential
downpours causing runoff. In order to conserve rainwater,
minimize land degradation, improve ground water recharge,
increase crop intensity and crop productivity a watershed
management approach is adopted (Kerr et al. 2000; Samra
1997; Wani et al. 2002).The overall goal of watershed
project is to develop the natural resource base, sustain its
productivity and to improve the standard of living of
millions of rural poor and endeavour for restoration of
ecological balance. For the sustainable development of the
watershed programme, the people living in the watershed
who are responsible for the situation, who are affected by
the situation and who would be benefited by the programme,
become very important to participate in the programme. The
ultimate aim of the watershed programme is to increase the
crop production of the beneficiary / participant farmers. The
level of crop yields attained by the participant farmers is a
good indicator of the effectiveness of the programme.
Against this background, the present study was carried out
with the following specific objectives:
1. To assess the impact of watershed development
programme on crop productivity of the beneficiaries
2. To identify the training needs of the participant farmers in
watershed development programme.
3. To elicit the constraints of beneficiaries in the
participation of watershed development programme.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The present study was conducted in village Rignodia
NWDPRA Solsinda watershed area in Indore district of
Madhya Pradesh during 2006-07. Solsinda watershed was
implemented in Rignodia village by District Watershed
Development Department since 2001-02, with a total outlay
of Rs. 420 lakhs covering an area of 7000 ha in 31 villages.
Ten villages where watershed development programme was
implemented were randomly selected for study. From each
of the ten villages selected, a list of beneficiary farmers
having land under the watershed area was prepared. A total
of 210 beneficiary farmers [70 marginal, 70 small, 70 big
famers] were selected by using proportionate random
sampling technique for the study. Ex-post-facto research
design was employed in the study. The benchmark data was
obtained by using the secondary data available at the District
Watershed Development Office.
Crop productivity: Two major crops viz, soybean and ragi
were selected, as all the respondents were growing these two
major crops. The data on per acre yield of the crops during
the pre project period were collected from the benchmark
survey reports of District Watershed Development
Programme (DWDP) and also checked during interview
process with the farmers. The per acre yield after
implementation of DWDP were collected with the help of
schedule developed during the personal interview with the
farmers. The yield obtained with respect to these crops by
the respondents in the previous season was considered in
terms of quintals per acre.
Training needs: Training needs was operationalized as the
expressed level of training indicated by the respondents for
adoption of different activities of watershed project. It was
measured on a three point continuum i.e., ‘very much
needed’, ‘needed’ and ‘not needed’. Open type questions
were asked to the beneficiaries to enlist the constraints faced
by them in the participation of Watershed Development
Programme. The data collected were analysed using
46
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
frequency, percentage, mean and paired‘t’ test.
respectively, after the implementation of WDP. The‘t’
values of 26.90, 23.14 and 35.46 showed that there was
significant increase in soybean yield after the
implementation of WDP. Similar findings were reported by
Anony. (1994).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
I. Impact of Watershed Development Programme
(WDP) on crop productivity
2 Productivity in ragi crop: The data on the mean yield of
ragi crop among marginal, small and big farmers before and
after the implementation of the WDP is furnished in Table
II. The data in Table II indicates the average yield of ragi
obtained by marginal, small and big farmers which were
4.55, 5.25 and 5.32 q/acre respectively before the
implementation of WDP. The average yields of ragi
obtained by marginal, small and big farmers were 5.96, 6.45
and 7.29 q/acre respectively after the implementation of
WDP.
1. Productivity in soybean crop: The data presented in
Table I shows that, the average soybean yield obtained by
marginal, small and big farmers was 4.27, 4.42 and 4.61
q/acre before the implementation of WDP. The mean
soybean yield obtained by marginal, small and big farmers
rose to 5.77, 6.00 and 6.32 q/acre after the implementation
of WDP. The results in Table I indicates that the average
additional yield of soybean increased by 1.50, 1.58 and 1.71
q/acre in the case of marginal, small and big farmers
Table 1: Soybean yield levels among farmers before and after the implementation of watershed development
Soybean yield level (q / acre)
(n=210)
Farmers
Before watershed programme
After watershed programme
Mean
category
difference
Minimum
Maximum
Mean
Minimum
Maximum
Mean
Marginal Farmers
3.00
4.75
4.27
3.5
6.50
5.77
1.50
n=70
Small Farmers
4.00
5.00
4.42
5.00
7.00
6.00
1.58
n=70
Big Farmers
4.50
6.00
4.61
6.00
7.50
6.32
1.71
n=70
** – Significant at 1 per cent level of probability
‘t’ value
26.90**
23.14**
35.46**
Table 2: Ragi yield levels among farmers before and after the implementation of watershed development programme
Ragi yield level (q / acre)
(n=210)
Farmers
Before watershed programme
After watershed programme
Mean
‘t’ value
category
Minimum
Maximum
Mean
Minimum
Maximum
Mean
difference
Marginal Farmers
4.00
6.00
4.55
5.00
7.50
5.96
1.35
26.61**
n=70
Small Farmers
4.25
6.50
5.25
5.75
8.00
6.45
1.20
25.26**
n=70
Big Farmers
5.00
7.00
5.32
6.25
8.50
7.29
1.97
36.28**
n=70
** – Significant at 1 per cent level of probability
The data presented in Table II also showed that, the average
additional yields of Ragi increased by1.35, 1.20 and 1.97
q/acre in the case of marginal small and big farmers
respectively, due to the implementation of WDP. The‘t’
values 26.61, 25.26 and 36.28 showed that there was
significant increase in yield level after the implementation of
watershed development programme.
expressed need for training in watershed aspects like
bunding, water harvesting, besides seed treatment,
sericulture management, fisheries and dairy management.
The importance of training to watershed beneficiary farmers
is progressively realized all over the world. Since watershed
is a holistic approach, wherein it covers not only agriculture
but also allied activities. In other words, the watershed
programme is for the overall development of farming
community. Once the participant farmers are equipped with
skills it would enable them to make optimal use of resources
and thereby leading to a better livelihood. Thus, training is
one of the commonly used devices that has an impact on
knowledge and skills of farmers. It can successfully bring
about certain changes in the outlook and perception of
beneficiary farmers about the watershed activities. Majority
of the farmers felt that training was very much needed in
soil and water conservation measures specifically on in-situ
moisture conservation practices, followed by selection of
II. Training needs of participant farmers
The data on training needs of respondents is presented in
Table III. The results indicated that a majority of farmers
expressed training on in situ moisture conservation (77.14%)
was very much needed, followed by selection of crops and
varieties (74.28%) and pest and disease control (70.47%).
On the other hand, two-thirds of farmers expressed that they
do not need training on chemical weed control (69.52%) and
poultry management (62.85%). It could also be seen from
the table that a slightly higher percentage of respondents
47
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
crops and varieties and control of pests and diseases, water
harvesting structures, dairy management and fisheries
development. The contents of training have to be drawn
based on discussion with the extension specialists (who are
engaged in WDP) and progressive farmers. This finding is in
agreement with the findings of Padmaiah (1995).
Table 3: Training needs of beneficiary farmers in watershed development programme
(n=210)
Particulars
Training
Very much needed
Needed
Frequency
Per cent
Frequency
Per cent
In situ moisture conservation
162
77.14
38
18.09
Bunding
80
38.00
76
36.19
Not needed
Frequency
Per cent
10
4.76
54
25.71
Water harvesting
Selection of crops and varieties
Seed treatment
Fertilizer management
Chemical weed control
Pest and disease control
Bio-fertilizer use
136
156
70
50
24
148
50
64.76
74.28
33.33
23.80
11.42
70.47
23.80
70
44
78
58
40
50
52
33.33
20.95
37.14
27.61
19.04
23.80
24.78
24
10
62
50
146
12
108
11.42
4.76
29.52
23.80
69.52
5.71
51.42
Dryland horticulture
70
33.33
56
26.66
84
40.00
Sericulture management
Pasture development
Dairy management
Poultry management
Fisheries development
30
54
90
30
84
14.28
25.71
42.82
14.28
40.00
70
60
106
48
72
33.33
25.70
50.47
22.85
34.28
108
96
14
132
54
51.42
45.70
6.66
62.85
25.71
The results of the experiments revealed that average soybean
yield obtained by marginal, small and big farmers was 4.27,
4.42 and 4.61 q/acre before the implementation of WDP.
The mean soybean yield obtained by marginal, small and big
farmers rose to 5.77, 6.00 and 6.32 q/acre after the
implementation of WDP. The results in Table I indicates
that the average additional yield of soybean increased by
1.50, 1.58 and 1.71 q/acre in the case of marginal, small and
big farmers respectively, after the implementation of WDP.
The‘t’ values of 26.90, 23.14 and 35.46 showed that there
was significant increase in soybean yield after the
implementation of WDP. The average yields of ragi
obtained by marginal, small and big farmers were 5.96, 6.45
and 7.29 q/acre respectively after the implementation of
WDP. The results indicated that a majority of farmers
expressed training on in situ moisture conservation (77.14%)
was very much needed, followed by selection of crops and
varieties (74.28%) and pest and disease control (70.47%).
On the other hand, two-thirds of farmers expressed that they
do not need training on chemical weed control (69.52%) and
poultry management (62.85%).Three fourths of watershed
farmers expressed that lack of knowledge on watershed
activities (81.90%) as the main constraint, followed by lack
of interest to participate (76.10%), unfavorable attitude
towards extension personnel (73.33%), programme not
concerned to local needs (71.42%), groupism and political
interference (69.52%).
III. Constraints faced by the beneficiaries in the
participation of Watershed Development Programme
The results also revealed that more than three fourths of
watershed farmers expressed that lack of knowledge on
watershed activities (81.90%) as the main constraint,
followed by lack of interest to participate (76.10%),
unfavorable attitude towards extension personnel (73.33%),
programme not concerned to local needs (71.42%),
groupism and political interference (69.52%). The other
reasons quoted by the respondents were lack of time to
participate in watershed activities (64.76%), lack of
motivation from the village leaders (60.95%) and from that
of the implementing agency (59.94%), lack of resources
(45.70%) and poor quality of work (34.28%). Similar
problem was reported by Narayanaswamy (2005).
Watershed technology has resulted in increased yields of
both ragi and paddy among all the three categories of
farmers. The increase in the yields of ragi and paddy varied
from 30-38 per cent. As a result of the increased yield,
farmers obtained higher income. This demonstrates the
positive contribution of watershed technology on the
livelihood of farmers. It is essential to inculcate need based
and field orientated technology in the training programme to
the farmers and also to help the beneficiary farmers to get
financial assistance through Government and other agencies,
which in turn helps the beneficiaries to achieve stability in
watershed areas.
48
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
REFERENCES
Anonymous, 1994, Managing Watersheds, Extension Digest
2: 1-2.
Wani, S.P., Sreedevi, T.K., Pathak, P., Singh P. and
Singh, H.P. (2001). Integrated watershed management
through a consortium approach for sustaining productivity
of rainfed areas: Adarsha watershed, Kothapally, India,
Andhra Pradesh: A Case study. Paper presented at the
Brainstorming Workshop on Policy and Institutional
Options for Sustainable Management of Watersheds, 1-2
November 2001, ICRISAT, Patancheru, Andhra Pradesh,
India.
Kerr, J., Pangare, G., Pangare, V.L. and George, P.J.
(2000). An evaluation of dryland watershed development in
India. EPTD Discussion Paper 68. International Food Policy
Research Institute, Washington, DC, USA.
Narayanswamy, B., 2005, Performance of Self-Help
Groups in Karnataka. Ph.D Thesis, Univ. Agril. Sci.,
Bangalore.
Wani, S.P., Rego, T.J. and Pathak, P. (eds). (2002).
Improving management of natural resources for sustainable
rainfed agriculture. Proceedings of the training workshop on
On-farm Participatory Research Methodology, 26-31 July
2001, Khon Kaen, Bangkok, Thailand. ICRISAT,
Patancheru, Andhra Pradesh, India. 68 pp.
Padmaiah, M., 1995, Watershed Development Programme
in Mehaboobnagar district of Andhra Pradesh. Ph.D. Thesis
Univ. Agril. Sci., Dharwad.
Samra, J.S. (1997). Status of research on watershed
management. Central Soil and Water Conservation Research
and Training Institute, Dehradun, India.
49
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
An efficient high throughput plant regeration protocol for production of transgenic plants tolerant
to salt in Finger millet (Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.)
1
Babu A.G., 2Geetha Shankar, 3Manjunatha V., and 4Shankar A.G.
Department of Crop Physiology, University of Agricultural sciences, GKVK, Bangalore-560065, Karnataka, India.
2
Department of Agronomy, University of Agricultural sciences, GKVK, Bangalore-560065, Karnataka, India. 3Department of
Genetics and Plant Breeding, University of Agricultural sciences, GKVK, Bangalore-560065, Karnataka, India.
1&4
Present address:
1Presently
Ph.D. Scholar, Dept. of Crop Physiology, University of Agricultural sciences, College of Agriculture Dharwad-580005,
Karnataka, India. 2Asst. professor, Department of Agronomy, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore-560065, Karnataka, India. 3Currently working as
Agriculture Officer, O/o Assistant Director of Agriculture, Bagepally (Tq), Chikkaballapur (Dist) -561207, Karnataka, India..
4Professor, Department of Crop Physiology, UAS, GKVK, GKVK, Bangalore-560065, Karnataka, India.
E mail: babusilver@yahoo.co.uk
ABSTRACT
Finger millet (Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.) is the primary food source for millions of people in tropical dry land
regions of the world. Development of efficient and genotype-independent tissue regeneration system is an essential
prerequisite for successful production of transgenic plants. In this direction we established efficient reproducible
protocols for in vitro plant regeneration and genetic transformation in finger millet using PDH45 as a candidate gene to
develop transgenic Finger millet for salinity tolerance by Agrobacterium mediated gene transfer method (in vitro
method) by using actively dividing embryogenic calli which obtained from Finger millet seeds. Here the seed calli was
co cultivated with Agrobacterium Plasmid carrying binary vector pCAMBIA construct containing PDH45 candidate
gene, nptII gene as bacterial selection marker, hptII gene as plant selectable marker, and GUS reporter gene driven by
CaMV 35S promoter. The co cultivated callus was regenerated in half strength MS media with 0.5 mg.L-1BA, 3.0 mg.L-1
2, 4-D, and hygromycin antibiotic supplemented with acetosyringone (100 100 g.mL-1), a potent inducer of virulence
genes. Successful transformation at callus stage was initially confirmed by GUS histochemical assay. And by PCR
amplification genomic DNA of putative transformed calli showed positive for hptII primers. And the results by RTPCR showed that the level of transcripts overexpression in transformed calli was relatively higher than nontransformed
control calli. Putative regenerated transgenic were confirmed by PCR amplifying the genomic DNA of putative
transformed plants.
Key words: Agrobacterium, callus, Finger millet, PDH45, regeneration.
Among eight minor millets, finger millet (Eleusine coracana
(L.) Gaertn.), also known as African millet, has outstanding
attributes as a subsistence food crop. It is grown globally in
more than 4 million ha. and is the primary food source for
millions of people in tropical dryland regions. Finger millet
constitutes about 81% of the minor millets produced in
India. Finger millets also have nutritional qualities superior
than that of rice and is on a par with that of wheat [1].
The first experiments to culture plant cells under in
vitro conditions were conducted more than one hundred
years ago [2]. It took decades until their detection, isolation
and subsequently the observation made by Skoog and Miller
(1957) on the auxin/cytokinin ratio controlling root and/or
shoot formation from tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) pith
tissue cultures in vitro, being a milestone for the
development of plant tissue and cell culture. However, more
than twenty years after that breakthrough and promising
results with dicots, success with monocots, especially with
the cereals was rare [3]. Plant regeneration has been
reported to occur routinely in almost all cultivated cereal
species [4–6]. In finger millet, callus formation and plantlet
regeneration was first reported by [7], from mesocotyl
explants. Genetic transformation is now widely used as a
method of choice for transferring exotic genes into
commercial crop cultivars for enhancing various agronomic
attributes. So far, limited attempts have been made in finger
millet to standardize protocols for genetic transformation
[8].
Salinity is currently the major factor which reduces
crop yields. World-wide about 33% of the irrigated land is
affected by salinity and more land is not being irrigated
because of salinity [9-10]. Hence it’s becoming most
important abiotic stress factor in recent days and the total
global area of salt affected soils including saline and sodic
soils is 831 million hectares [11]. There is a reduction in
plant height upto 40-52% in finger millet varieties when
subjected to salinity stress (150mM NaCl). Also there is
considerable decrease in the contents of total sugar, reducing
sugars, non-reducing sugars in both varieties under salt
stress [12]. Zhu, (2002) stated that at molecular level there
are two main adaptive mechanisms for saline tolerance viz,
(i) homeostasis that includes ion homeostasis (ii) stress
damage control by repair or detoxification[13]. In recent
days there is evidence that Helicases also can be involved in
abiotic stress tolerance. Because salinity stress affects the
cellular gene-expression machinery it is evident that
molecules involved in nucleic acid processing, including
helicases, are likely to be affected as well [14]. These DNA
Helicases unwind duplex DNA and hence involved in
replication, repair, recombination, and transcription
regulation machinery of the cell. Where as RNA helicases
unfold the secondary structures in RNA [15]. And these are
involved in transcription, ribosome biogenesis, and
translation initiation, RNA editing, and development [16].
Neeti Sanan-Mishra et al.,[14] found that
overexpression of PDH45 (Pea DNA helicase 45) in
50
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
Tobacco imparts salinity tolerance without affecting the
yield. Hence in this direction in finger millet we established
efficient reproducible protocols for in vitro plant
regeneration and genetic transformation using PDH45 as a
candidate gene to develop transgenic Finger millet for
salinity tolerance by Agrobacterium mediated gene transfer
method (in vitro method) by using actively dividing
embryogenic calli obtained from Finger millet seeds.
Seeds were inoculated in callus induction media,
incubated in dark with 26±1°C temperature condition for 3-4
weeks in growth chamber. Later the induced callus was
transferred in to the callus growth media containing 2mg.L-1
2, 4-D for callus growth for 2 weeks. After 2 weeks of
incubation the compact, green, nodulated sectors of callus
were separated from non embryogenic watery callus and
then subcultured on MS medium with lower level of 2, 4-D
(0.2 mg.L-1). The embryogenic callus was subcultured every
3–4 weeks on fresh medium for maintaining the same in
embryogenic state. The embryogenic callus developed after
5–6 passages was used for plant gene transformation.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The binary vector pCAMBIA:PDH45 gene
construct was obtained from Dr. Narendra Tuteja, ICGEB,
New Delhi, India. This binary vector pCAMBIA:PDH45
harbors PDH45 driven by CaMV 35S promoter. The binary
vector pCAMBIA 1301 has nptII gene as bacterial selection
marker and hptII gene as plant selectable marker. And it was
initially confirmed by restriction analysis. Binary vector
pCAMBIA1301 was transformed into E. coli (DH5α)
competent cells (Competent cells were prepared by KCM
method). The plasmid was isolated from these grown E .coli
cultures (Alkali lysis method), then the plasmid was
mobilized into Agrobacterium tumefaciens (strain
LBA4404) by electroporation.
Electroporation procedure
Frozen cells were thawed on ice and 40µl aliquot was
transferred to a precooled 0.2cm electroporation cuvette
(Bio-Rad Laboratories Ltd.). One µl of plasmid DNA (210ng) was mixed with the cell suspension on ice and an
electric pulse applied immediately using a gene pulserTm
with pulse controller unit (Bio-Rad). The cells were
immediately transferred to 1 ml YMB or TY and shaken at
290C for 3hrs. Aliquots of 10µl or 100µl were plated on LB
media containing antibiotics and incubated for 3d at 290C.
Mobilization of E. coli plasmid in to
Agrobacterium was confirmed by PCR analysis using
PDH45 gene specific primers. PDH45 gene specific primers
which were designed using DNA STAR programme based
on PDH45 m-RNA sequence. Primer sequence for PDH45:
Infection and co- cultivation (in vitro method):
The starter culture of Agrobacterium tumefaciens
strain LBA-4404 plasmid carrying binary vector
pCAMBIA:PDH45 construct was grown in AB minimal
media supplemented with Kanamycin (50 μg.mL-1). Then
calli explants were soaked in bacterial suspension for 3-4
minutes for infection. After infection calli were blotted on
the sterile tissue paper and then transferred to co culture
medium for 2 days. Co culture medium was prepared by
using MS media with 3.0mg.L-1 2, 4-D and 0.5mg.L-1 BA,
supplemented with acetosyringone. During co cultivation
Agrobacterium was found to grow on and around the callus
explants. After co cultivation period, calli were washed with
cefotaxime (200µg.ml-1) to remove excess bacteria and
blotted on sterile tissue paper before transferring them to
selection media. (This selection media prepared using MS
media supplemented with 1.0 mgL-1 BA, 30 μg.mL-1
hygromycin and 40μg.mL-1 of cefotaxime). Cefotaxime was
used to kill the excess Agrobacterium after infection, and
hygromycin was used to select the transformants.
After 2 days the Agrobacterium colonies adhered
onto the calli was washed with cefotoxime (50μg.ml-1) and
kept in dark on regeneration media containing 50μg.ml-1
cefotoxime and 30μg.ml-1 hygromycin for three weeks. Later
these regenerated calli was incubated under light. The calli
surviving on selection media were transferred into the
regeneration media contained half strength MS basal with
0.5 mg.L-1 BA, 3.0mg.L-1 2, 4-D, 30 μg.mL-1 hygromycin
and 40μg.mL-1 of cefotaxime for production of root and
shoots. The uninfected (non-cocultivated) control calli was
grown in Finger millet regeneration media to maintain a
positive control and to Finger millet selection media to
maintain a negative control.
PDH45 forward Primer: 5’TCCTGGGCGAGTCTGTGA3’
PDH45 reverse primer: 5’CTCCCATAATTGCATCTCTTTCTT3’
After successful mobilization into Agrobacterium, This
PDH45 gene was transformed into Finger millet (GPU-28
variety) by using (in vitro) Agrobacterium mediated gene
transfer method. For this we used actively dividing
embryogenic Finger millet seed callus as explant for
transformation.
Confirmation of putative transformants by Molecular
analysis:
Initially putative transformed Calli were confirmed
by Gus-Histochemical analysis. Proliferated callus was
obtained from the putative transformed calli were immersed
in GUS staining solution and incubated overnight at 370C.
After removing the pigments by 70-100% ethanol, GUS
expression cells were detected microscopically by a distinct
blue coloration due to enzymatic cleavage of 5-bromo-4chloro-3-indolyl glucuronide. The DNA was extracted (CTAB method) from putative transformed calli and the
transformation was reconfirmed by PCR analysis using nptII
antibiotic primers.
Callus induction:
Seeds of Eleusine coracana were used as source material for
callus initiation. Seeds were surface sterilised in 70% (v:v)
ethanol for 3 min followed by 0.1% (w:v) HgCl2 solution
for 5 min, rinsed several times in sterile distilled water and
cultured aseptically. Callus induction media containing basal
MS medium containing 3% sucrose with growth hormones
0.5 mg.L-1 BA, 3.0 mg.L-1 2,4-D was used. The medium was
solidified with 0.8% agar (Bacteriological Grade), pH
adjusted to 5.8 and then autoclaved at 1.2–1.3 kg.cm-2
pressure and 121°C temperature for 15 min.
51
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
To compare the level of transcript expressed
between transformed and non-transformed calli lines, Equal
amount of total RNA was used from transformed and
control calli to perform a reverse transcription PCR. The
cDNA was made using oligodT primers. PDH45 and actin
transcripts were amplified by using equal quantity of cDNA.
The RT-PCR products were analysed on 0.8% agarose gel
electrophoresis
Genomic DNA from regenerated plant leaves was
isolated from putative transformants and untransformed
Finger millet (negative control). And the event of successful
transformation in Finger millet was examined by testing for
the presence of the hptII and PDH45 coding gene sequence
in the by PCR analysis.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
pCAMBIA:PDH45 construct (Fig.1) was obtained
in the form of plasmid and it was initially confirmed by
restriction analysis. The plasmid obtained was first
transformed into competent E. coli (DH5α) cells and
multiplied and confirmed. Then the binary vector plasmid
was mobilized into Agrobacterium strain LBA4404 by
electroporation.
Fig. 1: Binary vector pCAMBIA:PDH45 gene construct
The percent survival of transformed calli grown on
regeneration media containing hygromycin plant selection
media was recorded for each batch of co cultivation. And we
found that the transformation efficiency is around one
percent (Table 1). Since the Finger millet is monocot there is
less wound response and absence of associated activation of
virulence genes makes regeration efficiency is
comparatively less than dicot plants.
Table 1: Percent survival of agro co-cultivated calli on regeneration media containing hptII (Seven batches was cocultivated with Agrobacterium)
Number of calli co
Number of calli survived in
Percent
Batch no.
cultivated with
hygromycin selection media
survival
Agrobacterium strain
1
106
01
0.94
2
89
02
2.24
3
84
01
1.19
4
101
02
1.98
5
126
02
1.58
6
136
01
0.73
7
149
01
0.67
The PDH-45 gene was transformed into Finger millet seed
calli by Agrobacterium mediated gene transfer method (i.e.
in vitro method). Transformed callus was grown in selection
media and allowed for regeration. Here the nontransformed
embryonic calli unable to regenerate in nptII antibiotic
media and was killed. Whereas nptII gene containing calli
was regerated since it gives resistance to antibiotic (Fig.
2A). And this transformation initially confirmed by GusHistochemical analysis. The transformed calli showed
distinct blue coloration due to enzymatic cleavage of 5bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl glucuronide substrate (Fig.2B).
52
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
Fig. 2A: Selection and regeneration of putative transformed calli in selection media. Arrow mark indicates the survived calli in
selection media.
Fig. 2B: Confirmation of the putative transformants at callus stage by Gus assay using 5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl-β-Dglucuronide as substrate. 1=Control (non-transformed) callus, 2 =Putative transformed callus.
millet callus line did not give any amplification for hptII
primers (Fig.3, lane 1); suggesting that the untransformed
control plants did not carry any hptII gene encoding for
hygromycin resistance. And the putative transformants
showed the amplification of 500bp hptII fragment (Fig.3,
lane 3).
Molecular
analysis
of
the
putative
PDH45
transformants:
The genomic DNA was extracted from both
untransformed control callus and putative PDH45
transformant callus by C-TAB method. Using the genomic
DNA as template the PCR was performed for hptII
(selectable marker). The DNA of untransformed Finger
Fig 3: Confirmation of putative transformed callus over-expressing PDH45 by PCR
hptII primers
Lane M: Gene Ruler 1kb ladder
Lane 1: Genomic DNA of untransformed control callus
Lane 2: Plasmid DNA of pCABIA1301-PDH45 construct
Lane 3: Genomic DNA of putative transformed calli over expressing PDH45 gene
Semi-quantative RT-PCR was used to analyze the
expression of transgenic callus at the RNA level. The RTPCR result indicated that expression of PDH45 transcripts
was more in putative transformed line when compared to
control (Fig.4). But even in non-transformed calli there was
negligible PDH45 transcript amplification was observed this
analysis of callus genomic DNA using
is because PDH45 is a functional gene so it endogenously
expresses even in control plants also. This suggest the over
expression of PDH45 gene in transformed line.
53
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
Fig 4: Amplification of PDH45 from cDNA of putative transformed Finger millet callus
M: Gene Ruler 1kb ladder
Lane 1: Plasmid DNA of pCABIA1301-PDH45 construct
Lane 2: Amplification of PDH45 from cDNA of non-transformed control calli
Lane 3: Amplification of PDH45 from cDNA of PDH 45 transformed Finger millet calli
Lane 4 and 5: Actin amplification of Lane2 and 3
The genomic DNA was obtained from regenerated plant
leaves putative PDH45 transformed plants and nontransformed control Finger millet plant by C-TAB method.
And the PCR result which shown that non-transformed
Finger millet line did not give any amplification for hptII
primers (Fig 5, lane 1); Suggesting that the control plants
did not carry any hptII gene encoding for hygromycin
resistance. The genomic DNA of the independent putative
PDH45 transformed plant showed the amplification for hptII
fragment primers (Fig 5, lane 2)
Figure 5: Confirmation of successful in vitro transformed Finger millet transgenic lines overexpressing PDH 45 gene by PCR analysis of genomic DNA using hptII primers
Lane M: Gene Ruler 1kb ladder
Lane 1: Genomic DNA of control
Lane 2: Genomic DNA of putative transgenic plant over expressing PDH45 gene
Lane 3: Plasmid DNA of pCAMBIA1301-PDH45 construct
From these results clearly indicates that, the PDH45 gene has been successfully introduced into Finger millet by
Agrobacterium mediated gene transformation method.
54
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
REFERENCES
B.N. Sastri (Ed.) 1989. The Wealth of India: A Dictionary
of Indian Raw Materials and Industrial Products, Vol. III
(D–E), Publication and Information Directorate, CSIR, New
Delhi, pp.160-166.
coracana and Echinochloa crusgalli, Plant Biotechnol. 18:
275–282.
Marschner, H., 1993. Mineral nutrition of higher plants.
Academic Press, London. Chaves, M. M., J. Flexas and C.
Pinheiro. 2009. Photosynthesis under drought and salt
stress: regulation mechanisms of whole plant to cell. Annals
of Bot., 103: 551-560. Martinez-Beltran J, Manzur CL,
2005. Overview of salinity problems in the world and FAO
strategies to address the problem. Proceedings of the
international salinity forum, Riverside, California, 311–313.
Haberlandt G, 1902. Culturversuche mit isolierten
Pflanzenzellen.
Sitzungsberichte
Akademie
der
Wissenschaften
Wien,
Mathematisch
Naturwissenschaftliche Classe 111, Abt. 1, 69-92
King PJ, Potrykus I, Thomas E 1978. In vitro genetics of
cereals: problems and perspectives. Physiologie Végétale 16,
381-399.
K. Manikandan, R. Desingh 2009. Effect of salt stress on
growth, carbohydrate and proline content of two finger
millet varieties. Recent Research in Science and Technology
1(2): 048–051.
I. K. Vasil, 1987. Developing cell and tissue culture
systems for the improvement of cereal and grass crops, J.
Plant Physiol. 128 193–218.
Zhu, J.K. 2002. Salt and drought stress signal transduction
in plants. Annu. Rev. Plant. Biol., 53: 247- 273.
S. Bhaskaran, R.H. Smith, 1990. Regeneration in cereal
tissue culture, Crop Sci. 30 1328–1337.
Neeti Sanan-Mishra, Xuan Hoi Pham, Sudhir K. Sopory,
and Narendra Tuteja. 2005. Pea DNA helicases 45
overexpression in tobacco confers high salinity tolerance
without affecting yield, Proceedings of the national
academy of sciences of the United States of America, 102:
509-514.
S.L. Kothari, N. Chandra, 1995. Advances in tissue
culture and genetic transformation of cereals, J. Indian Bot.
Soc. 74A: 323–342.
T.S. Rangan, 1976. Growth and plantlet regeneration in
tissue cultures of some Indian millets: Paspalum
scrobiculatum L., Eleusine coracana Gaertn. and
Pennisetum typhoideum, Pers. Z. Pflanzenphysiol. 78: 208–
216.
Owttrim, G.W. 2006. RNA helicases and abiotic stress.
Nucleic Acids Res., 34 (11): 3220 – 3230.
Tuteja, N., Phan, T.N. and Tewari, K.K. 1996.
Purification and characterization of a DNA helicase from
pea chloroplast that translocates in the 3’ to 5’ direction.
European Journal of Biochemistry, 238: 54-63.
P. Gupta, S. Raghuvanshi, A.K. Tyagi, 2001. Assessment
of the Efficiency of Various Gene Promoters via Biolistics
in Leaf and Regenerating Seed Callus of Millets, Eleusine
55
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
Study of Productivity and Economics of Cumin (Cuminum cyminum Linn.) in Transitional Luni
Basin Plain Zone of Rajasthan
M.L.REAGER N.S. DEORA AND S.R.KUMAWAT
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Keshwana, Jalore,
S.K. Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaner (Raj.)
ABSTRACT
A field study was conducted during the winter season (Rabi) of 2008-09 on transitional luni basin plain zone of
Rajasthan, to evaluate the effect of sowing method and weed management on productivity and economics of cumin. The
results showed that crop sowing in row apart 20 cm produced significantly higher seed yield (8.11 qt ha-1), biomass
yield (21.64 qt ha-1), harvest index (37.43 %), total return (Rs.101389/- ha-1), net return (Rs.81786/- ha-1) and cost:
benefit ratio (5.17). The pre emergence application of both pendimethalin at 1.0 kg ha-1 and hand weeding at 30 DAS
produced significantly higher productivity and maximum return as compared to alone hand weeding at 30 DAS as well
as pendimethalin at 1.0 kg ha-1. However, pre emergence application of pendimethalin at 1.0 kg ha-1 also increase
productivity and economics significantly as compared to alone hand weeding at 30 DAS.
Key words : Productivity, economics, cumin, net return.
Cumin (Cuminum cyminum Linn.) is an important seed
spices crop of Rajasthan. Due to higher return from the crop,
area under this crop is increasing rapidly in Rajasthan. It is
sown in dry soil by broadcasting method, followed by two
light irrigations to facilitate seedling emergence. Besides,
the initial growth of the crop is pretty slow. These two
factors result in heavy weed infestation in the crop. Weed
competes with the crop plants for the essentials of growth,
interfere with the utilization of land and water resources, and
thus adversely affect crop production. Weeds deplete 30-40
% of applied nutrients from the soil and compete with the
crop plants for soil moisture and sunlight too (Mani, 1977).
Keeping a crop weed-free throughout the crop season is a
laborious and cost intensive affair. In order to gate desirable
degree of weed management, the operation has to be
repeated but manual operation at several times become
difficult. More over, hand-weeding is laborious,
cumbersome and time consuming besides being costly and
economically not feasible in today’s intensive agriculture.
Integration of manual and chemical weed management is
reported to be more effective and economical then
mechanical weed control. The arable land is a precious and
scarce resource so, among the options to increase
production, the crop intensity and efficient utilization of
available resources seem more feasible over increasing area
under cultivation. In suitable plant density, plants
completely use environmental conditions (water, air, light
and soil) and inter or intra- specific competition is
minimum. The present investigation was therefore carried
out to increase the production of cumin through integrated
weed management and row spacing of crop.
in main plot and three weed management methods (Hand
weeding at 30 DAS, pendimithelin @ 1kg ha-1 PE and
pendimithelin @ 1kg ha-1 PE+Hand weeding at 30 DAS) in
sub plot were laid out in split plot design with three
replication, located at two farmers fields and instructional
farm of Krishi Vigyan Kendra. Each location have one
replication. The cumin crop variety RZ-19 was sown in rows
spaced at 20 and 30 cm apart through ‘Kera’ methods and
broadcasting as per treatment on 20 October to 8 November,
2008. Herbicide was apply as pre-emergence and hand
weeding was done as per treatments. Seed yield, biomass
yield, cost of cultivation and net return of crop per ha. were
taken.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Effect of sowing method
Result of the study recorded that crop sowing in
rows apart 20 and 30 cm had significant impact on yield and
economics of cumin as compared broadcasting method of
sowing (Table-1). Cumin crop sowing in row apart 20 cm
produced significantly higher seed yield (8.11 qt ha-1),
biomass yield (21.64 qt ha-1), harvest index (37.43 %), total
return (Rs.101389/- ha-1), net return (Rs.81786/- ha-1) and
cost: benefit ratio (5.17) and increased by 12.50, 11.23,
11.08, 0.90, 12.48 and 15.62 percent as compare to sowing
in row apart 30 cm and 19.83, 31.74, 17.19, 2.72, 19.83 and
31.24 percent as compare to broadcasting, respectively. In
suitable plant density, plants completely use environmental
conditions and inter or intra specific competition is
minimum. Under optimum plant density, plants show
efficient use of available water, light and nutrient while
under high plant density, there is competition among plants.
The results obtained are in close conformity with the
findings of Sadeghi et al (2009) in black cumin.
Effect of weed management
The chemical weed control measures significantly increase
the yields and economical attributes over mechanical weed
control (Table-1). The pre emergence application of both
pendimethalin at 1.0 kg ha-1 and hand weeding at 30 DAS
produced significantly higher productivity and maximum
return as compared to alone hand weeding at 30 DAS as
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was conducted at different location of the district
at progressive farmers field who was growing cumin crop
and instructional farm of Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Keshwana,
Jalore during Rabi 2008-09 having silty loam soil with pH
8.2, EC 0.17 dS m-1,organic carbon 0.25 %, available
phosphorus 8.6 kg P ha-1 and available potassium 279.7 kg
Kha-1.The treatments comprised of three sowing methods
(broad casting, 30 cm row spacing and 20 cm row spacing )
56
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
well as pendimethalin at 1.0 kg ha-1. The pre emergence
application of pendimethalin at 1.0 kg ha-1 and hand
weeding at 30 DAS produced significantly higher seed yield
by 10.03 and 8.83 per cent, biomass yield by 13.60 and 0.82
per cent, harvest index by 7.63 and 6.46 percent, total return
by 2.51 and 2.55 percent, net return by 10.03 and 8.83 per
cent and cost: benefit ratio by 14.31 and 9.14 per cent as
compare to hand weeding at 30 DAS and pendimethalin at
1.0 kg ha-1, respectively. However, pre emergence
application of pendimethalin at 1.0 kg ha-1 also increase
productivity and net return significantly as compared to
alone hand weeding at 30 DAS. The increase in productivity
of cumin was due to deduction in weed population at early
stage because pendimethalin absorbed by germinating weeds
inhibits cell division in the meristematic tissues resulting in
death of most of the weeds within a few days of their
emergence, disruption of microtubule and inhibits synthesis
of seedlings followed by chlorosis and inhibition of
elongation of leaves therefore most of weeds died within a
few days of their emergence. These herbicide gave almost
season long control of weeds obviously due to their
persistence in soil for a sufficient long time. The results are
in conformity with those reported by Ram et al. (2005) and
Singh
et
al
(2005)
in
blond
psyllium.
Table 1: Yield, biomass production, harvest index and economics of cumin crop
Treatments
Seed yield
(qt/ha)
Sowing methods
Broad casting
6.02
30 cm row spacing
7.21
20 cm row spacing
8.11
SEm
0.205
CD at 5%
0.80
CV
8.63
Weed management methods
Hand weeding at 30 DAS
6.47
Pendimithelin @ 1kg ha-1 PE
7.12
Pendimithelin @ 1kg ha-1 PE+ Hand
7.75
weeding at 30 DAS
SEm
0.201
CD at 5%
0.62
CV
8.49
*Selling price of Cumin-12500/-per quintal
Bio mass
(qt/ha)
Harvest
Index (%)
Total
Return
(Rs./ha)
Net Return
(Rs./ha)
B:C Ratio
16.63
19.48
21.64
0.506
1.99
7.89
36.12
37.10
37.43
0.518
2.03
4.21
75222
90139
101389
2557.517
10042.06
8.63
53901
70739
81786
2557.517
10042.06
11.15
3.53
4.64
5.17
0.128
0.50
8.61
17.92
19.29
20.54
35.97
36.87
37.81
80889
89000
96861
60881
69592
75953
4.06
4.62
4.65
0.474
1.46
7.38
0.385
1.19
3.13
2515.640
7751.46
8.49
2515.640
7751.46
10.97
0.123
0.38
8.31
REFERENCES
Mani, V.S.1977. Weed sereach in India, status, problems
and strategies. (In) Proceedings of weed science Conference,
held at Hyderabad1:27
Sadeghi, S., Rahnavard, A., and Ashrafi, Z.Y.2009. Study
importance of soeing date and plant density effect on black
cumin (Cuminum carvi) yield. Botany Research
International 2 (2):94-98.
Ram,B., Choudhary, G.R., Jat, A.S. and Jat, M.L. 2005.
Effect of integrated weed management and intercropping
systems on growth and yield of Pearl millet (Pennisitum
glaucum). Indian Journal of Agronomy 50 (3): 210-213.
Singh,I., Rathore, M.S., Chandawat,M.S., Yadav, R.S.
and Makhan Lal 2005. Herbicidal weed control in blond
psyllium (Plantago ovata) grown on aridisols under
irrigated conditions. Indian Journal of Agronomy 50 (3):
247-248
57
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
Factors responsible for post harvest losses of paddy in Rewa district in Madhya Pradesh
1
S.C.MEENA, 2S.N.SHRIVASTAVA AND 3H.K.NIRANJAN
1&3
M.Sc. Student, College of Agriculture, Rewa (M.P.)
2
professor & Head Department of Agricultural Economics & FM,
JNKVV Jabalpur, Collage of agriculture, Rewa (M.P.) 486001
Email: agrianss@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Rice is the staple food and main source of income for million people of the country. The crop is being grown in diverse
ecosystem ranging the productivity from 1 to 7 ton/ha. At present post harvest losses are becoming a major threat for
its cultivation and storage which may be caused due to biotic and a biotic stresses. If the post harvest losses are reduced
the world supply can be increased by 30-40% without cultivating additional land or increasing any additional
expenditure on seed, fertilizer, irrigation and plant protection measure to grow the crop. Keeping these facts in view,
the presentation is therefore undertaken to study the post harvest losses of paddy in Madhya Pradesh in 2009. among
the major factors responsible for causing losses in manual and bullock operated farms , maximum losses reported in
harvesting (7.68kg/q) followed by threshing and winnowing (3.66kg/q), transportation (1.47kg/q), storage (1.10kg/q)
and other activities (2.51kg/q). In machine operated farm (22.60kg/q) losses found under different categories. The
magnitude of harvest and post harvest losses in small, medium and large size of farm were (16.33kg/q), (21.5kg/q)
respectively. Susana G. castro (2006) also reported these findings.
Key words: Post harvest losses, eco-system, traditional, Madhaya Pradesh.
Traditionally, rice has been the staple food and main source
of income for millions of people and it will continue to be a
main stay of life for future generations. In many countries,
essential development efforts are concentrated on rice to
domestic need for food. In the developing countries rice is
an important item of exportation. Post harvest losses present
one of the main problems not only in rice but also in all
grain production. Losses in food crops occurring during
harvesting, Threshing, Drying, Storage, Transportation, Etc.
have been estimated to be between 30 to 40 % of all food
crops in developing countries. If post harvest losses are
reduced the world supply can be increased by 30-40%
without cultivating additional hectares of land or increasing
any additional expenditure on seed, Fertilizer, Irrigation and
plant protection measure to grow the crop (Agricultural
Resources Center, Egypt 2004). The specific of objectives of
the study are:
i)
To assess the extent and nature of post harvest losses
of paddy at different stages of handling in different size of
farm.
ii) To examine the factors responsible for post harvest
losses of paddy.
iii) To identify the constraints of proper handling of
paddy.
iv) To suggest the ways and policy implication of
minimization of post harvest losses of paddy.
The study was mainly based on primary data. The requisite
primary data were collected from the selected paddy
growers through well structured and pre- tested schedule by
personal interview method. Multi-stage sampling procedure
was adopted in selecting paddy growers. In the first stage,
Rewa district was purposively selected because the
proportion of higher the area and production of paddy in the
district was 126527ha & 2994252tones. In the second stage,
out of nine blocks in the Rewa district, Hanumana block was
purposively selected. From selected block, eight villages a
list of paddy growers selected at random in the third stage.
lastly, from each sample village a list of paddy growers was
prepared in ascending order of their size of holding and were
grouped into small (up to 2 ha.), medium (2-5 ha.) and large
(above 5 ha) categories from cash selected village. In all, the
sample consisted of 80 paddy growers across eight villages
in he selected block of Rewa district In M.P.
Analytical tools:
Classification and tabulation of data were done in light of
stated objectives. Suitable statistical tools such as weighted
average and percentage were used. The data were processed
using tabular analysis. Multiple linear regression models.
y = a+b1 x1 + b2 x2 + b3 x3 + b4 x4 + b5 x5 + b6 x6 + b7 x7
Where,
y = post harvest losses
a = constant
b1 to b7 = regression coefficient
x1 = area under paddy
x2 = yield of paddy
x3 = time of storage
x4 = marketed surplus
x5 = type of storage
x6 = methods of storage
x7 = literacy
The different losses will be calculated using the following
relations:
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study area: - the study is confined to one of the major
paddy producing district of M.P. i.e. Rewa. Rewa district
has nine blocks viz, Raipur Karchuliyan, Mauganj,
Hanumana, Naigarhi, Teonthar, Jawa, Sirmour and Gangeo.
Out of which Hanumana block was purposively selected as
it has maximum area and production of paddy and also due
to ongoing rice research activities of college of Agriculture,
Rewa (M.P.).
58
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
(i)
Transportation losses
Total harvest and post harvest losses of paddy (kg/q) in
manual & bullock operated farm as compared to
machine operated farms.
Table 1 shows that in manual & bullock operated farms
there was found 16.43 kg/q total losses in different harvest
and post harvest activities amongst all these activities the
highest losses was observed in harvesting (7.68 kg/q.)
followed by threshing and winnowing (3.66 kg/q.),
transportation (1.47 kg/q), storage (1.10 kg/q) and other
activities (2.51 kg/q). As the size of holding increase the
harvest and post harvest losses in small, medium and large
size of farms were 13.81kg/q, 17.93kg/q and 22.61kg/q
respectively. Similarly in machine operated farm was found
22.60 kg/q total losses in different activities. Amongst all
these activities the higher losses were observed in
harvesting, threshing & winnowing ( 15.67kg/q) followed
by transportation (1.94kg/q), storage (1.52 kg/q) and other
activities (3.47 kg/q). Hence, the total harvest & post harvest
losses and size of farms both are positively related to each
other. The magnitude of harvest & post harvest losses 25.49
kg/q respectively. Anonymous (2001) and Alam et al.
(2003) also confirmed these findings.
It is clear that there were more harvest & post harvest losses
on machine operated farms (22.60 kg/q) as compared to
manual & bullock operated farms (16.43 kg/q).
Transportation losses (%)
(ii) Threshing losses
Threshing Losses (%)
(iii) Winnowing losses
Winnowing Losses (%)
(iv) Storage losses
Storage losses (%)
Where,
W = quantum of threshed produce
WN = quantum of threshing losses
WH = threshed produce
WW= grain in bhusa (Straw)
WS = weight at the time of storage
WR= weight at the time of use
SL = loss in weight = (WS-SR)
WT = quantum of grain fallen while transportation
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table1.Total harvest and post harvest losses of paddy (kg/q) in manual & bullock operated farm as compared to
machine operated farms.
Size of farms
Weighted average
Small
Medium
Large
Particulars
Bullock
Machine
Bullock
Machine
Bullock
Machine
Bullock
Machine
operated operated
operated
operated
operated
operated
operated
operated
farms
farms
farms
farms
farms
farms
farms
farms
5.93
8.52
10.97
7.68
Harvesting
(45.01)
11.53
(47.51)
14.88
(48.51)
17.69
(46.76)
15.67
Threshing &
2.88
(70.61)
4.03
(69.06)
5.14
(69.39)
3.66
(69.32)
winnowing
(7.86)
(22.49)
(22.71)
(22.30)
1.04
1.10
1.12
1.52
1.27
1.64
1.10
1.52
Storage
(7.86)
(6.71)
(6.23)
(7.05)
(5.62)
(6.43)
(6.72)
(8.58)
1.35
1.33
1.51
1.90
1.72
2.15
1.47
1.94
Transportation
(10.25)
(8.11)
(8.44)
(8.81)
(7.59)
(8.41)
(8.94)
Other activities
(Drying, cleaning,
1.98
2.38
2.75
3.25
3.52
4.02
2.51
3.47
weighing,
(15.03)
(14.57)
(15.34)
(15.08)
(15.57)
(15.77)
(15.27)
(15.36)
handling)
Total losses
13.18
16.33
17.93
21.55
22.61
35.49
16.43
22.60
(quantity)
(100.00)
(100.00)
(100.00)
(100.00)
(100.00)
(100.00)
(100.00)
(100.00)
the harvest & post harvest losses positively. Among the
stated factors field of paddy and time of storage affected the
harvest and post harvest losses positively and highly
significant. An increase of 0.389q in harvest and post
harvest losses was observed with an increase of one quintal
increase in yield of paddy. This loss was examined
maximum amongst all the losses. Similarly an amount of
0.092 q loss was noted with one quintal of paddy under the
grain is too important. The area of paddy was also found
positively significant affecting due harvest & post harvest
losses. Hence, there is a necessity to promote post harvest
Factors affecting harvest & post harvest losses:
The linear regression equation explained 89.81 percent share
in harvest and post harvest losses due to inclusion of due
seven independent factors. The F- ratio (90.698%) indicates
good fit of one linear regression line.
To examine the factors which affected the harvest & post
harvest losses of paddy, a multiple liner regression model
was used and following equation was fitted:
The result of the regression analysis clearly indicates that
the area under paddy crop, Yield of paddy, time of storage,
Type of storage, methods of storage and literacy influenced
59
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
technologies among the farmers so that they can avail the
advantage of the time utilities in the marketing of paddy.
The type of storage from kaccha to pakka, methods of
storage from bulk to bags and number of years of schooling
also positively related with harvest and post harvest losses.
Marketed surplus negatively related with harvest & post
harvest losses. Hence, the extra attention should be given by
policy makers towards these parameters. ( Table2).
Table2. Factors affecting harvest & post harvest losses:
Harvest & post
Area
Yield
Time of
harvest losses
under
storage
paddy
y
a
x1
x2
x3
15.53
0.283*
0.389*
0.0929
F-Ration
90.698
R2
89.81
Note: *significant at 5 per cent level
Marketed
surplus
Types of
storage
Method of
storage
Literacy
x4
-0.1309*
x5
0.0413*
x6
0.0162*
x7
0.0835
Table3. Constraints of proper handling of paddy during harvest and post harvest activities:
Particulars
Size of farms
Small
Medium
large
Shortage of labour at the time of harvesting
22
18
9
(55)
(72)
(60)
Lack of skilled labour at the time of harvesting
26
12
10 (66.67)
&winnowing
(65)
(48)
Unfavorable weather with
at the time of harvesting
30
12
9
(75)
(48)
(60)
Unavailable of matching at the time of harvesting
11
7 (46.67)
(44)
Detoriation in quality of grains when combiner in used
14
10 (66.67)
(56)
Lack of technical knowledge
32
11
6
(80)
(44)
(40)
Shortage of power supply
21
35 (87.5)
10 (66.67)
(84)
Unavailability of machine at the time of threshing and
12
4
15 (37.5)
winnowing
(48)
(26.67)
Lack of road facilities
18
14
8 (53.33)
(45)
(56)
Lack of storage facilities
32
12
4 (26.67)
(80)
(48)
Lack of suitable site floor for drying
22
15
6
(55)
(60)
(40)
Lack of capital
22
18
6
(55)
(72)
(40)
Total(n=80)
49
(61.25)
48
(60)
51
(63.75)
18
(22.5)
24
(30)
49
(61.25)
66
(82.5)
31
(38.75)
40
(50)
48
(60)
41
(51.25)
46
(57.5)
crops residues (51.25%), lack of all weather roads (50%),
detoriation in quality of grains when combine is used (30%)
and unavailable of machine at the time of harvesting
(22.50%) in proper handling of paddy during post harvest
activities. Hence, for reducing post harvest losses proper
implementation post harvest technology at the farmer’s level
is necessary to take advantage of marketing technology, so
that they can reduce their post harvest losses. There is also
need of skill oriental training demonstration for these
harvest and post harvest technologies at farmer’s farm. So
that they can get advantage to maximize their production by
reducing their losses. This ultimately added may be best
method of extension of technologies. Now, there is necessity
to increase extension post harvest technology in the area. As
these not only minimized losses but increase yield of the
farmers added additional value in their product (Table3.).
Constraints of proper handling of paddy during harvest
and post harvest activities:
There is enough scope for reducing harvest and post harvest
losses of paddy grain in the study area. an attempt was also
undertaken to find out the various constraints, which came
across in proper handling of paddy grains during post
harvest activities and are presented in the table the majority
of paddy growers reported shortage of power supply in peak
operation period (82.5%), followed by unfavorable weather
condition at the time of harvesting (63.75%), shortage of
labours at the time of harvesting (61.25%), lack of tech.
knowledge (61.25%), lack of skilled labour at the time of
harvesting & winnowing (60.0%), unavailability of
machines at the time of threshing & winnowing (38.75%)
and lack of storage facility (60%)
The cultivators also reported the constraints as lack
of capital (57.5%) lack of suitable site/ floor for drying
60
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
4. The maximum harvest & post harvest losses (broken
grains) occurred when farmers used machine. Thus, It is
recommended that specialized paddy machine be evolved
and popularized among the paddy produces at present the
common machine are used by the paddy producers after
some adjustment, which are also
5. Storage facilities should be proper and sufficient to
avoid losses due to rodents etc. scientific methods of storage
should be used to prevent such losses.
Suggestions:
1. Paddy crops should be harvested at proper stage to
minimize harvesting losses. During harvesting there grain
moisture content should be 8-10% (wb).
2. Proper planning and management of short medium and
long duration varieties many result in minimum harvesting
losses.
3. Highly shattering /logging resistant paddy variety
should be involved by the research scientists.
REFERENCE
Andales, S.C. et al (2000). Priorities and constraints of
post-harvest in the Philippines. Technical reference guide on
grain post-harvest losses. BPRE. Monoz Nueva Ecija.
Philippines, third edition. P.11.
Singh, G. and Ali, N. (1988). Post-harvest and AgroProcessing Technology. Two decades of Agricultural
Engineering Research of CIAE (1978-1988) 93-97.
Susana G. Castro (2006). Post-harvest technology in
Philippines. Abstract on line
Alam, A.; Singh, G (2003). Present status of post harvest
technology and R and D achievements, status and future
needs of farm mechanization and agro- processing in India,
Central Institutes of Agriculture Engineering,
Bhopal.;
104-107.
http://64.233.169.104/search?q=cache:rkfF5Eu9agQJ:unapc
aem.org/activties/>
Anonymous (2001). Post-harvest and agro-processing
research development and technology, Central Institute of
Agriculture Engineering, Bhopal; 171.
61
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
Knowledge of improved castor production technology among tribal and non -tribal farmers of
Sirohi district of Rajasthan
1
DILEEP KUMAR, 2 JEEWA RAM, 2D S BHATI AND 3K L DANGI
Assistant Professor KVK, (SKRAU) Sriganganagar, 1SMS Agriculture Extension,
3
Department of Extension Education, Rajasthan College of Agriculture, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and
Technology, Udaipur 313001 Rajasthan –India
E mail: jrverma2000@yahoo.co.in
2
ABSTRACT
Castor is an important oilseed cash crop. India is the largest castor growing country in the world. Castor oil obtained
from castor seed is non-edible, but is of great industrial importance Castor producer in India. In Rajasthan, Sirohi
district have first rank in terms of area and production of castor. Therefore, a study was undertaken to assess the level
of knowledge of castor production technology among tribal and non-tribal farmers of Sirohi district. The present study
was conducted in Abu Road (tribal) and Reoder (non-tribal) panchayat samities. Two villages selected from each
panchayat samiti and 75 tribal and 75 non-tribal respondents were selected through proportionate random sampling
procedure. That way the total size of sample is 150. The study was revealed that 78 tribal and non-tribal respondents
were of medium level of knowledge. Non-tribal respondents had been two times higher level of knowledge as compared
to tribal respondents. It was inferred that out of total ten major aspects of castor production technology, both the
groups of respondents had maximum knowledge about the practices of irrigation management whereas the lowest
knowledge was about the plant protection measures. The calculated “Z” values of all the major aspects of castor
production technologies were found to be statistically significant, which showed that there existed difference in the
knowledge level of respondents
Key words: Cash crop, oilseeds, knowledge level, tribal.
Castor is an important oilseed cash crop. It is grown in
tropical, sub tropical and temperate climate. India, with
1076.7 thousand hectares area is the largest castor growing
country in the World with 866.6 thousand tonnes of
production, the highest in the world. The average yield of
castor in India is only 805 kg/ha as against the world
average of 1056 kg/ha. India accounts for 35 per cent and 37
per cent of the global area and production respectively.
Castor oil obtained from castor seed is non-edible, but is of
great industrial importance. It is used as raw material in
manufacture of a number of speciality soaps, cosmetics,
pharmaceuticals, perfumes, paints and lubricants etc.
The total castor production in Rajasthan state is 103782
tonnes. The state has third highest producer in India after
Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh.
The total area and average yield was estimated 109717
hectares and 946 kg/ha, respectively (Anonymous, 200506). In Rajasthan, major castor producing districts were
Sirohi, Jalore, Barmer, Pali and Jodhpur. Sirohi district was
first rank in terms of area and production of castor in
Rajasthan. This crop was grown by limited farmers because
of its lack of knowledge of cultivation technology. If we
know the existing knowledge then we can plan future
strategy for its popularity and sustainability. With these
view, the present investigation was taken to upgrad the
knowledge status of castor cultivation of tribal and non
triable farmer of Sirohi district of Rajasthan. The specific
objective were under
1. To analyze the level of knowledge of improved castor
production technology among tribal and non-tribal
farmers
2. To find out knowledge gap of improved castor
production technology among tribal and non-tribal
farmers
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The present study was conducted in purposively selected
Sirohi district of Rajasthan, on the basis of highest area
under castor crop. Two Panchayat Samities were selected,
one tribal (Abu Road) and one non-tribal (Reoder) for the
purpose of investigation. Two villages each from selected
panchayat samities i.e.four villages were chosen. Seventy
five tribal and non-tribal respondents were selected through
proportionate random sampling procedure. That way, the
overall size of sample constituted of total 150 respondents.
RESULTS AND DISSCUSSION
1. Level of knowledge to improved castor production
technology among tribal and non-tribal farmers
The perusal of data presented in Table-1 visualises that more
than half of the total respondents 78 (52.00 per cent) were
medium knowledge category, followed by 54 (36.00 per
cent) respondents who possessed low knowledge regarding
CPT. Further, it was observed that only 18 (12.00 per cent)
of the total respondents could be placed in the category of
high knowledge about CPT.
Observation of data makes it clear that more than half 42
(56.00 per cent) of the tribal respondents possessed low
level of knowledge followed by 27 (36.00 per cent) with
medium level of knowledge and only 6 (8.00 per cent)
respondents possessed high knowledge regarding CPT.
Whereas, majority of non tribal respondents 51 (68.00 per
cent) were found to have medium level of knowledge,
followed by equal number 12 (16.00 per cent) in the high
and low level of knowledge regarding CPT.
62
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
Table-1: Distribution of respondents according to their level of knowledge about CPT.
N=150
Level of knowledge
Low (Below 46.04)
Medium ( between 46.04)
High (Above (72.75)
Total
*
**
Tribal
42 (77.78)*
(56.00)**
27 (34.62)
(36.00)
6 (33.33)
(8.00)
75 (50.00)
Non-tribal
12 (22.22)
(16.00)
51 (65.38)
(68.00
12 (66.67)
(16.00)
75 (50.00)
Total
54
(36.00)
78
(52.00)
18
(12.00)
150
Percentage of rows
Percentage of columns
Data presented in the table-1, concluded that majority of the
respondents of both categories fell under medium level of
knowledge about CPT. At the same times, noted that nontribal number, 12 (66.67 per cent) is higher than 6 (33.33
per cent) of tribal having higher extent of knowledge in
CPT.
The finding was also conformed to Nakela (1989), who
found that farmers in the non-tribal area had more
knowledge, as compared to the farmers in the tribal areas
about all the improved practices of kharif pulse technology.
Rajput (1997) also observed that majority of respondent fell
in the medium level in poppy cultivation. The present
finding was also in line with reported of Meena (1998).
Table-2: Overall knowledge of respondents regarding major aspects of CPT.
N=150
Major aspects
Tribal
Rank
VII
VI
IX
V
IV
Non tribal
MPS
Rank
63.08
VII
73.71
V
56.89
VIII
66.96
VI
88.33
II
MPS
Hybrids
55.17
Soil and field preparation
61.33
Seed treatment
34.67
Sowing time
65.78
Seed
rate
and 66.00
recommended spacing
Manure and fertilizer 76.27
II
86.53
application
Weed management
36.67
VIII
48.33
Irrigation management
83.11
I
94.67
Plant protection measures 30.46
X
43.92
Harvesting and storage
68.44
III
86.22
Total
49.87
61.41
*
Significant at 1 per cent level of significance.
*
Significant at 5 percent level of significance
‘Z’
value tabulated = 2.566 at 0.01 level of probability
“Z” value tabulated = 1.96 at 0.05 level of probability
A perusal of data in Table 2 indicates that out of ten major
aspects of CPT, both the groups of respondents had maximum
knowledge about the practices of “irrigation management”
which acquired overall MPS 88.89 ranked first followed by
“manure and fertilizer application”, “harvesting and storage”
and “seed rate and recommended spacing” practices, which
were ranked second, third and fourth with their respective total
MPS 81.40, 77.33 and 77.16.respectively The knowledge level
of all the respondents, one of the most important aspects i.e.
plant protection measures was placed at very bottom with
overall MPS of 37.19.
Table 2 also expressed that there had been significant
difference between tribals and non-tribals with regard to
their level of knowledge about all the major aspects of CPT,
except one, i.e. “sowing time”. Meaning, non-tribals of the
63
“Z” value
Total
MPS
59.12
67.52
45.78
66.37
77.16
Rank
VII
V
VIII
VI
IV
4.834**
4.154**
3.315**
0.641 NS
4.829**
III
81.40
II
3.942**
IX
I
X
IV
42.50
88.89
37.19
77.33
55.64
IX
I
X
III
2.517*
3.774**
5.276**
5.131**
7.236
study area possessed higher knowledge about CPT than
those of tribals.
2. Knowledge gap of improved castor production
technology among tribal and non-tribal farmers
Table 3 show that out of ten major areas identified under the
study of CPT only one area i.e., “plant production
measures” was found in first rank as far its knowledge gap
was concerned among both the types of respondents. It was
also observed that the practices of “weed management” got
second rank with knowledge gap per cent, 57.55 among
total 150 respondents. It was followed by third as the
knowledge gap of “seed treatment”.
Similae findings was conformity with Nakela (1989) where
he identified significant gap in knowledge of tribal and
non-tribal farmers regarding recommended practices of
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
pulse production technology. Shri Ram (1999) also supports
the findings of present contexts where he observed highest
knowledge gap in relation to plant protection measures
among tribals and non- tribals, to wheat crop.
Table -3: Knowledge gap among Tribal and non tribal respondents about improved CPT.
N=150
Practices
Tribal
Non tribal
MPS
GAP %
MPS
GAP %
Hybrids
55.17
44.83
63.08
36.92
Soil and field preparation
Seed treatment
Sowing time
Seed Rate and Recommended
spacing
Manure and fertilizer application
Weed management
Irrigation Management
Plant protection measures
Harvesting and storage
Total
Total
MPS
59.12
GAP %
40.88
61.33
34.67
65.78
66.00
38.67
65.33
34.22
34.00
73.71
56.89
66.96
88.33
26.29
43.11
33.04
11.67
67.52
45.78
66.37
77.16
32.48
54.22
33.63
22.84
76.27
36.67
83.11
30.46
68.44
57.79
23.73
63.33
16.89
69.54
31.56
42.21
86.53
48.33
94.67
43.92
86.22
70.86
13.47
51.67
5.33
56.08
13.78
29.14
81.30
42.45
88.89
37.19
77.33
64.33
18.70
57.55
11.11
62.81
22.67
35.67
It was revealed that majority of tribals i.e. 42 (56.00 per
cent) belonged to low level of knowledge, while non-tribals
were of medium level of knowledge with the tune of 51
(68.00 per cent). Higher level of knowledge of non-tribal
respondents had been two times more as compared to tribal
respondents regarding improved castor production. It was
inferred that out of total ten major aspects of castor
production technology, both the groups of respondents had
maximum knowledge about the practices of irrigation
management, which acquired overall MPS 88.89, whereas
the lowest knowledge was about the plant protection
measures with its MPS 37.19. The calculated “Z” values of
all the major aspects of castor production technologies i.e.
hybrids, soil and field preparation, seed treatment, sowing
time, seed rate and recommended spacing, manure and
fertilizer, weed management, irrigation management, plant
protection measures, harvesting and storage practices were
found to be statistically significant, which showed that there
existed difference in the knowledge level of respondents
regarding castor production technology. The non-tribal’s had
more knowledge about improved practices of castor
production
technology
than
those
of
tribal’s.
Recommendations based on the findings that both the
categories of farmers need to be educated still more about
plant protection measures, seed treatments, weed
management and hybrids.
REFERENCES
Rajput, V.S. (1997). “Factors affecting adoption of opium
production technology in Nimbahera Panchayat Samiti of
Chittorgarh district”. M. Sc. (Ag.) Thesis (unpub.), Raj.
Agril. Univ., Bikaner, Campus -Udaipur.
Annonymous (2005-06). State level summary of principals
crops in Rajasthan. Vital Agriculture Statistics Directorate
of Agriculture , Rajasthan pp 78.
Meena, L.R. (1998). “Role of tribal and non-tribal farm
women and their training need to improved animal
husbandry in Udaipur district of Rajasthan”. M. Sc. (Ag.)
Thesis (Unpub.), RAU, Bikaner, Campus-Udaipur.
Shri Ram (1999). “Impact of the Mahi Bajaj Sagar
Irrigation Project, Banswara on adoption of improved
technology of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cultivation in
tribal area of Rajasthan”, Ph.D.Thesis, RAU, Bikaner,
Campus Udaipur.
Nakela, N.S. (1989). “Kharif pulse technology accessibility
to farmers in tribal and non tribal area of Udaipur district
(Rajasthan)”.
M.Sc.(Ag.) Thesis (Unpub.), RAU,
Bikaner,Campus-Udaipur.
64
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
Integrated Nutrient Management on Quality Protein Maize (Zea mays L.)
1
GAJENDRA SINGH, 2G.L.SHARMA AND 3SHANKAR LAL GOLADA
M.Sc.Research Scholar, 2Assistant Professor and 3Ph.D.Research Scholar Department of Agronomy,
Rajasthan College of Agriculture, MPUA&T Udaipur-313001
1
ABSTRACT
A field experiment was conducted during kharif season of 2010 at Instructional farm iof Agronomy, Rajasthan college
of Agriculture Udaipur to study the Integrated nutrient management on quality protein maize( Zea mays L.) cv HQPM1.sixteen treatment combinations, comprising four levels of Enriched FYM with fertilizers viz. Conventional (FYM @
10 t ha-1 + 100% RDF),Enriched FYM + 50% RDF, Enriched FYM + 100% RDF and Enriched FYM + 150% RDF and
four Biofertilizers levels.viz.Control, Azotobactor, PSB and Azotobactor + PSB were laid out factorial concept in
randomized block design with three replications. The application of FYM @ 10 t ha-1 enriched with 150% RDF
recorded significantly increased the grain yield (4449.52 kg ha -1) ,stover yield (8026.52 kg ha-1),harvest index (35.64 % )
and protein content in grain (11.84 %) over rest of the treatments. Similar trend also observed in N and P content and
uptake in grain and stover and availabile N and P in soil. Seed inoculation with Azotobacter + PSB culture maximized
grain yield (4368.35 kg ha-1),stover yield of (873.6 kg ha-1), harvest index(35.26%)and protein content in
grain(12.16%),over another treatments.Similar trend also observed in N and P content and uptake in grain and stover
and availabile N and P in soil.
Key words: Quality protein Maize, FYM Enriched Fertilizers, Biofertilizers, Nutrient content and uptake.
Maize, the queen of cereals occupies a pride place among
cereal crops in India. It has emerged as third most important
food crop after rice and wheat as it represents 24 per cent of
total cereal production. It is a staple food for vast rural
population of our country particularly in the southern parts
of Rajasthan. The maize varieties have low protein content
with unbalanced composition of essential amino acids .The
low protein and unbalanced amino acid content in maize
cause protein deficiency diseases like kwashiorkor and
malnutrition. To overcome this problem quality protein
maize was developed. The QPM is hybridized variety of
maize specially bred by Opaque-2 modifier gene, which
improves lysine and tryptophan, reduces leucine and
isoleusine content and produces quality protein with
balanced composition of amino acids. Higher yield of QPM
can be obtained through the use of plant nutrients The
integrated plant nutrient supply envisages conjunctive use of
inorganic and organic sources of plant nutrients and use of
bio-fertilizers for crop productivity besides sustaining soil
health. FYM is traditional source of organic manure. Out of
total utilizable nutrient content of FYM only one third N and
two third P is available in the current season crop and rest is
to the succeeding crop in the recent years, microbial
fertilizers like Azotobacter and phosphate solubilizing
bacteria (PSB) have shown tremendous potential as these are
eco-friendly and low cost agriculture inputs. There is a great
need for research on biological nitrogen fixation and
phosphorus solubilization for energy conservation. Most
soils of Rajasthan state are low in organic matter content and
poor in nutrient supply. Hence, inoculation with suitable
strains of biofertilizers in such soil may help in boosting up
production because of increasing microbial population and
consequently increased fixation of atmospheric nitrogen by
Azotobacter and solubilization of unavailable phosphorus by
phosphorus solubilizing bacteria. Since the production
technology is not available for Quality Protein maize in the
state, therefore, an attempt has been made to increase the
production potential of quality protein maize with FYM
enriched with fertilizers levels and Biofertilizers.
MATREIAL ANS METHOD
A field experiment was conducted during Kharif season of
2010 at Instructional Farm of Agronomy, Rajasthan college
of Agriculture Udaipur. The experimental soil was clay
loam, slightly alkaline in reaction (pH 7.8), medium in
available nitrogen (260.40 kg per ha) and available
phosphorus (18.26 kg per ha). The treatments consists of
four levels of FYM enriched with Fertilizers, viz.
Conventional (FYM @ 10 t ha-1 + 100% RDF),Enriched
FYM + 50% RDF, Enriched FYM + 100% RDF and
Enriched FYM + 150% RDF and four Biofertilizers
levels.viz.Control, Azotobactor, PSB and Azotobactor + PSB
were laid out factorial concept in randomized block design
with three replications. FYM @ 10 t ha-1 was applied three
weeks before sowing. Recommended doses of N and P were
applied - full dose of phosphorus and half dose of nitrogen at
sowing by drilling in crop rows and the remaining dose of
nitrogen were side-dressed in two split doses at 30 DAS and
45 DAS. The seeds were inoculated with Azotobacter and
PSB inoculants as per the treatments. The seeds were
thoroughly mixed with biofertilizer slurry in such a way that
all the seeds were uniformly coated with cultures and then
allowed to dry in the shade before the sowing of crop. The
Hybrid Quality protein maize-1 (HQPM-1) was sown on 9
July and harvested in 19 octomber 2010, using seed rate 20
kg ha-1 at inter row of 75cm and plant to plant spacing of 20
cm.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Enriched FYM with Fertilizers
The productivity of the crop in terms of grain and stover
yield tended to increase with application of FYM integrated
with chemical fertilizers (Table-1). Application of FYM @
10 t ha-1 enriched with 150% RDF recorded significantly the
65
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
highest grain yield (4449.52 kg ha-1) which represented
increases of 363.75, 383.25 and 570 kg ha -1 over application
of FYM 10 t ha-1 enriched with 100 % RDF, conventional
practice and FYM 10 t ha-1 enriched with 50% RDF,
respectively. The highest stover yield (8026.52 kg ha -1) was
recorded when the crop was supplied with FYM @ 10 t ha -1
enriched with 150% RDF, which represented significant
increase of 705 kg ha-1 over FYM @ 10 t ha-1 enriched with
50% RDF but was found at par with conventional practice
and FYM @ 10 t ha-1 enriched with 100% RDF. Similar
trend also observed in harvest index. Application of FYM @
10 t ha-1 enriched with 150% RDF recorded significantly
highest protein content in grain. Protein content in maize
grain improved with application of FYM enriched with N
and P up to 150% RDF ha- due to greater availability of
Table 1: Effect of Enriched FYM with fertilizers
phosphorous content in grains
Treatment
Yield (kg ha-1)
nitrogen and phosphorus on account of increasing
fertilization, which in turn increased N content of grain and
partly due to accelerating effect of this nutrient on protein
synthesis and improved N and P content in grain and stover
over control, FYM @ 10 t ha-1 enriched with 50% and 100%
RDF.The results are in close conformity with those of
Shivay et al. (2002) and Kar et al., (2006)
Uptake of nitrogen and phosphorus by grain, stover and the
total uptake by the crop were significantly the highest
(Table-2) with application of FYM enriched with 150%
RDF. Application of FYM @ 10 t ha-1enriched with 150%
RDF significantly increased available nitrogen and
phosphorus in soil over control and FYM @ 10 t ha 1
enriched with 50% RDF. However, it remained at par with
FYM @ 10 t ha-1enriched with 100% RDF.
and Biofertilizers on Yield ,Harvest index, Protein, Nitrogen and
Harvest index Protein content
(%)
in grain (%)
Grain
Stover
Conventional
4066.27
7536.02
35.06
Enriched FYM + 50% RDF
3879.52
7321.52
Enriched FYM + 100% RDF
4085.77
Enriched FYM + 150% RDF
CD at 5%
Nitrogen
Phosphorous
Grain
Stover
Grain
Stover
11.2
1.797
0.713
0.4183
0.1602
34.62
10.84
1.735
0.706
0.4040
0.1597
7594.02
34.99
11.33
1.813
0.770
0.4164
0.1691
4449.52
8026.52
35.64
11.84
1.894
0.851
0.4708
0.1933
286.37
497.47
0.12
0.37
0.059
0.014
0.0096
0.0064
Control
3872.52
7139.00
35.16
10.56
1.690
0.741
0.4110
0.1655
Azotobactor
4196.80
7732.30
35.16
11.81
1.890
0.766
0.4252
0.1686
PSB
4043.44
7594.19
34.73
10.70
1.712
0.760
0.4327
0.1696
Azotobactor + PSB
4368.35
8012.60
35.26
12.16
1.946
0.774
0.4427
0.1786
CD at 5%
289.37
497.47
0.12
0.37
0.059
0.014
0.0096
0.0064
Enriched FYM
( % RDF)
Biofertilizers
has also been reported by a number of workers . Phosphate
solubilizing bacteria (PSB) not only solubilize organic and
inorganic phosphorus in soil but also make available added
phosphorus and thereby increasing P availability and
improve the crop growth and yield. Dadarwal et al.,
(
2009) and Dilshad et al., (2010).
Concentration of nutrients (N and P) in grain and stover
were significantly influenced by seed inoculation with
biofertilizers (Table 1). Azotobacter and PSB alone or in
combination increased N and P content in grain and stover
which could be attributed to greater availability of nitrogen
through biological nitrogen fixation by Azotobacter and
phosphorus through better solubilizing of phosphorus. The
uptake of N and P increased with combined inoculation of
seeds with Azotobacter +PSB (Table 2). Nutrient uptake is
product key of yield and nutrient content, considerable
increase in either nutrient content or in yield may increase
the uptake. The results are in confirmation with findings of
Effect of Biofertilizers
The productivity of the crop in terms of grain and stover
yield tended to increase seed inoculation with biofertilizers
(Table-1).Seed inoculation with Azotobacter + PSB culture
maximized grain yield (4368.35 kg ha-1) which represented
significant increase of 495.85 and 324.91 kg ha -1 over
control and PSB alone, respectively, while it was at par with
Azotobacter alone. Similar trend also recorded in The
highest stover yield ( 8012 kg ha-1) was recorded when
seeds were inoculated with Azotobacter + PSB, which
represented significant increase of 873.6 kg ha-1 over
control and found at par with Azotobacter and PSB
alone.Biofertilizers, the microbial inoculants which bring
about fixation of atmospheric nitrogen either in free living
N2 fixer in the rizosphere (Azotobacter) or transform native
unavailable phosphorus into plant utilizable form are low
cost eco-friendly inputs for farmers. However when N 2
fixers and PSB were used together there was significant
additive effect. Such mutually beneficial synergistic effect
66
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
Sujata et al., (2008), Balai et al., (2011) and Dadarwal et al.,
(2009).
From the results of one year study, it may be concluded that
application of FYM @ 10 t ha-1 enriched with 150% RDF
appears to be beneficial for raising quality protein maize as
this treatment recorded significantly the highest grain yield
(4449.52 kg ha-1), Protein ,N and P content and uptake
availability status of Nand P in soil also Among biofertilizer
treatments, seed inoculation with combination of
Azotobacter +PSB culture appears to be profitable as this
treatment gave significantly the highest grain yield (4368.35
kg ha-1), Protein ,N and P content and uptake and
availibility status of N and P in soil also However, these
findings are based on one year study only, hence need
further experimentation for confirmation of results.
Table 2: Effect of Enriched FYM with fertilizers and Biofertilizers on Nutrient uptake in grain and available nutrient status in
soil
Treatment
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Available
Nitrogen
Available
Phosphorous
Grain
Stover
Grain
Stover
Conventional
73.3
53.7
17.0
12.1
251.57
20.45
Enriched FYM + 50% RDF
67.53
51.70
15.67
11.68
267.25
23.78
Enriched FYM + 100% RDF
74.22
58.52
17.04
12.85
276.61
25.82
Enriched FYM + 150% RDF
84.50
68.38
20.98
15.55
278.44
28.27
CD at 5%
5.82
3.80
1.21
0.94
10.71
0.98
Control
65.61
52.92
15.94
11.84
262.02
23.07
Azotobactor
79.31
59.36
17.90
13.08
266.88
24.20
PSB
69.38
57.84
17.55
12.94
265.52
24.83
Azotobactor + PSB
85.21
62.22
19.29
14.32
279.44
26.21
CD at 5%
5.82
3.80
1.21
0.94
10.71
0.98
Enriched FYM ( % RDF)
Biofertilizers
REFERENCES
Balai, M.L., Verma, A., Nepalia, V. and Kanthaliye, P.C.
2011. Productivity and quality of maize (Zea mays) as
influenced by integrated nutrient management under
continuous cropping and fertilization. Indian Journal of
Agricultural Sciences 81:374-376.
Kar, P.P., Barik, K.C., Mahapatra, P.K., Garnayak,
L.M., Rath, B.S., Bastia, D.K. and Khanda, C.M. 2006.
Effect of planting geometry and nitrogen on yield,
economics and nitrogen uptake of sweet corn (Zea mays).
Indian Journal of Agronomy 51: 43-45.
Dadarwal, R.S., Jain, N. K., and Singh, D. 2009.
Integrated nutrient management in baby corn (Zea mays).
Indian Journal of Agricultural Science 79:1023-1025.
Shivay, Y.S., Singh, R.P. and Shivakumar, B.G. 2002.
Effect of nitrogen on yield attributes, yield and quality of
maize (Zea mays) in different cropping systems. Indian
Journal of Agricultural Sciences 72: 161-163.
Dilshad, M.D., Lone, M.I., Jilani, G., Azim Malik, M.,
Yousaf, M., Khalid, R., Shamin, F.2010. Integrated
nutrient management (IPNM) on maize under
rainfed condition .Pakistan Journal of Nutrition 9:
896-901.
Sujata, M.G., Lingaraju, B.S., Palled, Y.B., K.V. 2008.
Importance of integrated nutrient management practices in
maize under rainfed condition. Karnataka Journal of
Agricultural Sciences 21: 334-338.
67
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
An Exploration about Attitude of Farm Women towards Indigenous Agriculture practices
1
SEEMA JASUJA, 2I.M.KHAN AND 1D.S.BHATI
Assistant Professor, Krishi Vigyan Kendra Sriganganagar
(S.K. Rajasthan Agricultural University) - 335 001 (Rajasthan), India
2
Associate Professor, SKN College of Agriculture Jobner, Jaipur
Email: seema_jasuja@yahoo.com
1
ABSTRACT
Farm women are the backbone of Indian culture. Eighty percent of the economically active women are engaged in
activities of sowing, transplanting, weeding, manuring, harvesting, threshing and storage etc. In true sense, farm
women are the store-house of indigenous knowledge and experience with respect to agriculture, which can form very
good base for further development. Women can be extremely useful in identifying local farm resources, an aspect
critical for success of agricultural production. They are diligent in showing the ways to develop traditional agricultural
practices and strategies appropriate for local situations. There is an urgent need to blend modern scientific knowledge
and the indigenous agricultural technologies to draw a line between the popular superstitions from rational indigenous
technologies, so the later one deserve to be encouraged through scientific study and research. Higher productivity, cost
effectiveness, non- polluting, hazardlessness, easy availability, stability, safety, and sustainability is the basic
characteristics of traditional agricultural practices which should be strengthened by scientific explanation and
documentation. An effort was made to develop a scale to measure the attitude of farm women towards traditional
agricultural practices. For measuring the attitude of farm women towards TAPs, a scale was developed by the
investigator in light of the suggestions of the experts. Most of the respondents had favourable attitude towards
traditional agricultural practices whereas 6.00 percent of farm women had unfavourable attitude and only 3.33 percent
farm women had most favorable attitude towards traditional agricultural practices which indicate that farm women
still had still faith in applicability of these generation-old farm practices as these are according to their socio-cultural
domain of living, raised by the means of indigenous research. They considered these practices as their part of life, which
ultimately reinforces their favourable attitude towards these traditional agricultural practices.
Key words: Attitude, traditional agricultural practices.
reservoir of indigenous agricultural knowledge.” (Warren,
1993)
Traditional agriculture is normally thought to be that
collection of practices which were centuries old and used till
modern agriculture being displacing it with its scientific
basis but traditional agriculture is a universal package of
practices, a product of way of thinking, way of living, a
culture. Its aim was the satisfaction of the basic needs of the
surrounding community, not the luxuriant wants of distant
region. Such knowledge or experiences have been passed on
from one generation to another by word of mouth, which are
commonly known as “Traditional Agricultural Practices.”
The terms “Indigenous” is often interchangeably used with
“Traditional” or “Local” (Chithraichelvan, 1994)
Thus, traditional agricultural knowledge is generated by the
local people with their own experiences and experimentation
to meet their needs and which is sustainable. This
knowledge is tightly interwoven with their beliefs, norms
and culture so that it could maintain its identity. Traditional
agriculture knowledge has several characteristics like it has
minimum risk factor; heavy reliance on genetic and physical
diversity; exploits optimum utilization of local resources;
environmentally healthy; readily available and easily
understandable. Further it is labor intensive, fits into local
farming system and adaptable to meet multipurpose
community needs, based on cultural values of the
community; is attested by evidence from trustworthy
sources and had good culinary quality
Although the traditional practices or knowledge are the
outcomes of daily experiences of local people, they are still
in vague and not have any scientifically supported
At the onset of the 21st century, the world faces a
tremendous diversity of global challenges. On the
developmental front one of these challenges is of
institutionalization of sustainability. In the context of
agricultural development, a new agenda has come up for
achieving the objectives of generation and dissemination of
economically
feasible,
socially
acceptable
and
environmentally sound technologies that refers to the
locality. Indian agriculture scene is spread over the major
area of the country and involves an overwhelming number
of population residence as well as employment wise. Indian
farmer has their deep roots in knowing what works in their
farms, even local agricultural schools can not teach such
knowledge because of its vast extent and its wide range of
variations (Pereira,1993)
Since last two decades, an increasing number of scientists
have moved towards analyzing the consequences of modern
and scientific development efforts and from eighty’s the
appreciation for traditional wisdom, which are prevalent in
the society since time memorial, gained currency globally.
Developing countries like ours have a reservoir of
indigenous knowledge which may certainly prove to be
more valuable to all of us in reorganization of our
development efforts towards nation’s self sufficiency.
Being an agriculture dependant country, in India, our
developmental efforts are concentrated around transforming
traditional agriculture technology to a way to modern
technology but the potentiality of traditional agriculture is
increasingly being recognized during last few years.
“Developing countries have a valuable but largely untapped
68
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
common proverb in the African society “When a
knowledgeable old person dies, a whole library disappears,”
(DCR, 1991) so unless we make urgent and quicker efforts
to track this valuable knowledge, it will be lost soon, not to
be regained at any cost.
With these considerations in mind, the present investigation
entitled, “Attitude of farm women towards Traditional
Agricultural Practices of Bikaner District, Rajasthan”
has been undertaken with following objectives:
1) To develop a scale to measure the attitude of farm
women towards traditional agricultural practices.
2) To measure the attitude of farm women towards
various traditional agricultural practices.
weights of the individual items. In this way the frequency
distribution of scores based on the responses to all
statements was obtained. According to Edward (1957) 25
percent (15) of the subjects with the highest total scores and
also 25 percent (15) of the subjects with the lowest total
scores were taken assuming that these two groups were
provided criterion groups in terms of which to evaluate the
individual statement.
For evaluating the responses of high and low groups to the
individual statement, critical ratio value (t-value) was
worked out according to Edward’s (1957) procedure for all
the statements. These were arranged in descending order.
The t-value for 38 statements, out of 44 statements was
found significant (more than 1.75) at 5 percent level of
probability so the final scale consisted of 38 statements.
There were almost equal numbers of positive and negative
statements in the final scale. To test the reliability, repeattest or test-retest technique was used. The value of the
correlation co-efficient was found to be 0.962, which was
highly significant showing the reliability of the scale (Table
-1).
framework. If these ages old practices are integrated with
scientifically acceptable basis, then it will definitely result in
making the practices convincing and credible to the rural
people especially to the farming community. So there is an
urgent need to safeguard and reaffirm traditional agricultural
practices among farm women and encouraging them to
adopt scientifically valid and acceptable traditional practices
which are need based, better problem solving, locally
available, more intelligible and credible to the rural
clientele.
Therefore, much work has to be done to locate, document
and disseminate traditional knowledge so that it can become
part of body of sustainable development. As there is
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The present research was conducted in Bikaner district of
Rajasthan. In the present study, efforts have been made to
determine the attitude of farm women towards traditional
agricultural practices. Attitude as defined by Thurstone
(1928) is “The degree of positive or negative effect
associated with some psychological object”. In the context
of present research, the psychological object is the feeling
about traditional agricultural practices followed by farm
women, which differ with respect to positive or negative
effect.
For the measurement of attitude, Likert’s method of
summated ratings of attitude measurement was used in this
study, because it requires less number of judges to start with
and also less time consuming. A five point continuum of
attitude measurement, ranging from “Strongly agree”,
“Agree” “Undecided”, “Disagree” and “Strongly disagree”
with a scoring of 5,4,3,2 and 1 was assigned respectively. If
the item was a positive one, scores were 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1 for
respective categories. If the item was a negative one, the
scoring system was reversed. The score for an individual
respondent on the scale was computed by summing the
Table- 1 The critical ratio values of the attitudinal statements for measuring the attitude of farm women towards traditional
agricultural practices N = 60
Critical Ratio
Attitudinal Statements
Value (CRV)
Traditional agricultural practices help in developing confidence while using it for agricultural
2.86
operations.
The traditional agricultural practices are location specific.
2.36
The traditional agricultural practices are compatible with socio-cultural conditions.
2.79
Traditional agricultural practices are not profitable as modern agricultural practices.
2.51
Traditional agricultural practices are easy to handle in all conditions.
2.74
Identification of current problems is impossible by traditional agricultural practices.
-1.37*
Traditional agricultural practices provide perfect solutions to the local problems.
2.5
Traditional agricultural practices are useless in identifying latest problems.
3.21
It is difficult to get technical guidance by traditional agricultural knowledge.
4.27
For higher adoption, traditional agricultural practices need support from research findings.
2.35
The traditional agricultural practices are relatively less effective in betterment of community.
4.91
The traditional agricultural practices are less believable.
-1.53*
The traditional agricultural practices are more prevalent in rural areas even these have not any
1.53*
scientific logic.
The traditional agricultural practices are more effective in promoting community welfare.
8.88
The traditional agricultural practices are most trust-worthy.
2.1
The traditional agricultural practices are more labour intensive.
3.85
The results of traditional agricultural practices are less ensured as these are evolved by trial and error
3.92
method.
The traditional agricultural practices require more investment in terms of money.
2.67
69
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
Attitudinal Statements
The application of traditional agricultural practices requires less labour.
The results of traditional agricultural practices are achieved very late.
The traditional agricultural system is more efficient than other advanced programmes related to
increased agricultural production.
Quicker outputs can be obtained by application of traditional agricultural practices.
The traditional agricultural practices produce ensured results as these are experientially generated.
The adoption of traditional agricultural practices requires lesser efforts in transfer of technology by
extension agency.
The traditional agricultural practices are utilized with little persuasion than new farm technologies.
The traditional agricultural practices are well defined and visible to the farm people.
The traditional agricultural practices are more time consuming.
The traditional agricultural practices give less return in relation to cost involved.
Local resources can be utilized in implementation of traditional agricultural practices.
Traditional agricultural practices are less risk bearing than improved practices.
The traditional agricultural system can upgrade the level of agricultural production.
More external resources are required for application of traditional agricultural practices.
The traditional agricultural practices involve more energy expenditure.
Farm women require less motivation regarding adoption of traditional agricultural practices.
Traditional agricultural practices do not include the latest technological changes.
The traditional agricultural practices can be applied only at small scale.
The traditional agricultural practices give lesser yields as compare to modern practices.
The adoption rate of traditional agricultural practices is higher due to its greater prevalence and
awareness.
The outcomes of traditional agricultural practices are influenced by natural conditions or hazards.
The traditional agricultural practices are eco-friendly.
The traditional agricultural practices have more applicability in the locality than improved practices.
The traditional agricultural practices are directed towards qualitative outputs than quantitative.
The traditional agricultural practices require less skill for its application.
Inputs required under traditional agricultural system are easily accessible.
Statements having CRV less than 1.75
The content of the scale was developed from a large number
of authentic sources and expert’s opinion, books, journals
etc. Hence it was assumed that the scores obtained by
administering the attitude scale of this study will measure
what was intended to measure. Further, the t-values were
found significant for 38 statements which were finally
selected, on the basis of which it was assumed that the scale
was valid.
The main aim to develop scale to measure the attitude was
lies behind the fact the utilization of any practice or
technology whether, it is modern or traditional by the end
users, strictly depends upon their attitude towards that
particular technology. A positive attitude towards traditional
or indigenous farm technology can change the whole
scenario and farm women can move towards the progressive
path of sustainable agriculture. In nutshell, if we want to
push up the adoption of scientifically acceptable traditional
Critical Ratio
Value (CRV)
4.47
2.08
4.12
3.23
2.91
3.28
2.92
1.24*
-1.76*
2.71
3.39
2.24
2.76
3.22
2.33
2.29
4.82
2.97
2.08
2.88
2.72
3.74
3.29
1.66*
2.36
2.11
agricultural practices, we have to know the attitude of farm
women towards these practices, so that we can channelize
their favourable attitude not only to produce some beneficial
results at their farms but to also enhance their utilization
also.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Out of 44 statements, t-values of 38 statements were found
significant (more than 1.75) at 5 percent level of probability.
Hence, the final attitude scale consists of 38 attitude
statements.
After going through the whole procedure of attitude scale
construction, a final scale comprising of 38 attitude
statements was ready for measurement of attitude of farm
women towards traditional agricultural practices. (Table-2)
70
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
Table -2 Final attitude scale for measuring the attitude of farm women towards traditional agricultural practices
Attitudinal statements
Traditional agricultural practices help in developing confidence while using it
for agricultural operations.
The traditional agricultural practices are location specific.
The traditional agricultural practices are compatible with socio-cultural
conditions.
Traditional agricultural practices are not profitable as modern agricultural
practices.
Traditional agricultural practices are easy to handle in all conditions.
Traditional agricultural practices provide perfect solutions to the local
problems.
Traditional agricultural practices are useless in identifying latest problems.
It is difficult to get technical guidance by traditional agricultural knowledge.
For higher adoption, traditional agricultural practices need support from
research findings.
The traditional agricultural practices are relatively less effective in betterment
of community.
The traditional agricultural practices are more effective in promoting
community welfare.
The traditional agricultural practices are most trust-worthy.
The traditional agricultural practices are more labour intensive
The results of traditional agricultural practices are less ensured as these are
evolved by trial and error method.
The traditional agricultural practices require more investment in terms of
money.
The application of traditional agricultural practices requires less labour.
The results of traditional agricultural practices are achieved very late.
The traditional agricultural system is more efficient than other advance
programmes related to increased agricultural production.
Quicker outputs can be obtained by application of traditional agricultural
practices.
The traditional agricultural practices produce ensured results as these are
experientially generated.
The adoption of traditional agricultural practices requires lesser efforts in
transfer of technology by extension agency.
The traditional agricultural practices are utilized with little persuasion than
new farm technology.
The traditional agricultural practices give less return in relation to cost
involved.
Local resources can be utilized in implementation of traditional practices.
Traditional agricultural practices are less risk bearing than improved practices.
The traditional agricultural system can upgrade the level of agricultural
production.
More external resources are required for application of traditional agricultural
practices.
The traditional agricultural practices involve more energy expenditure.
Farm women require less motivation regarding adoption of traditional
agricultural practices.
Traditional agricultural practices do not include the latest technological
changes.
The traditional agricultural practices can be applied only at small scale.
The traditional agricultural practices give lesser yields as compare to modern
practices.
The adoption rate of traditional agricultural practices is higher due to its
greater prevalence and awareness.
The outcomes of traditional agricultural practices are influenced by natural
conditions or hazards.
The traditional agricultural practices are eco-friendly.
71
SA
5
A
4
UD
3
DA
2
SDA
1
5
5
4
4
3
3
2
2
1
1
1
2
3
4
5
5
5
4
4
3
3
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
4
5
5
5
1
2
3
4
5
5
4
3
2
1
5
1
1
4
2
2
3
3
3
2
4
4
1
5
5
1
2
3
4
5
5
1
5
4
2
4
3
3
3
2
4
2
1
5
1
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
1
2
3
4
5
5
5
5
4
4
4
3
3
3
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
2
3
4
5
1
5
2
4
3
3
4
2
5
1
1
2
3
4
5
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
5
4
3
2
1
1
2
3
4
5
5
4
3
2
1
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
Attitudinal statements
SA
A
The traditional agricultural practices have more applicability in the locality
5
4
than improved practices.
The traditional agricultural practices require less skill for its application.
5
4
Inputs required under traditional agricultural system are easily accessible.
5
4
SA= Strongly agree A= Agree
UD= Undecided
DA=Disagree SDA=Strongly disagree
UD
3
DA
2
SDA
1
3
3
2
2
1
1
by the respondents, the standard deviation (S.D.) and mean
score were calculated. On the basis of mean score and
standard deviation, the attitude of respondents was classified
into three levels, namely “Most favourable”, “Favourable”
and “Unfavourable” as follows:
(i)
The respondents who obtained the attitude
score more than 148.58 were classified as having “Most
favourable” attitude towards traditional agricultural
practices.
(ii)
The respondents who obtained the attitude
score from 109.82 and 148.58 were categorized into having
“Favourable” attitude towards traditional agricultural
practices.
(iii)
The respondents who obtained the attitude
score below 109.82 were classified as having
“Unfavourable” attitude towards various traditional
agricultural practices.
Measurement of attitude of farm women towards
traditional agricultural practices:
The main aim of construction of attitude scale was to
measure the attitude of farm women regarding traditional
agricultural practices. Scale was administered to the selected
150 farm women respondents. The total attitude score of
each respondent on the attitude scale was obtained by
adding the score of all individual items/statements of the
attitude scale. The lowest and the highest score that a
respondent could obtain on the scale were 38 and 190,
respectively. The range of the total attitude score obtained
by the respondents in the present study varied from 102 to
187.The mean attitude score for each respondent was
calculated by adding the scores of all the 38 attitude
statements and dividing the total score by the total number
of statements. The overall mean score of the respondents
was found to be 3.40. Based on the attitude score obtained
Table -3 Distribution of farm women respondents into different levels of attitude towards traditional agricultural
practices
N = 150
Type of Attitude
Frequency
Percentage
Most Favourable (scores above 148.58)
5
3.33
Favourable (scores from 109.82 to 148.58)
136
90.67
Unfavourable (scores below 109.82)
9
6.00
Total
150
100.00
X = 129.20
σ = 19.38
Fig.-1: Distribution of farm women respondents into different levels of
attitude towards traditional agricultural practices
3.33%
6.00%
90.67%
Most favourable
Favourable
Unfavourable
favourable attitude, whereas only 3.33 percent had “Most
favourable” and 6.00 percent respondents had
“Unfavourable” attitude towards traditional agricultural
It is evident from the Table-2 that most of the farm women
had “Favourable” attitude towards indigenous farm practices
as about 90.67 percent farm women respondents had
72
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
practices. Thus, it can be deduced from the data that
majority of the farm women had favourable attitude towards
TAPs. The farm women had positive attitude regarding the
age-old farm practices, might be due to the reason that these
practices are deep rooted in their work culture and have
become their way of life. The attitude is an important
dimension, to chalk out the path of utilization or adoption of
a particular indigenous farm technology. We should
formulate the programmes which will reinforce the positive
attitude of farm women towards these traditional agricultural
practices for sustainability in agricultural production
because the farm women had played and continue to play a
key role in the conservation of basic agricultural practices
with other basic life systems such as land, water, flora and
fauna. They have protected the wealth of folk agricultural
heritage. Therefore, we should take into account the attitude
of farm women, to popularize the scientifically acceptable
traditional farm practices among farming community.
The critical analysis of these attitude statements revealed
that majority of the farm women respondents had positive
attitude towards traditional agricultural practices which
indicate that farm women still had still faith in applicability
of these generation-old farm practices as these are according
to their socio-cultural domain of living, raised by the means
of indigenous research. They considered these practices as
their part of life, which ultimately reinforces their
favourable attitude towards these traditional agricultural
practices.
REFERENCES
Chithraichelvan R. (1994). Use of ITK in farming system
research Proceedings of International workshop on Genetic
resources, UPWARD, LOS Banos, Phillipines.
DCR Bulletin
knowledge: 11
(1991).
Why
document
Likert, R.A. (1932). A technique for the measurement of
attitude scales. Arch. Psychology, New York: 140
Pereira , W. (1993). Tending the earth Earth care books,
Bombay: 135-134.
indigenous
Thurstone, L. L. (1928). The Measurement of values.
University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Edward, A.L. (1957). Techniques of Attitude scale
construction. Appleton - Century - Crofts, New York.
Warren, D. M. (1993). Indigenous knowledge and
development monitor. CIKARD, I(1): 7.
73
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
Bioefficacy of Different Populations of Steinernema carpocapsae against Root Knot Nematode
Meloidogyne incognita
A.K. MARU, A.U. SIDDIQUI, A. PARIHAR AND S.K. SHARMA
Department of Nematology, Rajasthan College of Agriculture, MPUAT, Udaipur (Raj.)
Email: maruajay@gmail.com
Bioefficacy of different populations of Steinernema carpocapsae was studied against Meloidogyne incognita in
laboratory condition as well as in pot condition. The mean percent mortality of M. incognita second stage juveniles were
recorded after every 6 hrs intervals upto 72 hrs at different inoculum levels viz., 5, 10, 15 and 20 IJs of EPNs per cavity
block in laboratory condition. Maximum (20.62) mean per cent mortality was observed with S. carpocapsae STSLU@
20 IJs per cavity block after 72 hrs. Bioefficacy of the S. carpocapsae against M. incognita was also studied in pot
condition. Maximum (37.79 cm) shoot length, (30.00 g) shoot weight, (31.79 cm) root length, (12.61g) root weight and
minimum (22.83) galls per plant, (10.69) eggmasses per plant, (232) eggs and larvae per eggmass and (507.38) larvae per
200 cc soil were recorded with S. carpocapsae STSLU @ 20,000 over all other treatments.
Key words: Steinernema carpocapsae, Meloidogyne incognita, Bioefficacy, inoculum.
The entomopathogenic nematodes have also been found
effective against plant parasitic nematodes. Grewal et al.,
1996 have used S. carpocapsae and S. riobravis successfully
against plant parasitic nematodes infesting turf grass. EPNs
have been found compatible with nematicides in suppressing
plant nematodes when used as a component in integrated
nematode
management
(Glazer
et
al.,
1997).
Entomopathogenic nematodes are effective for the
management of root knot nematodes (Grossman, 1997). S.
glaseri suppressed penetration and reduction in egg
production of M. incognita in tomato roots (Perez & Lewis,
2004).
In view of the above, the present investigations have been
selected indigenous populations of EPNs and to evolve a
newer and environmentally safer tactics for the management
of root knot nematodes.
t2 – 10 IJs
t3 – 15 IJs
t4 – 20 IJs
n = 20 II stage IJs of M. Incognita
In pot condition
Bio efficacy of different populations of S. carpocapsae was
studied against M. incognita on tomato under pot condition.
The details of the treatments were as follows:
Treatments:
T1 – S. carpocapsae STSLU
T2 – S. carpocapsae STUDP-1
T3 – S. carpocapsae STUDP-2
T4 – associated check
T5 – control
Inoculums levels (Number of IJs of EPNs/pot):
t1 – 5000 IJs
MATERIALS AND METHODS
t2 – 10000 IJs
t3 – 20000 IJs
The IJs of different populations of S. carpocapsae
were stored in sterile distilled water (SDW) and were
examined under stereoscopic microscope, and active
juveniles were diluted in known quantity of SDW for
making the suspension according to required number of IJs.
The IJs were applied at different inoculum levels at the
rhizosphere of the tomato plants. Carbofuran 3G @ 2 kg
a.i./ha as associated check and control as untreated check
were taken. Before the application of EPNs 2.5 larvae of M.
incognita per c.c. soil were maintained in pots and these
observations were recorded after 45 days, on shoot length,
shoot weight, root length, root weight, number of galls per
plant, number of eggmass per plant, number of eggs and
larvae per eggmass and nematode populations per 200 cc
soil were recorded. The experimental results showed that all
the treatments significantly increased the plant growth over
untreated control.
Bioefficacy of different populations of S. carpocapsae
against root knot nematode M. incognita were carried out
under laboratory as well as pot conditions.
In laboratory condition:
Sterilized cavity blocks were kept in sequence according to
treatments and replications, 2nd stage IJs (20) of M.
incognita were placed in each cavity block. The suspension
consisting IJs of different populations of EPNs stored in
sterile distilled water were first examined under stereoscopic
binocular microscope to check the activity of the juveniles
and diluted with known quantity of sterile distilled water for
making the suspension as per the required number of IJs and
inoculated in each cavity block and observations were taken
on percent mortality of second stage infective larvae of M.
incognita after every 6 hrs. interval up to 72 hrs.
The details of the treatments were as follows:
Treatments:
T1 – S. carpocapsae STSLU
T2 – S. carpocapsae STUDP-1
T3 – S. carpocapsae STUDP-2
T4 – control
Doses (Number of IJs of EPNs strain/cavity block):
t1 – 5 IJs
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The experimental results (Table-1) revealed that S.
carpocapsae STSLU showed maximum (20.62) mean per
cent mortality followed by S. carpocapsae STUDP-2
74
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
Table 1: Bioefficacy of different populations of S. carpocapsae against root knot nematode M. incognita under lab.
conditions
Treatment combination
48 hrs.
1st
nd
2
Pooled
T1t1
T1t2
T1t3
T1t4
T2t1
T2t2
T2t3
T2t4
T3t1
T3t2
T3t3
T3t4
cont
3.75
(11.16)
2.50
(9.09)
3.13
(10.13)
5.00
(12.92)
3.75
(11.16)
4.38
(12.04)
7.50
(15.89)
7.50
(15.89)
7.50
(15.89)
11.42
(19.74)
10.15
(18.57)
10.78
(19.16)
3.75
(11.16)
2.50
(9.09)
3.13
(10.13)
5.00
(12.92)
5.00
(12.92)
5.00
(12.92)
7.50
(15.89)
6.25
(14.47)
6.88
(15.18)
10.00
(18.43)
10.00
(18.43)
10.00
(18.43)
2.50
(9.09)
1.25
(6.42)
1.88
(7.76)
3.75
(11.16)
3.75
(11.16)
3.75
(11.16)
7.61
(16.01)
7.61
(16.01)
7.61
(16.01)
11.25
(19.59)
10.00
(18.43)
10.63
(19.01)
2.50
(9.09)
1.25
(6.42)
1.88
(7.76)
3.75
(11.16)
3.75
(11.16)
3.75
(11.16)
6.25
(14.47)
5.00
(12.92)
5.63
(13.69)
7.50
(15.89)
8.75
(17.20)
8.13
(16.55)
12.69
(20.86)
11.42
(19.74)
12.05
(20.30)
3.75
(11.16)
3.75
(11.16)
3.75
(11.16)
7.50
(15.89)
6.25
(14.47)
6.88
(15.18)
8.75
(17.20)
8.75
(17.20)
8.75
(17.20)
11.25
(19.59)
10.00
(18.43)
10.63
(19.01)
3.75
(11.16)
2.50
(9.09)
3.13
(10.13)
5.00
(12.92)
3.75
(11.16)
4.38
(12.04)
8.88
(17.34)
7.61
(16.01)
8.25
(16.68)
13.75
(21.76)
12.50
(20.70)
13.13
(21.23)
2.50
(9.09)
2.50
(9.09)
2.50
(9.09)
5.00
(12.92)
5.00
(12.92)
5.00
(12.92)
7.50
(15.89)
6.25
(14.47)
6.88
(15.18)
11.25
(19.59)
11.25
(19.59)
11.25
(19.59)
15.23
(22.96)
13.96
(21.93)
14.59
(22.44)
5.00
(12.92)
3.75
(11.16)
4.38
(12.04)
8.75
(17.20)
7.50
(15.89)
8.13
(16.54)
10.00
(18.43)
8.75
(17.20)
9.38
(17.82)
13.75
(21.76)
12.50
(20.70)
13.13
(21.23)
3.75
(11.16)
2.50
(9.09)
3.13
(10.13)
6.25
(14.47)
6.25
(14.47)
6.25
(14.47)
10.15
(18.58)
11.42
(19.75)
10.78
(19.16)
16.25
(23.77)
13.75
(21.76)
15.00
(22.77)
3.75
(11.16)
2.50
(9.09)
3.13
(10.13)
5.00
(12.92)
5.00
(12.92)
5.00
(12.92)
10.00
(18.43)
8.75
(17.20)
9.38
(17.81)
12.50
(20.70)
13.75
(21.76)
13.13
(21.23)
19.03
(25.86)
17.76
(24.92)
18.40
(25.39)
6.25
(14.47)
5.00
(12.92)
5.63
(13.70)
10.00
(18.43)
10.00
(18.43)
10.00
(18.43)
11.25
(19.59)
10.00
(18.43)
10.63
(19.01)
16.25
(23.77)
17.50
(24.72)
16.88
(24.45)
5.00
(12.92)
5.00
(12.92)
5.00
(12.92)
8.75
(17.20)
7.50
(15.89)
8.13
(16.55)
12.69
(20.86)
11.42
(19.75)
12.05
(20.31)
18.75
(25.65)
16.25
(23.77)
17.50
(24.71)
5.00
(12.92)
3.75
(11.16)
4.38
(12.04)
8.75
(17.20)
7.50
(15.89)
8.13
(16.55)
13.75
(21.76)
13.75
(21.76)
13.75
(21.76)
16.25
(23.77)
17.50
(24.72)
16.88
(24.25)
21.57
(27.66)
20.30
(26.77)
20.93
(27.22)
6.25
(14.47)
6.25
(14.47)
6.25
(14.47)
12.50
(20.70)
11.25
(19.59)
11.88
(20.14)
15.00
(22.78)
13.75
(21.76)
14.38
(22.27)
17.50
(24.72)
18.75
(25.65)
18.13
(25.19)
7.50
(15.89)
5.00
(12.92)
6.25
(14.40)
13.75
(21.76)
12.50
(20.70)
13.13
(21.23)
15.23
(22.96)
15.23
(22.96)
15.23
(22.96)
21.25
(27.45)
18.75
(25.65)
20.00
(26.55)
6.25
(14.47)
5.00
(12.92)
5.63
(13.70)
SEm
CD
5%
CV
0.186
0.533
5.94
0.169
0.482
6.13
0.144
0.405
5.99
0.219
0.625
5.96
0.197
0.564
5.92
0.169
0.474
5.90
0.265
0.758
5.91
0.235
0.673
5.80
0.204
0. 576
5.77
0.320
0.915
5.92
0.304
0.869
6.00
0.253
0.713
5.92
0.390
1.115
5.77
0.372
1.064
5.84
0.308
0.868
5.76
54 hrs.
1st
Percent Mortality
2nd
Pooled
60 hrs.
1st
2nd
Pooled
66 hrs.
1st
nd
2
Pooled
72 hrs.
1st
2nd
Pooled
Data in parenthesis are angular transformed values
Treatment combination
24 hrs.
1st
2nd
Pooled
T1t1
T1t2
T1t3
T1t4
T2t1
T2t2
T2t3
T2t4
T3t1
T3t2
T3t3
T3t4
Cont.
0.00
(0.00)
0.00
(0.00)
0.00
(0.00)
0.00
(0.00)
0.00
(0.00)
0.00
(0.00)
0.00
(0.00)
1.25
(6.42)
0.63
(3.21)
2.54
(9.16)
2.54
(9.16)
2.54
(9.16)
0.00
(0.00)
0.00
(0.00)
0.00
(0.00)
0.00
(0.00)
0.00
(0.00)
0.00
(0.00)
0.00
(0.00)
0.00
(0.00)
0.00
(0.00)
2.50
(9.09)
0.00
(0.00)
1.25
(4.55)
0.00
(0.00)
0.00
(0.00)
0.00
(0.00)
0.00
(0.00)
0.00
(0.00)
0.00
(0.00)
1.27
(6.47)
0.00
(0.00)
0.63
(3.23)
2.50
(9.10)
2.50
(9.10)
2.50
(9.10)
0.00
(0.00)
0.00
(0.00)
0.00
(0.00)
0.00
(0.00)
0.00
(0.00)
0.00
(0.00)
1.25
(6.42)
0.00
(0.00)
0.63
(3.21)
1.25
(6.42)
2.50
(9.10)
1.88
(7.76)
3.81
(11.25)
2.54
(9.16)
3.17
(10.20)
0.00
(0.00)
0.00
(0.00)
0.00
(0.00)
0.00
(0.00)
0.00
(0.00)
0.00
(0.00)
2.50
(9.10)
1.25
(6.42)
1.88
(7.76)
3.75
(11.16)
3.75
(11.16)
3.75
(11.16)
0.00
(0.00)
0.00
(0.00)
0.00
(0.00)
0.00
(0.00)
0.00
(0.00)
0.00
(0.00)
2.54
(9.16)
1.27
(6.47)
1.90
(7.82)
2.50
(9.10)
3.75
(11.16)
3.13
(10.13)
0.00
(0.00)
0.00
(0.00)
0.00
(0.00)
1.25
(4.42)
0.00
(0.00)
0.63
(3.21)
2.50
(9.09)
2.50
(9.09)
2.50
(9.09)
2.50
(9.10)
2.50
(9.10)
2.50
(9.10)
6.34
(14.58)
5.08
(13.01)
5.71
(13.80)
0.00
(0.00)
1.25
(6.42)
0.63
(3.21)
2.50
(9.09)
1.25
(6.42)
1.88
(7.75)
3.75
(11.16)
2.50
(9.10)
3.13
(10.13)
5.00
(12.92)
6.25
(14.47)
5.63
(13.70)
1.25
(6.42)
0.00
(0.00)
0.63
(3.21)
2.50
(9.09)
0.00
(0.00)
1.25
(4.55)
3.81
(11.25)
2.54
(9.16)
3.17
(10.21)
5.00
(12.92)
5.00
(12.92)
5.00
(12.92)
1.00
(5.74)
0.00
(0.00)
0.50
(2.87)
2.50
(9.09)
2.50
(9.09)
2.50
(9.09)
2.50
(9.09)
2.50
(9.09)
2.50
(9.09)
5.00
(12.92)
6.25
(14.47)
5.63
(13.70)
8.88
(17.33)
7.61
(16.01)
8.25
(16.67)
1.25
(6.42)
1.25
(6.42)
1.25
(6.42)
3.75
(11.16)
2.50
(9.09)
3.13
(10.13)
6.25
(14.47)
5.00
(12.92)
5.63
(13.70)
7.50
(15.89)
7.50
(15.89)
7.50
(15.89)
2.50
(9.09)
0.00
(0.00)
1.25
(4.55)
3.75
(11.16)
2.50
(9.09)
3.13
(10.13)
6.34
(14.59)
5.08
(13.02)
5.71
(13.80)
8.75
(17.20)
7.50
(15.89)
8.13
(16.55)
1.25
(6.42)
0.00
(0.00)
0.63
(3.21)
SEm
CD
5%
CV
0.033
0.081
9.87
0.096
0.025
11.73
0.028
0.070
10.54
0.053
0.151
7.81
0.047
0.135
8.14
0.040
0.114
7.89
0.092
0.263
6.40
0.082
0.234
7.38
0.071
0.200
6.82
0.140
0.401
6.05
0.123
0.352
6.38
0.107
0.301
6.16
Percent Mortality
30 hrs.
1st
2nd
Pooled
36 hrs
1st
2nd
Pooled
42 hrs
1st
2nd
Pooled
Treatments:
T1 – S. carpocapsae STSLU
T2 – S. carpocapsae STUDP-1
T3 – S. carpocapsae STUDP-2
control
Doses (Number of IJs of different S. carpocapsae
population/cavity block):
t1 – 5 IJs
t2 – 10 IJs
t3 – 15 IJs
t4 – 20 IJs
n = 20 II stage IJs of M. incognita
75
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
(20.00) and S. carpocapsae STUDP-1 (18.12) at 20 IJs of
EPNs per cavity block after 72 hrs under laboratory
condition.
In pot condition, S. carpocapsae STSLU showed better
response over others different populations with maximum
(37.79 cm) shoot length, shoot weight (30.00 g), root length
(31.79 cm) and root weight (12.61g), and was also found
better in reducing the nematode populations i.e. (22.83)
number of galls per plant, (10.69) number of eggmass per
plant, (232) number of eggs &larvae per eggmass and
(507.38) number of larvae per 200cc soil on tomato as
compared to untreated control. (Table-2)
Similar studies in this regards were conducted by Vyas et al.
(2004) who reported that the infective juvenile of S.
riobravae provided a possible control of M. incognita on
okra. Molina et al. (2007) also studied the effect of live and
dead infective juvenile of Heterorhabditis bacteriophora
JPM4, H. baujardi LPP7, S. feltiae SN and S. carpocapsae
against eggs and 2nd stage juvenile of M. mayaguensis on
tomato plant and found that the plant exhibited lower gall
numbers as compared to control. Shapiro and Nyczepir,
(2008) investigated the suppressive effects of S. feltiae
against M. partityla on pecan and walnut and found up to
80% reduction in the populations of M. partityla.
Table 2: Bioefficacy of different populations of S. carpocapsae against root knot nematode M. incognita on tomato
Treat.
Com.
Shoot length (cm)
Plant Growth Characters
Shoot weight (g)
Root length (cm)
Root weight (g)
No. of galls/plant
05-06 06-07 Poole 05-06 06-07 Poole 05-06 06-07 Poole 05-06 06-07 Poole 05-06 06-07 Poole
d
d
d
d
d
T1t1
23.20 22.54 22.87 24.10 24.84 24.47 25.30 24.14 24.72
T1t2
27.58 26.89 27.24 19.10 18.40 18.75 19.92 21.32 20.62 11.50 11.24 11.37 30.73 29.88 30.30
T1t3
37.24 38.33 37.79 30.57 29.42 30.00 31.25 32.33 31.79 12.76 12.45 12.61 22.70 22.96 22.83
T2t1
18.85 19.50 19.18 13.60 12.53 13.07 13.84 15.10 14.47
T2t2
21.70 24.31 23.01 15.22 14.80 15.01 17.70 18.65 18.18 10.09 10.75 10.42 32.16 32.05 32.11
T2t3
32.72 34.92 33.82 27.50 26.25 26.88 27.81 29.18 28.50 11.65 11.92 11.79 24.40 24.81 24.61
T3t1
21.88 21.32 21.60 15.60 15.23 15.42 16.55 15.21 15.88
9.30
8.95
T3t2
23.78 24.28 24.03 18.70 17.87 18.29 18.59 19.52 19.06
9.89
10.87 10.38 33.05 32.78 32.91
T3t3
28.34 28.68 28.51 23.12 22.10 22.61 23.85 22.94 23.40 11.97 11.35 11.66 26.40 27.16 26.78
9.94
10.64 10.29 31.93 30.96 31.44
9.72
9.12
9.42
9.13
34.28 33.66 33.97
32.60 34.11 33.35
Nematode Population
No. of egg
No. of eggs &
masses/plant
larvae/egg mass
0506
0607
16.0
3
14.8
7
10.5
3
18.7
3
15.9
0
11.7
3
17.7
0
17.9
4
13.2
0
16.4
0
14.1
8
10.8
5
19.3
7
16.0
3
12.2
1
18.1
4
18.1
7
13.0
3
Check 46.57 45.74 46.15 36.85 37.05 36.95 32.58 34.17 33.38 14.62 15.92 15.27 14.63 16.88 15.75 5.83 7.17
Cont.
14.35 13.12 13.74
7.52
9.45
SEm
±
CD
(5 %)
C.V.
%
0.65
7
0.52
5
0.51
0
0.69
6
0.508
8.49
7.20
8.76
0.391
0.53
9
0.55
8
1.892 2.002 1.432 1.510 1.467 1.103
4.88
5.11
4.59
4.98
4.92
4.58
7.88
8.24
0.28
0.414
7
0.82
1.551 1.606 1.168
5
0.27
7
0.79
6
5.05
5.01
5.09
7.98
4.69
5.29
8.06
0.214
36.50 40.50 38.50
0.73
9
0.74
8
0.546
Nematode
Population
( 200 cc soil )
Poole 05-06 06-07 Poole 05-06 06-07 Poole
d
d
d
16.22
14.52
10.69
19.05
15.97
11.97
17.92
18.05
13.12
6.50
245.2
5
244.7
5
232.7
5
269.5
0
252.2
5
235.5
0
259.5
0
258.7
5
238.5
0
122.5
0
312.5
0
249.5
0
242.2
5
231.2
5
261.7
5
254.5
0
236.7
5
260.5
0
252.5
0
240.2
5
139.2
5
296.7
0
247.38
243.50
232.00
265.63
253.38
236.13
260.00
255.63
239.38
130.88
22.4 26.5
24.46
304.60
2
0
0.39 0.38
0.286 8.674 9.040 6.629
3
6
593.5
0
552.2
5
502.5
0
640.5
0
588.5
0
520.5
0
614.5
0
620.5
0
538.2
5
147.5
0
758.2
5
15.32
6
589.7
5
549.5
0
512.2
5
652.2
5
592.7
5
529.7
5
601.7
5
615.2
5
545.5
0
128.2
5
812.5
0
15.09
5
591.63
550.88
507.38
646.38
590.63
525.13
608.13
617.88
541.88
137.88
785.38
11.358
0.603
2.125 2.153 1.541
1.13 1.11
24.95 26.01
44.09 43.43
0.807
18.689
32.020
0
0
7
1
8
3
4.79
5.09
5.24 4.93 4.58
Data are average of four replications
Treatments:
T1= STSLU
T2= STUDP-1
T3= STUDP-2
Check = Associated check (carbofuran 3G @ 2 kg a.i./ha)
Control = Untreated
5.05
4.57
7.14 7.46
6.69 5.55
5.42
5.01
Doses:
t1= 5000 IJs
t2= 10000 IJs
t3= 20000 IJs
REFERENCES
Glazer, I., Salme, L., and Segal, D . 1997. Genetic
enhancement of nematode resistance in Entomopathogenic
nematodes. Biocontrol Science and Technology 7: 199-512
Perez, E. E. and Lewis, E. E. 2004. Suppression of Meloidogyne incognita
and Meloidogyne hapla with entomopathogenic nematodes on greenhouse
peanuts and tomatoes. Biological Control. 30: 336-341.
Grewal, P.S., Miller, R.W., Martin, W.R. and Georgis,
R. 1996. Development of the first biological product for the suppression of
plant-parasitic nematode populations. Nematropica. 26: 269.
Shapiro Ilan, D.I., Nyczepir, A.P. 2008. Using good nematodes to kill bad
nematodes: Applications of entomopathogenic nematodes for control of the
pecan root-knot nematode. Pecan Grower. 20:36-39.
Grossman, J. 1997. Research notes: New directions in nematode control.
The IPM Practitioner. 1-4.
Vyas, R.V., Maghodia, A. B., Patel, B. A. and Patel, D. J. 2004.
Interaction between root-knot nematodes and Steinernema riobravae on
okra (Abelmoschus esculentum). International Journal of Nematology. 14:
186-190.
Molina J. P., Dolinski C., Souza R. M. and Lewis E. E. 2007. Effect of
Entomopathogenic Nematodes (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae and
Heterorhabditidae) on Meloidogyne mayaguensis Rammah and Hirschmann
(Tylenchida: Meloidoginidae) Infection in Tomato Plants. Journal of
Nematology. 39. 338-342
76
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
Heterosis for grain yield and its component characters in upland rice (Oryza sativa L.)
CHANDRA MOHAN SINGH, G. SURESH BABU, G. ROOPA LAVANYA, A. PAUL AND SUHEL MEHANDI
Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Allahabad School of Agriculture, SHIATS, Allahabad- 211007, Uttar
Pradesh, India.
Present Address: Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Rajendra Agricultural University, Pusa (Samastipur)848125, Bihar, India.
E-mail: cmsingh.gpb@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Fifteen crosses were generated by crossing between five lines and three testers in L x T mating design. Crosses were
evaluated along with parents and standard check (VANDANA) to studying the heterosis for twelve quantitative
characters. Analysis of variance for all quantitative characters studied, revealed significant differences, indicating the
presence of adequate genetic variability among the crosses and their parents. The maximum relative heterosis and
heterobeltiosis for grain yield per plant recorded for IR74371-54-1-1/ IR67017-124-2-4. The maximum standard
heterosis for grain yield was exhibited by IR 81413-B-B-75-4/ IR 81429-B-31 (179.95 per cent). On the basis of sca
effect, seven crosses were identified for high grain yield per plant. These crosses may be gives the better segregates from
the early segregating generation or can be utilized for heterosis breeding for yield improvement under rainfed
condition.
Keywords: Rice, heterosis, lines, testers, crosses.
Rice is one of the most important food crop of Asia. Rice is
the number one cereal in the human died, supplying
humanity with 23 per cent of its calorie (Khus, 2003). But
much of this importance, crop yield is devastated by drought
(Redy, 1995). Drought situation is becoming precarious year
after year due to inadequate precipitation and less water
efficient irrigation methods in rice farm. Hence, we need to
develop the high yielding rice varieties under rain fed
condition. Heterosis breeding an important genetic tool, that
can facilate yield enhancement between 30% to 400 per cent
and helps enrich many other desirable quantitative traits in
rice (Srivastava, 2000). The expression of hetorosis varied
with crosses, so also with characters (Lokaprakash et al.,
1992). To know the magnitude and direction potentiality of
crosses is important (Singh et al., 1995). Both positive and
negative heterosis is useful in crop improvement. In general
positive heterosis is desired for yield and negative heterosis
for early maturity and plant height (Nuruzzaman et al.,
2002). The objective of this study was to isolate the high
heterotic crosses for grain yield and its component
characters under rainfed upland condition.
Centre, Allahabad School of Agriculture, SHIATS,
Allahabad in Randomized Block Design (RBD) with three
replications. The spacing was maintained 20 x 20 cm row to
row and plant to plant, respectively. Five plants were
randomly selected to record the observations for all
quantitative traits studied except days to 50 per cent
flowering and days to maturity. Days to 50 per cent
flowering and days to maturity were computed on plot basis.
The analysis of variance for different characters was done as
formula suggested by Panse and Sukhatme (1967). The per
cent hetrosis over mid parent, better parent and standard
check were calculated formula suggested by Turner (1953),
Fonesca & Patterson (1968) and Meredith and Bridge
(1972), respectively.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Analysis of variance for all quantitative characters studied,
revealed significant differences, indicating the presence of
adequate genetic variability among the crosses and their
parents. Parent Vs crosses showed significant differences for
all thirteen characters under study except harvest index
(Table 1). Heterosis expressed as per cent increase or
decrease in the mean value of F1 hybrid over mid parent
(mid parent heterosis), better parent (heterobeltiosis) and
standard check variety VANDANA (standard heterosis) are
presented in Table No. 2, 3 & 4.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Five lines and three testers were crossed in L x T mating
design to obtaining the fifteen crosses during kharif 2009.
Fifteen crosses along with parents and cheek (VANDANA)
were evaluated during kharif 2010 at Field Experimentation
77
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
Table 1. Analysis of variance for experimental design for various quantitative characters in upland rice
Mean Sum of Squares
Characters
Replicates
(df=2)
Treatments
(df=22)
Parents
(df=7)
Crosses
(df=14)
DFF
3.88
PH
5.06
TPP
0.97
FLL
0.17
FLW
0.00
PL
0.53
SPP
3.17
DM
8.53
BY
0.62
HI
7.3
TW
1.50
GY
0.02
** Significant at 0.01 level of significance
59.41**
1543.08**
37.78**
164.99**
0.06**
35.85**
1893.54**
48.41**
800.02**
316.57**
9.26**
208.89**
30.2**
346.40**
1.27**
46.44**
0.06**
9.05**
1000.8**
33.04**
20.51**
328.48**
3.50**
4.24**
45.95**
1617.73**
33.41**
202.53**
0.05**
32.37**
2471.27**
55.41**
895.39**
333.22**
11.62**
210.58**
Parents Vs
Crosses
(df=1)
452.20**
8874.71**
354.39**
469.24**
0.21**
272.19**
54.37**
58.00**
4921.41**
0.10**
16.56**
1617.91**
Error
(df=44)
Total
(df=68)
2.5.5
2.31
0.39
0.75
0.00
0.93
4.22
3.88
0.13
1.61
0.36
0.24
20.95
500.87
12.50
53.87
0.02
12.21
616.28
18.42
258.93
103.68
3.27
67.74
Table 2. Heterosis (ha), heterobeltiosis (hb) and Standard heterosis (hc) for days to 50% flowering, plant height (cm),
number of effective tillers per plant and flag leaf length (cm) in upland rice
Crosses
Days to 50%flowering
hb
ha
ha
IR 81423-B-B-111-3/ IR 67017-124-24
IR 81423-B-B-111-3/ IR 81413-B-B75-4
IR 81423-B-B-111-3/ IR 81429-B-31
IR 81421-B-B-25-4/ IR 67017-124-2-4
IR 81421-B-B-25-4/ IR 81413-B-B-754
IR 81421-B-B-25-4/ IR 81429-B-31
IR 81413-B-B-75-3/ IR 67017-124-2-4
IR 81413-B-B-75-3/ IR 81413-B-B-754
IR 81413-B-B-75-3/ IR 81429-B-31
IR 81063-B-94-U-3-1/ IR 67017-1242-4
IR 81063-B-94-4-U-1/ IR 81413-B-B75-4
IR 81063-B-94-4-U-1/ IR 81429-B-31
IR 74371-54-1-1/ IR 67017-124-2-4
IR 74371-54-1-1/ IR 81413-B-B-75-4
IR 74371-54-1-1/ IR 81429-B-31
Minimum
Maximum
7.87**
hb
Plant height (cm)
hc
hc
Number of effective tillers per plant
ha
hb
hc
-6.83**
123.08**
93.33**
Flag leaf length (cm)
hb
ha
107.14**
-9.87**
63.64**
28.57*
153.33**
133.33**
171.43**
150.00**
hc
7.87**
22.87**
25.49**
24.81**
-21.57**
-9.49**
6.97**
2.53
27.35**
32.78**
32.57**
-0.72
63.64**
6.27**
7.72**
5.86**
7.09**
21.52**
21.97**
27.75**
44.01**
13.41**
43.90**
9.17**
6.42**
192.31**
169.23**
17.47**
3.08
16.65**
65.26**
-18.27**
56.77**
-22.34**
49.27**
-10.38**
6.44**
1.44
26.01**
10.19**
9.51**
-18.00**
81.82**
81.82**
42.86**
-1.99
-6.00**
6.37*
-1.38
9.31**
-2.34
8.66**
12.11**
23.77**
34.80**
41.05**
19.18**
36.04**
14.73**
8.13**
169.23**
220.00**
133.33**
166.67**
150.00**
185.71**
43.87**
1.93
37.86**
-4.34*
43.24**
10.38**
7.58**
2.53
27.35**
-28.73**
-30.80**
-44.99**
4.76
0.00
-21.43
-25.46**
-29.40**
-20.11**
0.20
-0.78
13.90**
32.40**
20.86**
16.35**
124.00**
86.67**
100.00**
77.78**
72.53**
74.59**
5.01**
3.15*
17.49**
47.43**
47.28**
8.97**
146.15**
113.33**
128.57**
18.02**
-1.51
13.65**
9.96**
3.61*
28.70**
-29.06**
-29.48**
-47.19**
27.27*
27.27
0.00
-18.76**
-31.67**
-22.67**
2.99*
7.33**
6.44**
2.56
-1.38
9.96
0.78
6.69**
1.44
1.56
-2.34
3.66
15.70**
21.52**
26.01**
16.59**
12.11
28.70
-0.14
62.39**
47.43**
38.35**
-29.06
62.39
-11.69**
50.39**
35.66**
14.40**
-30.80
50.39
-14.99**
11.05**
1.59
10.13**
-47.19
16.35
23.08*
185.71**
41.67**
64.29**
4.76
220.00
6.67
166.67**
30.77*
53.33**
0.00
166.67
14.29
185.71**
21.43
64.29**
-21.43
185.71
45.98**
19.96**
5.64**
39.12**
-25.46
77.78
32.16**
12.71**
0.17
34.84**
-31.67
72.53
25.85**
30.07**
13.36**
36.81**
-22.67
74.59
ha= Relative heterosis, hb= heterobeltiosis, hc= Standard heterosis , * = Significant at 0.05 level of significance and ** = 0.01 level of significance
Table 3. Heterosis (ha), heterobeltiosis (hb) and Standard heterosis (hc) for flag leaf width (cm), panicle length (cm), number of spikelets per panicle
and days to matirity in upland rice
Crosses
Flag leaf width (cm)
Panicle length (cm)
ha
hb
ha
hb
hc
hc
IR 81423-B-B-111-3/ IR 67017-124-2-4
14.90**
8.15
39.63**
13.23**
6.86*
38.65**
IR 81423-B-B-111-3/ IR 81413-B-B-754
-8.18*
-9.83*
16.41**
14.28**
7.68*
39.72**
IR 81423-B-B-111-3/ IR 81429-B-31
1.49
-2.85
37.15**
21.30**
20.05**
55.76**
IR 81421-B-B-25-4/ IR 67017-124-2-4
6.12
0.00
28.79**
40.56**
33.85**
54.11**
IR 81421-B-B-25-4/ IR 81413-B-B-75-4
1.47
-0.24
28.48**
20.60**
15.02**
32.00**
IR 81421-B-B-25-4/ IR 81429-B-31
11.24**
6.36
50.15**
35.62**
23.38**
56.79**
IR 81413-B-B-75-3/ IR 67017-124-2-4
11.29*
11.14*
26.63**
25.19**
18.13**
53.32**
14.86*
14.77**
19.70**
4.22
IR 81413-B-B-75-3/ IR 81413-B-B-75-4
IR 81413-B-B-75-3/ IR 81429-B-31
IR 81063-B-94-U-3-1/ IR 67017-124-24
-3.51
18.35**
-7.71
6.80
50.77**
24.07**
22.77**
59.34**
24.96**
17.66**
34.06**
25.60**
24.59**
43.46**
IR 81063-B-94-4-U-1/ IR 81413-B-B75-4
-2.89
-12.19*
9.29
-4.38
-4.99
9.04*
IR 81063-B-94-4-U-1/ IR 81429-B-31
21.13**
3.73
46.44**
8.22*
2.36
30.07**
IR 74371-54-1-1/ IR 67017-124-2-4
18.99**
14.95**
30.96**
41.68**
41.62**
63.07**
IR 74371-54-1-1/ IR 81413-B-B-75-4
10.07*
1.99
26.93**
15.34**
15.19**
32.54**
17.96**
15.69**
10.21**
40.05**
9.29
50.77
-4.38
41.68
-19.70
41.62
4.22
63.07
IR 74371-54-1-1/ IR 81429-B-31
-4.63
Minimum
Maximum
-8.18
24.96
16.45**
-16.45
17.66
Number of spikelets per
panicle
ha
hb
hc
38.46**
21.62**
34.59**
-5.46**
22.68**
34.59**
31.21**
8.04**
10.17**
-0.56
18.64**
47.97**
37.77**
45.36**
53.78**
-8.30**
18.88**
32.56**
10.95**
16.79**
32.27**
40.46**
41.58**
50.58**
73.50**
71.68**
42.73**
22.52**
23.05**
22.00**
68.53**
30.28**
28.52**
-40.46
73.50
41.39**
25.43**
23.78**
30.71**
34.71**
32.52**
-45.36
71.68
53.49**
36.92**
36.63**
-3.49*
44.77**
43.90**
53.78
42.73
Days to maturity
ha
hb
hc
2.53*
1.11
15.51**
1.66
-1.08
16.14**
-0.71
-1.68
11.39**
1.56
-0.83
13.29**
3.22*
-0.54
16.77**
-6.27**
8.10**
4.11*
1.69
0.00
14.24**
3.06*
0.00
17.41**
-4.10**
5.31**
7.28**
-0.28
-2.77*
11.08**
5.04**
1.08
18.67**
-1.28
-3.35*
9.49**
3.26*
0.83
15.19**
3.50**
-0.27
17.09**
2.28
0.28
13.61**
-6.27
5.04
-8.10
1.11
4.11
18.67
ha= Relative heterosis, hb= heterobeltiosis, hc= Standard heterosis , * = Significant at 0.05 level of significance and ** = 0.01 level of significance
78
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
Table 4. Heterosis (ha), heterobeltiosis (hb) and Standard heterosis (hc) for biological yield per plant (g), harvest index (%), test
weight (g) and grain yield per plant (g) in upland rice
Crosses
Biological yield per plant
Harvest index
Test weight (g)
IR 81423-B-B-111-3/ IR 67017-124-24
IR 81423-B-B-111-3/ IR 81413-B-B75-4
IR 81423-B-B-111-3/ IR 81429-B-31
IR 81421-B-B-25-4/ IR 67017-124-2-4
IR 81421-B-B-25-4/ IR 81413-B-B-754
IR 81421-B-B-25-4/ IR 81429-B-31
IR 81413-B-B-75-3/ IR 67017-124-2-4
IR 81413-B-B-75-3/ IR 81413-B-B-754
IR 81413-B-B-75-3/ IR 81429-B-31
IR 81063-B-94-U-3-1/ IR 67017-124-24
IR 81063-B-94-4-U-1/ IR 81413-B-B75-4
IR 81063-B-94-4-U-1/ IR 81429-B-31
IR 74371-54-1-1/ IR 67017-124-2-4
IR 74371-54-1-1/ IR 81413-B-B-75-4
IR 74371-54-1-1/ IR 81429-B-31
Minimum
Maximum
Grain yield per plant (g)
ha
hb
ha
hb
hc
hc
ha
hb
hc
ha
hb
hc
57.72**
56.91**
17.08**
-7.50**
-20.81**
-10.46**
7.10**
2.29
25.29**
74.52**
64.40**
8.44*
123.75**
98.07**
89.85**
-12.36**
-22.21**
-12.04**
5.87**
-0.52
26.14**
20.21**
8.74*
-11.35**
112.61**
108.15**
83.38**
79.52**
86.77**
84.77**
-35.21**
22.03**
-48.55**
9.87**
-41.82**
-11.52**
0.61
12.72**
-1.18
10.16**
14.23**
34.94**
215.43**
135.97**
214.80**
123.98**
107.65**
45.38**
2.32
-1.20
1.69
24.60**
8.12**
-5.21**
0.36
-3.55
22.31**
31.53**
18.12**
-3.69
123.95**
194.86**
122.78**
178.39**
129.29**
133.85**
21.75**
9.65**
19.90**
8.94**
-20.26**
-11.11**
2.62
3.71
2.03
1.14
19.30**
30.35**
237.37**
158.41**
235.34**
118.44**
120.32**
84.43**
-15.48**
-20.71**
-24.00**
-3.89*
-7.21**
-18.65**
-13.67**
-14.36**
10.36**
-23.69**
-25.00**
-36.68**
241.29**
211.39**
217.14**
-3.12
-12.08**
-28.26**
28.85**
22.22**
57.50**
272.93**
231.56**
179.95**
115.40**
87.08**
89.38**
10.66**
-2.64
3.21
-0.73
-1.08
21.17**
217.00**
209.48**
89.45**
9.91**
6.99**
8.31**
-22.56**
-29.26**
-25.00**
-2.96
-4.94*
20.54**
46.40**
28.16**
4.49
-24.09**
281.19**
-3.86**
70.79**
-24.09
281.19
-24.32**
239.45**
-4.01**
65.50**
-24.32
239.45
-22.92**
224.31**
-8.00**
68.55**
-24.00
224.31
13.34**
-28.24**
10.41**
56.83**
-35.21
56.83
-7.78**
-36.91**
0.77
27.51**
-48.55
27.51
-2.23
-32.99**
7.03**
35.44**
-32.99
35.44
10.00**
6.44**
4.45**
2.49
-13.67
28.85
7.28**
3.67
0.06
2.25
-14.36
22.22
30.48**
26.99**
26.88**
18.75**
10.36
57.50
40.12**
289.72**
30.81**
83.03**
-23.69
289.72
35.34**
269.92**
17.48**
81.93**
-25.00
269.92
-11.08**
140.11**
-4.22
19.53**
-36.68
179.95
ha= Relative heterosis, hb= heterobeltiosis, hc= Standard heterosis , * = Significant at 0.05 level of significance and ** = 0.01 level of significance
Table 5. Comparative study of seven most heterotic crosses for grain yield per plant for mean, heterosis over VANDANA and
desirable heterosis for other yield component characters
Mean values for
grain yield per
plant (g)
Standard
Crosses
Desirable heterosis for other yield component characters
heterosis for grain
yield per plant
(%)
35.36
179.95**
IR 81413-B-B-75-3/ IR 81429-B-31
TPP, FLL, FLW, PL, SPP, BY, TW
30.33
140.11**
IR 74371-54-1-1/ IR 67017-124-2-4
TPP, FLL, FLW, PL, BY, TW
27.88
120.32**
IR 81421-B-B-25-4/ IR 81429-B-31
TPP, FLL, FLW, PL, BY, TW
26.23
107.65**
IR 81423-B-B-111-3/ IR 81429-B-31
TPP, FLL, FLW, PL, BY, TW
33.93
89.45**
IR 81063-B-94-U-3-1/ IR 67017-124-2-4
TPP, FLL, FLW, PL, BY, TW
23.30
84.43**
IR 81413-B-B-75-3/ IR 67017-124-2-4
TPP, FLL, FLW, PL, BY, TW
18.36
45.38**
IR 81421-B-B-25-4/ IR 67017-124-2-4
TPP, FLW, PL, BY, TW
* = Significant at 0.05 level of significance and ** = 0.01 level of significance, TPP= Number of effective tillers per plant, FLL= Flag leaf length, FLW= flag
leaf width, PL= Panicle length, SPP= Number of spikelets per panicle, DM= Days to maturity, BY= Biological yield per plant, HI= Harvest index, TW= Test
weight, GY= Grain yield per plant
The spectrum of variation for days to 50 per cent flowering
ranged from –1.38 (IR 81421-B-B-25-4/ IR 81429-B-31) to
9.96 per cent (IR 81063-B-94-4-U-1/ IR 81413-B-B-75-4)
for mid parent heterosis, -2.34 (IR 81421-B-B-25-4/ IR
81429-B-31) to 8.66 per cent (IR 81413-B-B-75-3/ IR
67017-124-2-4) for heterobeltoisis and 12.11 (IR 81421-BB-25-4/ IR 81429-B-31) to 28.70 per cent (IR 81063-B-944-U-1/ IR 81413-B-B-75-4) for standard heterosis. Out of 15
crosses, only one cross viz., IR 81421-B-B-25-4/ IR 81429B-31 showed negative but non significant heterosis over mid
parent. Two crosses viz., IR 81421-B-B-25-4/ IR 81429-B31 and IR 81413-B-75-3/ IR 81429-B-31 showed negative
non significient hetrobeltiosis. No one cross exhibited
negative heterosis over standard variety VANDANA for
days to 50 per cent flowering. Several workers viz., Tang et
al. (2002), Jayasudha and Sharma (2010) observed the
negative hecterosis over mid parent and better parent for
days to 50 per cent flowering. They suggested that negative
heterosis for days to 50 per cent flowering indicated the
possibility of developing early maturing hybrids. Some
workers (Lokaprakash et al., 1992, Patil et al., 2003)
recorded the negative heterosis over better parent and
standard variety for most of the hybrids in rice. Presence of
both negative and positive heterosis was earlier reported by
several workers viz., Verma et al. (2004), Rahimi et al.
(2010), Shankar et al. (2010).
For plant height, mid parent heterosis, heterobeltiosis and
standard heterosis ranged from -29.06 (IR 81063-B-94-4-U1/ IR 81413-B-B-75-4) to 62.39 per cent (IR 74371-54-1-1/
IR 67017-124-2-4), -30.80 (IR 81413-B-B-75-3/ IR 81413B-B-75-4) to 50.39 per cent (IR 74371-54-1-1/ IR 67017124-2-4) and -47.19 (IR81063-B-94-4-U-1/ IR 81413-B-B75-4) to 16.35** per cent (IR 81413-B-B-75-3/ IR 81429-B31), respectively. Two crosses viz., IR 81063-B-94-U-3-1/
IR 81413-B-B-75-4 and IR 8413-B-B-75-3/ IR 81413 -B-B75-4 showed negative significant heterosis over mid parent.
Three crosses viz., IR 81413-B-B-75-3/ IR 1413-B-B-75-4,
IR 81063-B-94-4-U-1/ IR 81413-B-B-75-4 and IR 81063-B94-4-U-1/ IR 81429-B-31 showed negative significant
heterobeltiosis. Five crosses viz., IR 81423-B-B-111-3/ IR
67017-124-2-4, IR 81421-B-B-25-4/ IR 81413-B-B-75-4, IR
81413-B-B-75-3/ IR 81413-B-B-75-4, IR 81063-B-94-U-31/ IR 81413-B-B-75-4 and IR 8413-B-B-75-3/ IR 81413 -BB-75-4 expressed negative significant heterosis over
standard variety VANDANA. Alam et al. (2004),
Nuruzzaman et al. (2004) and Rahimi et al. (2010) reported
that negative heterosis is desired for plant height shorter
plant height is an important character of hybrids to
withstand lodging. Vishwakarma et al. (1999) suggested the
79
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
short structure is desirable to develop the semi dwarf high
yielding varieties, which will be lodging resistant and
fertilizer responsive. Borah and Baraman (2010) observed
the negative heterosis only mid parent and better parent.
The spectrum of variation for heterosis, heterobeltiosis and
standard heterosis in number of effective tillers per plant
was ranged from 4.76 (IR 81413-B-B-75-3/ IR 81413-B-B75-4) to 220.00 per cent (IR 81413-B-B-75-3/ IR 67017124-2-4), 0.00 (IR 81413-B-B-75-3/ IR 81413-B-B-75-4) to
166.67 per cent (IR 81413-B-B-75-3/ IR 67017-124-2-4)
and -21.43 (IR 81413-B-B-75-3/ IR 81413-B-B-75-4) to
185.71 per cent (IR 81413-B-B-75-3/ IR 67017-124-2-4),
respectively. Out of 15 crosses, 14 crosses, 12 crosses and
11 crosses showed positive significant heterosis over mid
parent, better parent and standard variety VANDANA,
respectively. Significant positive heterosis for number of
productive tillers per plant were earlier reported by several
workers viz., Panawar et al. (2002), Alam et al. (2004) and
Shankar et al. (2010). They reported that hybrids are
generally characterized by having large number of panicles
indicating their efficiency in partitioning of assimilates to
reproductive parts.
For flag leaf length, out of 15 crosses, 9 crosses, 6 crosses
and 11 crosses showed positive significant mid parent
heterosis,
heterobeltiosis
and
standard
heterosis,
respectively. For flag leaf width, eight crosses exhibited
positive and significant heterosis over mid parent. Three
crosses showed positively significant heterobeltiosis. Out of
15 crosses, 14 crosses exhibited positive significant
heterosis over standard variety for flag leaf width.
The spectrum of variation for mid parent heterosis,
heterobeltiosis and standard heterosis in panicle length was
ranged from -4.38 (IR 81063-B-94-U-3-1/IR 81413-B-B-754) to 41.68 per cent (IR 74371-54-1-1/ IR 67017-124-2-4), 19.70 (IR 81413-B-B-75-3/ IR 81413-B-B-75-4) to 41.62
per cent (IR 74371-54-1-1/ IR 67017-124-2-4) and 4.22 (IR
81413-B-B-75-3/ IR 81413-B-B-75-4) to 63.07 (IR 7437154-1-1/ IR 67017-124-2-4) per cent, respectirely. Out of 15
crosses, 13 crosses, 12 crosses and 14 crosses expressed
significant mid parent heterosis, heterobeltiosis and standard
heterosis in desired direction.
In case of number of spikelets per plant, mid parent
heterosis, heterobeltiosis and standard heterosis ranged from
-40.46 (IR 81413-B-B-75-3/ IR 81413-B-B-75-4) to 73.50
per cent, -45.36 (IR 81421-B-B-25-4/ IR 81413-B-B-75-4)
to 71.68 per cent (IR 81413-B-B-75-3/ IR 81429-B-31) and
53.78 (IR 81421-B-B-25-4/ IR 81413-B-B-75-4) to 42.73
per cent (IR 81413-B-B-75-3/ IR 81429-B-31), respectively.
Out of 15 crosses, only 5 crosses showed positive significant
mid parent heterosis. Positive and significant heterobeltiosis
was recorded in 4 crosses. Only one hybrid viz., IR 81413B-B-75-3/ IR 81429-B-31 expressed significant positive
heterosis over standard variety VANDANA.
Mid parent heterosis for days to maturity was ranged from
6.27 (IR 81421-B-B-25-4/ IR 81429-B-31) to 5.04 per cent
(IR 81063-B-94-U-3-1/ IR 81413-B-B-75-4). Only two
crosses viz., IR 81421-B-B-25-4/ IR 81429-B-31 and IR
81413-B-B-75-3/ IR 81429-B-31 showed negative
significant heterosis over mid parent. Heterobettiosis for
days to maturity was ranged from 81.10 (IR 81421-B-B-254/ IR 81429-B-31) to 1.11 per cent (IR 81423-B-B-111-3/
IR 67017-124-2-4). Out of 15 crosses, 4 crosses showed
significant and negative heterobeltiosis. Standard heterosis
ranged from 4.11 (IR 81421-B-B-25-4/ IR 81429-B-31) to
18.67 per cent (IR 81063-B-94-U-3-1/ IR 81413-B-B-75-4).
No one cross enhibited significant standard heterosis for
days to maturity in desired direction. Negative heterosis for
early maturity were earlier reported by several workers viz.,
Singh (2005) and Kumar et al. (2010).
For biological yield per plant, Heterosis over mid parent,
better parent and standard variety VANDANA ranged from
-24.09 (IR 81063-B-94-U-3-1/ IR 81429-B-31) to 281.19
per cent (IR 74371-54-1-1/ IR 67017-124-2-4), -24.32 (IR
81063-B-94-U-3-1/ IR 81429-B-31) to 239.45 per cent (IR
74371-54-1-1/ IR 67017-124-2-4) and -24.00 (IR 81413-BB-75-3/ IR 81413-B-B-75-4) to 224.31 per cent (IR 7437154-1-1/ IR 67017-124-2-4), respectively. Out of 15 crosses,
eleven crosses showed positive significant heterosis over
mid parent, better parent and standard variety. The spectrum
of variation for mid parent heterosis, heterobeltiosis and
standard heterosis in harvest index was ranged from -35.21
(IR 81423-B-B-111-3/ IR 81429-B-31) to 56.83 per cent (IR
74371-54-1-1/ IR 81429-B-31), -48.55 (IR 81423-B-B-1113/ IR 81429-B-31) to 27.51 per cent (IR 74371-54-1-1/ IR
81429-B-31) and 41.82 (IR 81423-B-B-111-3/ IR 81429-B31) to 35.44 per cent (IR 74371-54-1-1/ IR 81429-B-31),
respectively. Out of 15 crosses, eight crosses showed
positive significant heterosis over mid parent. Five crosses
showed significant positive heterosis over better parent.
Only two crosses expressed positive significant heterosis
over standard variety VANDANA.
For test weight, heterotic effect over mid parent, better
parent and standard check VANDANA ranged from -13.67
(IR 81413-B-B-75-3/ IR 81413-B-B-75-4) to 28.85 per cent
(IR 81413-B-B-75-3/ IR 81429-B-31), -14.36 (IR 81413-BB-75-3/ IR 81413-B-B-75-4) to 22.22 per cent (IR 81413-BB-75-3/ IR 81429-B-31) and 10.36 (IR 81413-B-B-75-3/ IR
81413-B-B-75-4) to 57.50 per cent (IR 81413-B-B-75-3/ IR
81429-B-31), respectively. Out of 15 crosses, seven crosses
showed positive significant heterosis over mid parent. Three
crosses showed positive significant hetrobeltiosis and all
crosses expressed positive significant heterosis over
standard variety VANDANA. Positive standard heterosis for
test weight was earlier reported by Banumathy et al. (2003).
A high value of standard heterosis for single plant yield (190
per cent) was erarlier reported by Janardhanam et al. (2001).
The spectrum of variation over mid parent, better parent and
standard cheek variety VANDANA in grain yield per plant
ranged from -23.69 (IR 81413-B-B-75-3/ IR 81413-B-B-754) to 289.72 per cent (IR 74371-54-1-1/ IR 67017-124-2-4),
-25.00 (IR 81413-B-B-75-3/ IR 81413-B-B-75-4) to 269.92
per cent (IR 74371-54-1-1/ IR 67017-124-2-4) and -36.00
(IR 81413-B-B-75-3/ IR 81413-B-B-75-4) to 179.95 per
cent (IR 81413-B-B-75-3/ IR 81429-B-31), respectively. A
high range of relative heterosis was earlier reported by
Vanjana et al., 2003 (-90.40 to 457.3%), Jayasudha and
Sharma, 2010 (0.68 to 174.79%). A high range of
heterobeltiosis was earlier reported by Vanjana et al., 2003
(-93.3 to 356.0%), Jayasudha and Sharma, 2010 (2.76 to
164.95). Out of 15 crosses tested, 14 crosses exhibited
significant positive heterosis over mid parental values and
their respective better parental values, while nine crosses
80
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
showed positive significant hetrosis over standard cheek
VANDANA for grain yield per plant.
Among all the characters studied, test weight was found to
be emerged as the first heterotic trait, because all crosses
showed significant positive heterosis over standard variety
VANDANA for this character. This was followed by flag
leaf width (14 crosses), panicle length (14 crosses), number
of tillers per plant (11 crosses), flag leaf length (11 crosses)
and grain yield per plant (9 crosses).
This revealed that grain yield per plant was one of the most
heterotic trait in respect to hetrobeltiosis because out of 15
crosses, 14 crosses showed positive significant
heterobeltiosis for grain yield per plant. Seven of the crosses
exhibited significant and positive heterosis over standard
check VANDANA for grain yield per plant (Table 4). IR
81413-B-B-75-3/ IR 81429-B-31 had high mean value for
grain yield per plant as well as standard heterosis for number
of effective tillers per plant, flag leaf width, panicle length,
biological yield per plant and test weight. However most of
the heterotic crosses for grain yield per plant were
companied by heterosis for 5 to 7 yield contributing
characters. This indicated that heterosis for grain yield in
upland rice was associated with heterosis due to number of
effective tillers per plant, flag leaf length, flag leaf width,
panicle length, biological yield per plant, harvest index and
test weight. Heterotic crosses had close correspondence with
mean value, which suggested that per se performance of
crosses could be considered for judging heterosis for grain
yield. These crosses may be exploited to obtain early
desirable segregants for grain yield by pedigree breeding
technique.
CONCLUSION
On the basis of above executed results, seven heterotic
combinations were isolated for grain yield per plant. The
cross IR 81413-B-B-75-3/ IR 81429-B-31 showed highest
standard heterosis for grain yield per plant followed by IR
81413-B-B-75-3/ IR 81429-B-31, IR 74371-54-1-1/ IR
67017-124-2-4, IR 81421-B-B-25-4/ IR 81429-B-31, IR
81421-B-B-25-4/ IR 67017-124-2-4, IR 81063-B-94-U-3-1/
IR 67017-124-2-4, IR 81413-B-B-75-3/ IR 67017-124-2-4
and IR 81423-B-B-111-3/ IR 81429-B-31. Thus, suggesting
that these crosses may be gives the better segregates from
the early segregating generation or can be utilized for
heterosis breeding for yield improvement under rainfed
condition.
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82
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
Awareness of Farmers about Production Technological Dimensions of Sustainable Dryland
Agriculture
SHAMBHU LAL SONI AND ISHAQ MOHAMMED KHAN
Department of Extension Education
S.K.N. College of Agriculture
Jobner (Jaipur) 303329
ABSTRACT
The study was conducted in Rajasthan state. To know the awareness of farmers about production technological
dimension of sustainable dryland agriculture the dimension like tillage and seedling practices, plant population
adjustment, weed control, crop diversification, soil fertility and fertilization, integrated nutrient management (INM),
insect-pest control and water resources and engineering approach were in to consideration. For this purpose three
zone, 6 tehsils and 20 villages were selected randomly, And a sample of 200 farmers were selected by using simple
random sampling technique with the help of proportional allocation method. After that analyzing the data with
statistical tests used. It was found that majority of farmers had moderate level of awareness about production
technological dimension of sustainable dryland agriculture.
Key words: Dimensions, sustainable, dryland,
The concept of sustainable agriculture involves the
evolution of new types of agriculture rich in technology and
information, with much less intensive energy use and market
purchased inputs. Thus, sustainability is the successful
management of resources to satisfy the changing human
needs, while maintaining or enhancing the quality of
environment
and
conserving
natural
resources.
Dryland/rainfed farming has a distinct place in Indian
agriculture. in such areas crop production becomes
relatively difficult as it mainly depends upon intensity and
frequency of rainfall. The crop production, therefore, in such
areas is called as rainfed farming as there is no facility to
provide any irrigation and even protective or life saving
irrigation is not possible.
Indian agriculture occupying 65per cent of the
dryland/rainfed cultivated area, contributing 40 per cent of
the food grains and supporting 40 per cent of the population.
It is characterized by the resource poor, small and marginal
farmers, a poor infrastructure and low investment in
technology and inputs. The crops grown and cropping
practices followed in these areas, entirely depend upon
unpredictable rainfall which is often erratic and results in
wide ranging fluctuation in production. Currently, the
irrigated areas produce an average of two tonnes of food
grains per hectare, while the average productivity in rainfed
areas is only 0.7 to 0.8 tonnes per hectare. The fact that 95
per cent of coarse cereals, 91 per cent of pulses, 80 per cent
of oil seeds, 65 per cent of cotton and 52 per cent of rice are
grown under dryland/rainfed conditions. It is inevitable that
the second green revolution has to come form the rainfed
areas and accordingly the application of technology, inputs
and investment has to be tailored to convert these so called
“grey areas in to green”.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was conducted in 3 agro-climatic zones (Zone-IA,
Zone IC and Zone IIIA) of Rajasthan state, from which,
6tehsils and 20 villages were selected randomly with
proportional allocation method. A sample of 200 dryland
farmers form 20 villages of these 6 selected tehsils was
drawn by using simple random sampling technique with the
help of proportional allocation method.
For measuring the awareness level of farmers a schedule
was specially constructed by the investigator in light of
suggestions of the experts and the responses were record
accordingly. The validity and reliability of the schedule was
also ensured. Personal interview method of data collection
was used for collecting the data from the farmers. The data
so collected were classified, tabulated and analysed.
Inferences were drawn after subjecting the data to statistical
analysis, which led to following findings:
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
1. Awareness level of farmers about tillage and seedling
practices:The data in Table 1 indicate that majority (74.00 per cent) of
the farmers were having medium level of awareness
followed by 15.50 per cent and 10.50 per cent of farmers
who were having high level and low level of awareness
about tillage and seeding practices, Respectively. The data
in the table also show that majority of small farmers
(75.61per cent), medium farmers (73.75 percent) and large
farmers (71.05 per cent) were having medium level of
awareness about tillage and seedling practices.
83
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
and large farmers (57.69 per cent) were having medium
level of awareness about weed control.
Table1: Awareness level of farmers about tillage and
seedling practices :N=200
farmer’s category
Awareness
category
Low(<8.50)
Medium
(8.50-14.86)
High(>14.86)
Total
Total
Small
13(15.85)
62(75.61)
Medium
4(5.00)
59(73.70)
Large
4(10.50)
27(71.00)
7(8.50)
82(100.00)
17(21.25)
80(100.00)
7(18.40)
38(100.00)
4. Awareness level of farmers about crop diversification
It is obvious from the data in table 4 that majority (51.00 per
cent) of farmers were having medium level of awareness
about crop diversification followed by 26.00 per cent and
23.00 per cent of farmers were having high and low level of
awareness, respectively.
21(10.50)
148(74.00)
31(31.50)
200(100.00)
.
X
= 11.68,
percentage
Ó=3.18,
Table 4 : awareness level of farmers about crop
diversification:- N=200
Figures in parentheses indicate
2. Awareness level of farmers about plant population
adjustment
It is apparent from table 2 that majority (61.50 per cent) of
farmers were having medium level of awareness about plant
population adjustment followed by 19.50 per cent and 19.00
percent of farmers who were having low level of awareness
farmer’s category
Low(<0.86)
Medium(0.862.12)
high(>2.12)
Total
Total
Small
14(17.07)
51(62.20)
Medium
13(16.25)
49(61.25)
Large
12(31.55)
23(60.52)
39(19.50)
123(61.50)
17(20.73)
82(100.00)
18(22.50)
80(100.00)
3(7.89)
38(100.00 )
38(19.00)
200(100.00)
Ó=0.63,
Low(<0.393)
Large
11(28.95)
41(20.50)
Medium
56(68.29)
50(62.50)
2(57.69)
128(64.00)
(
0.393-10.95)
high(>10.95)
Total
11(13.41)
82(100.00)
15(18.75)
80(100.00)
5(13.16)
38(100.00)
31(15.50)
200(100.00)
Medium
36(43.90)
49(61.25)
17(44.74)
102(51.00)
(
12.43-19.85)
high(>19.85)
Total
28(34.15)
82(100.00)
15(18.75)
80(100.00)
9(23.68)
38(100.00)
52(26.00)
200(100.00)
Low(<3.69)
Medium(3.699.39)
high(>9.93)
Total
Ó=3.71,
Figures in parentheses indicate
farmer’s category
Total
Small
21(25.61)
51(62.20)
Medium
30(37.50)
26(32.50)
Large
24(63.16)
12(31.58)
75(37.50)
89(44.50)
10(12.10)
82(100.00)
24(30.00)
80(100.00)
2(5.26)
38(100.00)
36(18.00)
200(100.00)
X = 6.54, Ó=2.85, Figures in parentheses indicate percentage
Total
Medium
15(18.75)
46(23.00)
Awareness
category
Table 3: Awareness level of farmers about weed control
N 200
Small
15(18.29)
Large
12(31.58)
Table 5: Awareness level of farmers about soil fertility
and fertilization :N=200
3. Awareness level of farmers about weed control:The data In table 3 reveal that majority (64.00per cent) of
farmers were having medium level of awareness about weed
control followed by 20.50 per cent and
farmer’s category
Medium
16(20.00)
5. Awareness level of farmers about soil fertility and
fertilization:The data in table 5 indicate that majority (44.50per cent) of
farmers were having medium level of awareness about soil
fertility and fertilization followed by
Figures in parentheses indicate
About plant population adjustment, respectively. The data
also indicate that majority of small farmers (62.20per cent),
medium farmers (61.25 per cent) and large farmers (60.52
percent) were having medium level of awareness about plant
population adjustment.
Awareness
category
Small
18(21.95)
Majority of small farmers (43.90 per cent), medium farmers
(61.25 per cent) and lage farmers (44.74 per cent) were
having medium level of awareness about crop
diversification, respectively.
.
X = 1.49,
percentage
Total
Low(<12.43)
.
X = 16.14,
percentage
Table 2: Awareness level of farmers about plant
population adjustment
N = 200
Awareness
category
farmer’s category
Awareness
category
37.50 per cent and 18.00 per cent of farmers were having
low and high level of awareness, respectively. The data also
indicate that majority of small farmers (62.20 per cent) were
having medium level of awareness, where as majority of
medium farmers (37.50 per cent) and large farmers (63.16
per cent) were having low level of awareness about
fertilization.
X=7.44, Ó=3.51, Figures in parentheses indicate percentage
6. Awareness level of farmers about integrated nutrient
management
(INM)
The data presented in table 6 reveal that majority of (43.00
per cent) farmers were having low level of awareness about
integrated nutrient management aspect of soil
15.50 per cent who were having low and high level of
awareness about weed control respectively. The data
presented in the table also indicate that majority of small
farmers (68.29 per cent),medium farmers (62.50 per cent)
84
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
Table 6: Awareness level of farmers about integrated
nutrient management (INM) N=200
farmer’s category
Awareness
category
Low(<7.19)
Medium
(
7.19-16.75)
high(>16.75)
Total
8. Awareness of farmers about management of water
resources and engineering approach
Total
It is obvious from the data presented in table 8 that majority
(46.00 per cent) of farmers were having low level of
awareness about management of water resources
Small
35(42.68)
28(34.15)
Medium
35(43.75)
26(32.50)
Large
16(42.11)
17(44.74)
86(43.00)
71(35.50)
19(23.17)
19(23.75)
5(13.16)
43(21.50)
Table 8 awareness level of farmers about management of
water resources and engineering approach N=200
82(100.00)
80(100.00)
38(100.00 )
200(100.00)
Awareness
category
.
X = 11.97, Ó= 4.78, Figures in parentheses indicate
percentage
fertility followed by 35.50 per cent and 21.50 per cent of
farmers were having medium and high level of awareness,
respectively. The data also indicate that majority of small
farmers (42.68 per cent), and medium farmers (43.75 per
cent) were having low level of awareness, While majority
of large farmers (44.74 per cent) were having medium level
of awareness about integrated nutrient management.
Low(<10.16)
Medium(10.1626.02)
high(>26.02)
Total
farmer’s category
Small
41(50.00)
35(42.68)
Medium
39(48.75)
32(40.00)
Large
12(31.58)
15(39.47)
6(7.32)
82(100.00)
9(11.25)
80(100.00)
11(28.95)
38(100.00
)
Total
92(46.00)
82(41.00)
26(13.00)
200(100.00)
.
X = 18.09, Ó= 7.93, Figures in parentheses indicate
percentage
and engineering approach followed by 41.00 per cent and
13.00 per cent of farmers were having medium and high
7. Awareness of farmers about insect-pest control
level of awareness respectively. The data in table show that
It is apparent form the table the table 7 that majority
majority of small farmers (50.00per cent) and medium
(57.50per cent) of farmers were having medium level of
farmers (48.75per cent) were having low level of awareness
awareness about insect-pest control followed by 27.50 per
whereas, majority of the large farmers (39.47per cent) were
cent and 15.00 per cent of farmers were having low and high
having medium level of awareness.
level of awareness, respectively
It was found that majority of the farmers had medium level
of awareness about tillage and seedling Practices (74.00%
Table 7: awareness level of farmers about insect-pest
farmers), plant population adjustment (61.50%), weed
control N=200
control (64.00%), crop diversification (51.00%), soil fertility
Awareness
farmer’s category
Total
and fertilization (44.50%) and insect pest control (57.50%)
category
whereas, the farmers had low level of awareness about
Small
Medium
Large
integrated nutrient management (INM) (43.00%),
Low(<5.87)
24(29.27)
19(23.75)
12(31.58)
55(27.50)
Medium(5.87- 46(56.10)
48(60.00)
21(55.26)
115(57.50)
management of water resources and engineering
11.33)
approach(46.00%). It was also found that majority of small
high(>11.33)
12(14.63)
13(16.25)
5(13.14)
30(15.00)
farmers were having medium level of awareness about soil
fertility and fertilization, whereas majority of the medium
Total
82(100.00)
80(100.00)
38(100.00 ) 200(100.00)
and large farmer were having medium level of awareness
.
about this aspect.
X = 8.60, Ó= 2.73, Figures in parentheses indicate
Majority of large farmers were having medium level of
percentage
awareness about integrated nutrient management and
The data also reveal that majority of small farmers (56.10per
management of water resources & engineering approach
cent) medium farmers (60.00per cent) and large farmers
whereas majority of the small and medium farmers were
(55.26per cent) were also having medium level of
having low level of awareness about these aspects.
awareness.
REFERENCES
Balavati, V.G. and Sunderaswamy B.(1991). “Dryland farmers
knowledge of dry farming practices and its correlates” Maharashtra J. Ext.
Edu., 10:19-22.
Shah, A. and Shah, D.C. (1993). “Dryland farming under changing source
environment, a case study” Artha vijana, 35(3): 241-269.
Shrivastava, M.M.P. (1994). “Sustainable development with special
reference to environment and agriculture”. Journal of Rural Development.
13 (1) : 48-55
Dubey, M.K., Khare, M.N., Agarwal, S.K. and Kare, U.R.(1995).
“Knowledge lavel of farmers regarding various farm practices of wheat and
paddy.” Rural india 58:49-50
Singh, H. and Bail, S. (1988). “Dryland technology for increased crop
production in Jammu division”. Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural
Sciences and Technology Bulletin No 88-7
Fernadez, P.G.(1994). “Rndigenous seed practices for sustainable
agriculture” indigenous knowledge and development monitor, 2(2) : 9-12.
Mundhawa, A.B. and Patel, H.L.(1987). “Rainfed wheat growers
knowledge about rainfed wheat in Bhal area of Gujarat state” Maharashtra
J. Ext. Edu. 6:11-116.
Sing, H.P. and Venkateswarlu, B. (1999) “ Rainfed farming :Turning gray
areas green” The Hindu Survey of Indian Agriculture, pp. 25-28
Prasad, C. (1991) “International conference on extension strategy for
minimizing risk in rainfed, agriculture”. Ind. J. Ext. Edu 27: 1-2.
85
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
Response of levels and time of application of nitrogen on growth yield and quality of summer pearl
millet (Pennisetum glaucum L.)
1
G.R. JAKHAR, 2S. L. GOLADA AND 2A.C. SADHU
Department of Agronomy,
1
M Sc.Student, B.A. College of Agriculture, Anand Agricultural University, Anand
2
Ph.D, Research Scholar and Associate Professor, Rajasthan College of Agriculture, MPUAT, Udaipur-313001
Email; slagro_1967@yahoo.co.in
Key words: Crop production, nitrogen, pearl millet, urea spray
Pearl millet [Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br. emend. Stuntz]
is one of the major cereal crops grown in arid and semi arid
regions of the world. Pearl millet is adopted to stress
intensive environment, yet it is highly versatile, input
responsive and high quality cereal with great potential to
become a valuable component of non- traditional season like
summer under irrigated and high input management
conditions. Among the plant nutrients, nitrogen is the most
important and expensive nutrient and it has marked effect on
the plant growth in cereal crops. Nitrogen plays an important
role in the synthesis of chlorophyll as well as amino acids,
which are the building units of the protein. As nitrogen is
mobile element, the time and rate of nitrogen application or
splitting and foliar spray with different quantity of nitrogen
as per requirement of the crop growth stage is most
important for efficient utilization of nitrogen as well as for
maximization of the crop yield. Foliar application of urea
can have benefits over soil treatments in increasing protein
content and quality of pearl millet grain when applied at and
after anthesis (Gooding and Davies, 1992).
A field experiment was conducted during summer season of
2009 at College Agronomy Farm, B.A. College of
Agriculture, Anand Agricultural University, Anand. The soil
of the experimental field was loamy sand in texture having
pH 7.6 and organic C 0.36%. The experiment was laid out in
a randomized block design (factorial) with fifteen-treatment
combinations and four replications. Treatments comprised
of different nitrogen levels viz., 40, 80 and 120 kg N ha-1
and five nitrogen application methods viz., 50% basal +
50% top dressing at 30 DAS, 50% basal + 25% top dressing
at 30 DAS + 25% top dressing at 60 DAS, 50% basal + 25%
top dressing at 30 DAS + 25% foliar spray at 45 DAS, 50%
basal +25% top dressing at 30 DAS +25% foliar spray at 60
DAS and 50% basal + 25% foliar spray at 30 DAS + 25%
foliar spray at 60 DAS. Common dose of phosphorus @ 40
kg ha-1 was applied as basal before sowing. The crop was
grown under assured irrigated condition.
The results revealed that application of 120 kg N ha-1 gave
significantly higher plant height, number of productive
tillers plant-1, length of ear heads plant-1, number of ear
heads, grain yield plant-1, weight of 1000-grains, protein
content in grains and net realization as compared to 40 kg N
ha-1. The grain and stover yield were also increase with
increase in N levels up to 120 kg N ha-1. Patel and Patel
(2002) also reported similar results. This might be due to
greater uptake of N which helped in proper nourishment of
plants, increased photosynthetic area and higher dry matter
production (Khan et al., 2000).
Table 1. Effect of nitrogen levels and methods of nitrogen application on yield attributes, yield and quality of summer pearl millet.
Number
of ear
heads
plant-1
Ear
head
length
(cm)
Grain
weight
plant-1 (g)
2.94
3.08
3.87
3.92
16.08
17.55
3.54
4.20
CD (P=0.05)
5.10
0.26
Methods of nitrogen application (S)
S1
153.52
2.87
S2
157.36
S3
S4
S5
CD (P=0.05)
Treatments
Plant
Number of
height at productive
harvest tillers plant1
(cm)
1000
grainsweight
(g)
Protein
content
in grains
(%)
Net
realization
(Rs. ha-1)
Grain
Stover
38.62
41.78
4090
4221
7211
7880
9.12
9.65
9.43
9.47
22649
23522
20.38
43.99
4429
8639
9.77
9.94
24968
0.24
0.87
2.36
191.72
332.31
0.42
0.33
---
3.77
17.01
38.92
4077
7493
9.23
9.17
22472
2.98
4.01
17.45
40.45
4058
7726
9.26
9.31
22413
164.52
3.30
3.97
17.81
41.91
4381
8082
9.77
9.73
24675
163.42
3.63
4.27
18.93
44.36
4505
8270
10.02
9.80
25624
158.52
6.59
3.15
0.34
3.98
0.31
18.82
1.12
41.68
3.04
4211
247.63
7979
429.20
9.30
0.55
10.04
0.43
23380
----
Nitrogen levels (N)
N1: 40 kg ha-1 155.13
N2: 80 kg ha-1
157.54
N3: 120 kg ha165.76
1
S1:
S2:
S3:
S4:
S5:
Yield (kg ha-1)
50% Basal + 50% Top dressing at 30 DAS
50% Basal + 25% Top dressing at 30 DAS +25% Top dressing at 60 DAS
50% Basal + 25% Top dressing at 30 DAS +25% Foliar spray at 45 DAS
50% Basal +25% Top dressing at 30 DAS +25% Foliar spray at 60 DAS
50% Basal + 25% Foliar spray at 30 DAS + 25% Foliar spray at 60 DAS
86
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
The nitrogen application method of 50% basal + 25% top
dressing at 30 DAS + 25% foliar spray at 45 DAS showed
significant increase in plant height at harvest over other
methods except treatment of 50% basal +25% top dressing
at 30 DAS +25% foliar spray at 60 DAS. The treatment of
50% basal +25% top dressing at 30 DAS +25% foliar spray
at 60 DAS recorded significantly higher number of
productive tillers plant-1, length of ear head, number of ear
heads, grain yield plant-1, weight of 1000-grains, grain and
stover yield as compare to other methods of nitrogen
application except that of 50% basal + 25% top dressing at
30 DAS + 25% foliar spray at 45 DAS. The protein content
in grains was increased in treatment of 50% basal + 25%
foliar spray at 30 DAS + 25% foliar spray at 60 DAS as
compared to other methods of nitrogen application except
treatments 50% basal + 25% top dressing at 30 DAS + 25%
foliar spray at 45 DAS and 50% basal +25% top dressing at
30 DAS +25% foliar spray at 60 DAS. Application of foliar
N late in the season is the most efficient method of boosting
grain protein (Turley, et al., 2001). Maximum net realization
of Rs. 25624 ha-1 was also registered under the method of
50% basal +25% top dressing at 30 DAS +25% foliar spray
at 60 DAS treatment.
Thus, based on the results of one year experimentation, it
was concluded that for maximizing production and net
returns, the summer pearl millet (GHB-558) should be
applied 120 kg N ha-1 as 50% basal +25% top dressing at 30
DAS +25% foliar spray at 60 DAS or at 45 DAS under
middle Gujarat conditions.
REFERENCES
Gooding, M.J. and Davies, W.P. (1992). Foliar urea
fertilization of cereals: A review. Fertilizer Res. 32 (2):
209-222.
Patel, B. J. and Patel, I. S. (2002). Response of summer
pearl millet to different dates, method of sowing and
nitrogen levels under North Gujarat Agro-climatic
conditions. Crop Res. 24 (3): 476-480.
Khan, J.A., Tiwari, O.P., Shrivastava, G.K. and Singh,
A.P. (2000). Effect of irrigation schedules, levels and split
application of nitrogen on yield attribute and yield of latesown wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Annals of Agricultural
Research 21: 561-563.
Turley, B.D., Sylvester Bradley, R. and Dampney,
P.M.R. (2001). Foliar applied nitrogen for grain protein
and canopy management of wheat. HGCA Res. Review.
47:32.
87
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
Adoption of pigeon-pea production technology in Udaipur district of Rajasthan
UPMA VASHISHTHA, F.L. SHARMA AND S.S. SISODIA
Department of Extension Education, MPUA&T,
Udaipur-313001, Rajasthan, India
ABSTRACT
Present study was conducted in Udaipur district of Rajasthan. 160 pigeon-pea growers were selected from eight
villages of two tribal tehsils for the study. Data were collected with the help of interview schedule developed for the
study. From the discussion, it could be concluded that 56.25 per cent of the respondents adopted pigeon-pea production
technology to medium level whereas, 26.88 and 16.87 per cent of total respondents adopted the technology to low and
high level respectively. It was also observed that extent of adoption in tribal farmers was 30.83 to 90.4 per cent, while in
case of non-tribal farmers the extent was observed to be 32.50 to 92.50 per cent. The study further indicated that there
was significant difference between tribal and non-tribal farmers with regard to adoption of pigeon-pea production
practices.
Keywords: Adoption, Technology, Production, Analysis
Pigeon-pea (Cajanus cajan L.) is grown over the world,
mostly in tropical and sub-tropical countries for grains,
green manuring, fodder and forage as the sole crop,
intercrop, mixed crop and in sequential cropping systems.
Pigeon-pea is cultivated in more than 25 tropical and subtropical countries. Among the major countries growing
pigeon-pea, India ranks first with an area of about 3.61
million hectares with a total production of 2.70 million
tonnes with an average productivity of 747 kg/ha. The major
pigeon-pea producing states are Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh,
Karnataka, Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh which together
accounts for 87 per cent of the area and 83.8 per cent of the
production of the crop. In Rajasthan, pigeon-pea is
cultivated in 20,000 hectares area with production about
13,000 metric tonnes. It is cultivated in almost all the
districts of Rajasthan but the important pigeon-pea
producing districts are Alwar, Sawai Madhopur, Banswara,
Dungarpur, Udaipur and Bhilwara. Udaipur is one of the
major pigeon-pea growing districts of the state with respect
to considerable area 3646 hectares and production 3280
metric tonnes. The climatic conditions of the district is most
suitable for cultivation of pigeon-pea but the productivity of
this crop is far below than desired level. Thus, there is an
urgent need to conduct a systematic study to assess adoption
level of farmers about cultivation of pigeon-pea. Keeping
the above facts in view the present study entitled “Adoption
of pigeon-pea production technology in Udaipur district of
Rajasthan” was undertaken.
The present study was conducted in Udaipur district of
Rajasthan. There are total eight tribal tehsils in Udaipur
district of Rajasthan, out of which two tehsils namely Jhadol
and Kotra has been selected on the basis of maximum area
under pigeon-pea cultivation. Four villages from each
identified tehsil were selected on the basis of maximum area
under pigeon-pea cultivation. For selection of respondents,
160 pigeon-pea growers (80 tribal and 80 non-tribal
farmers) were randomly selected from identified villages for
data collection. Data were collected with the help of
interview schedule developed for the study purpose through
face to face contact method. Thereafter, data were analyzed,
tabulated and inferences were drawn according to objective
of the study.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
To get an overall view of adoption level, the respondents
were divided into three groups viz., (i) low adoption (≤ 32),
(ii) medium adoption group (33 to 39) and (ii) high adoption
group (> 39). The groups were based on the calculated mean
and SD of the adoption scores obtained by the respondents.
The results of the same are presented in Table 1.
Data presented in Table 1 depict that ma ority (56.25%) of
the total respondents were in the medium adoption group,
whereas, 26.88 per cent respondents were in low adoption
group and remaining 16.87 per cent pigeon-pea growers to
be observed in the high level of adoption about pigeon-pea
production technology.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Table 1. Distribution of respondents on the basis of their level of adoption of improved pigeon-pea production technology
Level of adoption
Low (≤ 32)
Medium (33 to 39)
High (> 39)
Total
F = Frequency, % = per cent
Tribal
F
30
42
8
80
farmers
%
37.50
52.50
10.00
100.0
Non-tribal farmers
F
%
13
16.25
49
60.00
19
23.75
80
100.0
Further, among the categories of pigeon-pea growers it was
observed in high adoption group, 10.00 per cent respondents
were found to be from tribal farmers category and 23.75 per
n = 160
Total
F
43
90
27
160
%
26.38
56.25
16.87
100.0
cent of respondents from non-tribal farmers category. In the
medium adoption group, 52.50 per cent respondents from
tribal farmers category and 60.00 per cent respondents from
88
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
non-tribal farmers category whereas, in the low adoption
group, 37.50 per cent respondents were from tribal farmers
group and 16.25 per cent from non-tribal farmers category.
From the above results it could be concluded that 83.75 per
cent respondents from non-tribal category were to be
observed either from medium or from high adoption group
whereas 90.00 per cent tribal farmers adopted pigeon-pea
technology medium to lower level in the study area.
These findings are similar with the findings of Bareth
(1991), who reported that majority (69.27%) of gram
growers were in medium adoption group and 17.19 per cent
respondents in the high adoption group, while only 13.54
per cent were in the group of poor adopters.
Individual aspect-wise extent of adoption of pigeon-pea
growers was worked out. For this mean per cent score were
calculated. The results of the same have been presented in
Table 2.
Table 2. Extent of adoption of production practices by pigeon-pea growers
n=160
Practices
Tribal
farmers
Non-tribal farmers
Total
MPS
Rank
MPS
Rank
MPS
Rank
Adoption of high yielding varieties
42.08
14
57.50
8
49.79
11
Recommended soil treatment
43.33
12
44.58
13
43.95
13
Recommended time of sowing
90.40
1
92.50
1
91.45
1
Adoption of useful method of sowing
47.08
11
48.75
12
47.91
12
Using recommended seed rate
87.08
2
87.91
2
87.49
2
Recommended seed treatment
52.91
9
53.33
10
53.12
9
Inoculation of seed with Rhizobium culture
56.66
8
55.00
9
55.83
8
Maintaining recommended spacing
80.41
3
82.08
3
81.24
3
Recommended depth of sowing
74.58
4
67.91
5
71.24
4
Applying FYM as per recommended by
49.58
10
50.00
11
49.80
10
scientists
Using nitrogenous fertilizers
30.83
17
32.50
17
63.33
17
Applying phosphatic fertilizers
62.08
7
63.75
7
62.91
7
Intercultural operations
63.33
6
65.41
6
64.37
6
Irrigation management
67.08
5
75.42
4
71.25
5
Using recommended chemicals for disease
37.91
15
40.41
15
39.16
15
control
Using recommended insecticides for insect
34.58
16
37.08
16
35.83
16
pest control
Recommended method and time of
42.90
13
44.16
14
43.53
14
harvesting
rs = 0.94**
MPS = Mean per cent score
* = Significant at 1 per cent level
Table 2 depicts that the adoption regarding high yielding
50 per cent. This practice was ranked ninth by tribal and
varieties was 42.08 and 57.50 per cent among tribal and
tenth by non-tribal respondents. The adoption about
non-tribal farmers respectively. It was found that majority of
inoculation of seed with Rhizobium culture was obtained to
the respondents were sowing BDN-2, ICPL-151, G-100
be 56.66 and 55.00 per cent in tribal and non-tribal category
varieties of pigeon-pea in the study area. Likewise, the tribal
of respondents, respectively. It was also found that
and non-tribal pigeon-pea growers had extent of adoption
recommended plant to plant and row to row spacing of
43.33 and 44.58 per cent with respect to soil treatment
pigeon-pea was 80.41 and 82.08 per cent in tribal and nonrespectively. Further analysis of table shows that adoption in
tribal farmers respectively. This aspect was ranked third by
tribal and non-tribal category of respondents about
both the categories of respondents.
recommended time of sowing was 90.4 and 92.5 per cent
Further analysis of table indicates that adoption
respectively. The above practice was ranked first by both the
regarding depth of sowing was 74.58 and 69.91 MPS by
categories of respondents. It means most of the farmers in
tribal and non-tribal respondents. It was found that nearly 50
the study area were following the recommended time of
per cent farmers were applying FYM as per recommended
sowing.
by scientists for cultivation of pigeon-pea. Regarding
The study of table further reveals that the extent of adoption
adoption of nitrogenous fertilizers 30.83 per cent tribal and
about useful method of sowing was 47.08 and 48.75 MPS
32.50 per cent non-tribal farmers were recorded. On the
among tribal and non-tribal pigeon-pea growers respectively
other hand application of phosphatic fertilizers, the extent of
and ranked eleventh and twelfth by the tribal and non-tribal
adoption was 62.08 and 63.75 per cent among tribal and
farmers. Recommended seed rate was possessed 87.08 and
non-tribal farmers respectively. It was found that the farmers
87.91 per cent adoption in tribal and non-tribal farmers
were using more of phosphatic fertilizers like DAP, than
respectively and ranked second by both the category of
nitrogenous fertilizers in the study area. Regarding interrespondents.
cultural operations, the extent of adoption was 63.33 and
It was found that extent of adoption in both the categories of
65.41 per cent in tribal and non-tribal farmers respectively.
respondents about recommended seed treatment was above
89
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
The adoption about irrigation management practice was
67.08 per cent in tribal farmers and 75.42 per cent in nontribal farmers and ranked fifth and fourth by tribal and nontribal farmers respectively.
The extent of adoption about recommended chemicals for
disease control was 37.91 and 40.41 per cent in the tribal
and non-tribal farmers respectively. On the other hand,
application of recommended insecticides for insect pest
control, the extent of adoption was 34.58 and 37.08 per cent
among tribal and non-tribal farmers. The extent of adoption
of disease and insect pest control was observed poor in the
study area. The reason behind less adoption was they had
less knowledge about scientific insect-pest and disease
control techniques as well as various insecticides and
pesticides available in the market. It was further noted that
extent of adoption about method and time of harvesting was
42.90 and 44.16 per cent in case of tribal and non-tribal
farmers respectively.
From the above discussion, it could be concluded that the
extent of adoption in tribal farmers was 30.83 to 90.4 per
cent, while in case of non-tribal farmers the extent of
adoption was 32.5 to 92.5 per cent in all the improved
pigeon-pea cultivation practices. Further, it was noted that
non-tribal farmers had more extent of adoption than tribal
farmers about almost all the pigeon-pea cultivation
practices, still there is a gap in the adoption of improved
pigeon-pea production technology. To improve the extent of
adoption in both the categories of farmers intensive training
programmes should be organized timely and location
Table 3.
specific in the study area. In the recent years there were
many NGOs (non-government organizations) and
government organization running their programmes for the
betterment of the people but the expected results were not
visible, yet in the study area.
The table further reveals that the calculated rank order
correlation (rs) value was 0.94, which was found to be
statistically significant at 1 per cent level of significance.
Thus, it can be inferred that there was a significant
correlation between ranks assigned to extent of adoption of
improved pigeon-pea cultivation practices by tribal and nontribal farmers.
The present findings are in line with the findings of Singh
(1999) who revealed that farmers had very poor adoption of
improved practices of pigeon-pea i.e., inoculation of seed
with Rhizobium culture, seed treatment, soil treatment, plant
protection measures, high yielding varieties and fertilizer
application, whereas, they had good adoption regarding time
of sowing, seed rate, plant spacing and weed management in
pigeon-pea.
Comparison of adoption between tribal and non-tribal
farmers with respect to improved pigeon-pea production
technology:
To find out the variation or similarity in the adoption of
tribal and non-tribal respondents about improved pigeon-pea
technology, ‘Z’ test was applied. The results were presented
in Table 3.
Comparison of adoption between tribal and non-tribal farmers about improved pigeon-pea cultivation practices
Category of respondents
Tribal farmers
Non-tribal farmers
** Significant at 1 per cent level.
Mean
31.2
40.0
±S.D.
3.6
2.68
Table 3 indicates that calculated ‘Z’ value was greater than
its tabulated value at 1 per cent level of significance. Further
analysis of table shows that mean score value of non-tribal
farmers in most of the practices is more than tribal farmers,
which clearly indicates that non-tribal farmers had more
adoption level than the tribal farmers about improved
pigeon-pea production technology. It might be due to the
fact that non-tribal farmers possessed more knowledge than
tribal farmers about pigeon-pea production technology.
The findings are in tune with the results of Dangi and
Poonia (1997), who reported that there was significant
difference in the adoption of improved ginger cultivation
practices between literate and illiterate farmers. The level of
adoption was noted highest in the category of literate
farmers. It may be on account of possession of high extent
Difference
8.8
‘Z’ value
17.56**
of knowledge by the farmers who are treated as literates in
the present investigation.
From the above discussion, it could be concluded that 56.25
per cent of the total respondents adopted the pigeon-pea
production technology to medium level whereas, 26.88 and
16.87 per cent of total respondents adopted pigeon-pea
production technology to low and high level respectively. It
was also observed that the extent of adoption in tribal
farmers was 30.83 to 90.4 per cent, while in case of nontribal farmers the extent of adoption was observed to be
32.50 to 92.50 per cent in all improved pigeon-pea
cultivation practices. The study further indicated that there
was significant difference between tribal and non-tribal
farmers with regard to adoption of pigeon-pea production
practices.
REFERENCES
Bareth, L.S. 2001. Technological constraints in adoption of
improved pulse production technologies in agro-climatic zone II A
and B of Rajasthan. Ph.D. thesis submitted to Rajasthan
Agricultural University, Bikaner, Rajasthan.
Singh, H. 1999. A study on knowledge and adoption of improved
cultivation practices of pigeon-pea (Cajanus cajan L.) by the
farmers of Bagidora Tehsil in Banswara district, M.Sc. thesis
submitted to Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaner,
Rajasthan.
Poonia, P.P. and Dangi, K.L. 1997. Adoption behaviour of ginger
growers. Maharashtra Journal of Extension Education 16:116-119.
90
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
Influence of net house, mulching and NAA on seed quality of capsicum cv. California wonder
1
A. MANJUNATHA, *2A. G. BABU, 3V. MANJUNATHA, 4S. RAJENDRA PRASAD
Department of seed science and technology, University of Agricultural sciences, GKVK, Bangalore, Karnataka, India. Pin560065. 2 Department of Crop Physiology, University of Agricultural sciences, GKVK, Bangalore, Karnataka, India. Pin 560065. 3Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, University of Agricultural sciences, GKVK, Bangalore, Karnataka,
India. Pin -560065.
1&4
Present address
Department of seed science and technology, University of Agricultural sciences, GKVK, Bangalore, Karnataka, India. Pin 560065. 2Currently Ph.D Scholar, Department of Crop Physiology, University of Agricultural sciences, Dharwad, Karnataka,
India. Pin-580005. 3Currently working as Agriculture Officer, O/o Assistant Director of Agriculture, Bagepally (Tq),
Chikkaballapur (Dist), Karnataka, India. Pin-561207. 4Currently professor and Head of Seed Technology Research Unit,
National Seed Project, University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bangalore. Karnataka, India. Pin-560065.
1
ABSTRACT
The field experiment was conducted to study the influence of net house, mulching and NAA on seed yield of Capsicum
cv. California Wonder during the rabi/summer at Seed Technology Research Unit, National Seed Project, University of
Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bangalore. They differed significantly under net house and recorded highest thousand
seed weight (7.49g), germination (75.34%), seedling dry weight (0.32mg) and seedling vigour index (793) with chaffy
seeds and seed infection compared to control. With the black polythene mulch the seeds recorded highest germination
(71.30%), seedling dry weight (0.26mg), seedling vigour index (768) and least chaffy seeds. Among different
concentrations NAA at 60 ppm had given highest thousand seed weight (7.12g), germination (71.92%), seedling dry
weight (0.40mg)and seedling vigour index (833) with least (2.23) chaffy seeds.
Key words: Capsicum, net house, black polythene mulch, NAA.
Capsicum (Capsicum annuum L. Grossum Sendt) in one of
the most popular and highly remunerative vegetable crop
grown throughout the world. It has attained status of high
value crop also in India recent years and occupies a pride of
place among vegetables in Indian cruisine because of its
delicacy and pleasant flavor coupled with rich content of
ascorbic acid and other vitamins and minerals. The high
market price it fetches is attributed to having demand from
the urban consumers. There is a good demand for export too.
The seed production in capsicum is bit difficult in open field
conditions as it highly susceptible to stress, pest and diseases,
scorching and wilt there it is taken up in green house. The
green house establishment being a costly affair and difficult
establish for small and medium farmers. Hence, to minimize
the cost and to produce quality seed an experiment was
conducted to study the influence of net house, mulching and
NAA on seed quality of capsicum California Wonder.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The seed quality parameter like germination (75.34%),
seedling vigour index (793), seedling dry matter (0.32mg)
and less seed health (2.26%) were recorded highest in net
house as against open field conditions (Table 1). This might
be due to higher cellular level metabolic activities rendered
by higher enzymatic activity lead more synthesis of nucleic
acids and proteins resulted in healthier, bolder and stronger
seed due to accumulation of maximum dry matter in seeds.
However, root length, shoot length were not influenced by
any treatments net house, black polythene mulch and NAA
levels (Jeevansab, 2000 and Jiang et al. 1985 in sweet
pepper).
Under black polythene mulch, germination (71.30%),
seedling vigour index (768) and seedling dry matter
(0.26mg) found significant with less chaffy seeds where as
thousand seed weight and seed health found non significant
(Table 1). Similar findings were made by Wann, 1969 and
Takatori et al., 1971.
Among NAA levels, 60ppm recorded highest germination
(71.92 %) seedling vigour index (751) and seedling dry
weight (0.33 mg) and all other parameter found non
significant (Table 1). Similar findings were made by
Vasudevan et al., (2000) in sunflower, Meena and Dhaka
(2003) in brinjal, Sanjay kumar et al., (1996) in okra and
Yogananda (2002) in capsicum cv. California Wonder.
The growth regulator coupled with net house and black
polythene mulch brought about certain changes in
metabolism during fruit and seed development due to which
there would be greater accumulation of food reserves and
nutrient factors resulting in higher seed quality. Similar
beneficial effect of growth regulator on seed quality
parameters have been reported in chilli by Singh and
METERIAL AND METHODS
The experiment consists of one main treatment (netting
and open conditions) and two sub treatments (black
polythene mulch and NAA). The experiments were carried
out in split plot design having netting was main treatment
and black polythene mulch and NAA were sub treatment.
Treatment included are netting (netted and open condiction,
mulching, black polithin mulch and unmulched condition)
and four concentration of NAA namely, Control, 60, 80,and
100 ppm sprayed at 45 and 60 days after transplanting with
16 treatmental combination. The seed produced in the
present study tested for germination (%), thousand seed
weight (g), chaffy seeds (%),seedling dry weight (mg),
seedling vigour index and seed health (% infection). The
data was analyzed statistically.
91
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
Gulshanlal (1995) with 20 ppm NAA, Balkumar and
Balasubramanian (1988) with 25 ppm GA3 and Natesh et al.,
(2005) and Yoganada (2002) in Capsicum.
Higher values of seed quality of seeds obtained with
growth regulator may be also due to enlarged embryos,
higher rate of metabolic activity and respiration, better
utilization and mobilization of metabolites to growing points
in germinating seeds and higher activity of enzymes. As
these growth regulator sprays through enzymatic and
hormonal mechanism stimulated metabolic processes such
as sugar mobilization, protein hydrolyses and oxidation.
Table 1: Seed quality attributing characters as influenced by net house mulching and NAA.
Germination (%)
Thousand seed
weight (g)
N0
N1
Mean
Per cent chaffy
seeds
N0
N1
Mean
Seedling dry weight
(mg)
N0
N1
Mean
Seedling vigour
index
N0
N1
Mean
Seed health
(% infection)
N0
N1
Mean
N0
N1
Mean
G0
58.67
61.00
59.84
5.18
6.74
5.96
3.90
2.97
3.44
0.28
0.24
0.26
642
609
626
9.00
3.00
6.00
G1
65.67
72.34
69.00
6.21
7.90
7.06
3.04
1.84
2.44
0.24
0.59
0.42
630
760
696
6.00
2.00
4.00
G2
61.67
74.00
67.84
5.86
8.02
6.94
3.54
2.87
3.20
0.15
0.16
0.16
598
760
680
7.67
2.00
4.84
G3
62.00
78.34
69.17
5.74
7.29
6.52
3.47
3.00
3.24
0.20
0.19
0.20
602
754
678
6.34
4.34
5.34
Mean
62.00
70.92
66.46
5.75
7.49
6.62
3.49
2.67
3.08
0.21
0.30
0.25
618
721
670
7.26
2.84
5.05
G0
59.00
68.00
63.50
6.43
7.78
7.10
3.54
2.50
3.02
0.18
0.16
0.17
618
784
702
6.67
2.34
4.51
G1
71.09
78.67
74.84
6.27
8.10
7.18
3.00
1.04
2.02
0.23
0.21
0.22
708
904
806
6.00
2.34
4.17
G2
69.67
78.00
73.84
5.95
6.82
6.38
3.04
1.40
2.22
0.18
0.14
0.16
628
888
758
6.00
1.67
3.84
G3
67.67
78.34
73.00
6.10
7.23
6.67
3.07
1.37
2.22
0.13
0.16
0.15
796
871
809
7.67
2.34
3.01
Mean
66.84
75.75
71.30
6.19
7.48
6.84
3.16
1.58
2.37
0.18
0.34
0.26
675
862
768
6.59
2.18
4.39
G0
58.84
64.50
61.67
5.80
7.26
6.54
3.72
2.74
3.23
0.23
0.20
0.22
631
697
664
7.84
2.67
5.26
G1
68.34
75.50
71.92
6.24
8.00
7.12
3.02
1.44
2.23
0.26
0.40
0.33
670
833
751
6.00
2.17
4.09
G2
65.67
76.00
70.84
5.90
7.26
6.66
3.29
2.14
2.71
0.17
0.15
0.16
613
825
719
6.84
1.84
4.34
G3
64.84
77.34
71.09
5.93
7.26
6.59
2.27
2.19
2.73
0.17
0.18
0.18
674
813
744
7.01
3.34
5.18
Mean
64.42
75.34
68.88
5.97
7.49
6.73
3.32
2.13
2.73
0.20
0.32
0.26
647
793
720
6.93
2.26
4.76
M0
M1
SEm.+
CD at
5%
SEm.+
N
1.477
4.430
0.015
M
0.718
2.081
G
1.015
2.943
MxG
1.436
NxM
1.015
NxG
NxMxG
CD at
5%
SEm.+
CD at
5%
SEm.+
CD at
5%
SEm.+
CD at
5%
SEm.+
CD at
5%
0.092
0.010
0.062
0.011
0.008
7.622
46.381
0.100
0.062
0.079
NS
0.027
0.079
0.002
0.005
10.618
30.755
0.365
NS
0.112
0.326
0.038
0.112
0.004
0.008
15.016
43.493
0.516
NS
NS
0.159
0.461
0.854
0.159
0.004
0.012
21.236
NS
0.750
NS
NS
0.112
0.762
0.038
0.268
0.002
0.194
15.016
113.176
0.516
NS
1.436
NS
0.159
NS
0.854
0.379
0.004
0.028
21.236
160.056
0.300
NS
2.031
NS
0.225
NS
0.077
0.536
0.005
0.039
30.033
NS
1.033
NS
N0 - Seed production without net
M1- Black Polythene mulching
G2 - Application of NAA@ 80ppm
N1 - Seed production with net
G0 - Control
G3 - Application of NAA@ 100ppm
M0 -Without mulching
G1 - Application of NAA@ 60ppm
NS- Non Significant
REFERENCES
Meena, S.S. and Dhaka, R.S., 2003, Effect of plant growth
regulator on growth and yield of brinjal under semi arid
condition of Rajasthan. Ann. Agric. Res. New Series, 24 (3):
516-521.
Balakumar, T. And Balasubramanian, N.A., 1988,
Effects of hormonal treatments on biomass production in
tomato. Tropical Agriculture, 65: 373-375.
Jeevansab, 2000, Effect of nutrient sources on growth, yield
and quality of capsicum (Cv. California Wonder) grown
under different environment. M.Sc. (Hort.) Thesis,
University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore.
Natesh, N., Vyakarnahal, B.S., Shekar gouda, M. and
Deshpande, N.K., (2005), Influence of growth regulator on
growth seed yield and quality of chilli Cv. Byadagi kaddi.
Karnataka Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 18 (1): 36-38.
Jiang, J., Wang, Z. and Wang, D., 1985, Studies on fruit
growth and the accumulation of nutrients in sweet pepper.
Acta Agricultural Universities Pekinesis, 11: 333-337.
Sanjay kumar, Poonam singh, R.P., Katiyar, C.P., Vaish
and Khan, A.A 1996, Beneficial effect of some plant
92
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
growth regulator on seeds of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus
L.) under field conditions. Seed Research, 24 (1): 11-14.
annuus L.) Genotypes in Relation to Growth Regulator
application. Seed Research, 28 (1): 1-4.
Singh and Gulshanlal, 1995, Effect of plant growth
regulator on the fruit set, yield and quality of chilli
(Capsicum annuum L.) cultivars. Advances in Horticulture
and Forestry, 4: 133-141.
Wann, S.S., 1969, Effect of cover crops and mulching on
infiltration rates on sloping land. J. Agric. Assoc. China, 67:
50-57.
Yogananda, D.K., 2002 Effect of macro and micro
nutrients and growth regulators on plant growth, seed yield
and quality of Bell pepper Cv. California Wonder. M.Sc.
(Agri) Thesis, University of Agricultural Sciences,
Bangalore.
Takatori, F.F., Lipperi, L.F. and Lyons, J.M., 1971,
Petroleum mulch studies for low crops in California. Calif.
Agric. Exp. Sta. Bull, No. 849.
Vasudevan, S.N., Virupakshappa, K., Bhaskar, S. and
Seetharam, A., 2000, Seed quality of sunflower (Helinahus
93
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
ICT penetration of rural dairy farm entrepreuners in Banaskantha district
1
R.S.GHASURA, 1V.K.MEVADA, 2A.S.SHEIKH, 2B.K.ASWAR, 1G.M.CHAUDHRY
1
M.V.Sc scholar, 2Assoct.Prof,
Dept of Vet.Sci & Animal Husbandry Extension.
College of Veterinary Science & A.H-S.K.Nagar.
Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada Agriculture University.-Gujarat State(INDIA)
E-mail: rghasura07@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
This paper focuses on the status of ICT usage among Livestock/Dairy-based entrepreneurs in Banaskantha District
(Gujarat) . The objectives of the study: (1) to know the purpose of using ICT among Dairy Husbandry-based
entrepreneurs; (2) to know the level of ICT usage among Dairy-based entrepreneurs; (3)to determine the contribution
of ICT toward Dairy farms-based entrepreneur's productivity; (4) to identify the obstacles for usage of ICT and (5) to
identify the ICT networks and support services among Dairy-based entrepreneurs. A total of 200 respondents were
involved in the study representing four fields of dairy-based industry namely Vaccination, animal rearing, animal
disease history, and Artificial Insemination, Milk collection, Respondents were chosen based on the list of Dairy basedbased entrepreneurs provided by Village co-operatives, Private dairy farmers, Farmers Organization. A survey using a
questionnaire developed for the study was used to collect data. From the study it was found that the most used ICT
tools are phone, mobile phone, television and internet, PCs. The most used internet application is surfing websites in
which 32.2% said that they have surfed websites. A total of 37.6% of the respondents knew that the Agriculture and
Animal Husbandry website existed and 30% of the respondents have visited the website, this makes this website as the
most visited website. A total of 39.6% of the respondents agreed that ICT has contributed towards their productivity
especially for the purpose of getting the information about ICT, getting the information about agriculture land and
searching for advices on animal husbandry practices. Among the obstacles faced by dairy-based entrepreneurs to use
ICT are that they do not know the benefits of using ICT, they do not have skills in using ICT and lack of time to use the
ICT. ICT penetration law in rural area, obstacle of Broadband connectivity in rural area, The respondents mentioned
that they sought assistance from development agencies for website development and private companies to repair their
ICT tools.
Key words:- Information Communication Technology, Dairy Farm Entrepreneurs,
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) to
improve rural livelihoods is one of the key areas, which has
potential to change the economy of livestock, agriculture,
and rural artisans in India .There is increase recognition that
information and knowledge are now at the very core of
socio-economic development for the rapid evolution and
diffusion of ICT is bringing about an increasingly
networked, knowledge-based global economy.(ISC,2003)
Livestock and rural outreach services can derive the
advantage of
ICT to provide effective delivery of
information related to animal health care and production to
the end users. The information access which is increasing at
the rate of 50 per cent per annum and improved
communication are certain to have significant effects, most
of them positive on the livestock outreach services along
with other rural services(Jabirali,2011). Over the last three
decades, livestock sector has grown at an annual rate of 7
percent, which is more than double the growth of the
agricultural sector. Empirical evidences indicate that
livestock is an important component of the agriculture
system, providing an additional source of income and
nutritional cover to a large section of the rural population,
particularly the disadvantaged and poor households (Rao et
al 2003; Birthal and Ali 2005; Ravikumar and Chander
2006, Singh et al 2007). The distribution of livestock, as a
liquid asset to poor families, is more egalitarian as compared
to land (Taneja and Birthal 2004; Ali 2007). However, the
recent trend in livestock sector growth suggests that in order
to meet the emerging demand for livestock based products,
both in domestic and global markets, there is a need to
reorient the production system by enhancing the efficiency
and creating quality consciousness
Gujarat is land of entrepreneurs in our country. Gujarat is a
leading state in milk production and marketing in India and
Proverbially known as “Milk bowl of India”. Gujarat is
known for dairy development. Almost all the districts of the
state are having projects for milk production and dairy
products. This development has been in the cooperative
sector. Among Gujarat district Banaskantha comes 1 st rank
in milk production with 962660 tones (Bulletin of Animal
Husbandry and Dairying Statistics, Gujarat, 2009-2010).
The specific objectives for this paper are to:(1) To know the purpose of using ICT among Dairy
Husbandry-based entrepreneurs.
(2) To know the level of ICT usage among Dairy-based
entrepreneurs.
(3) To determine the contribution of ICT toward Dairy
farms-based entrepreneur's productivity.
(4) To identify the obstacles for usage of ICT .
(5) To identify the ICT networks and support services
among Dairy-based entrepreneurs.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A study was conducted during “Krushimahtsov2011”(Agricultural Fair) organized by Gujarat Government
(Dept Of Agriculture, Dept of Animal Husbandry) month of
April to May in Banaskantha district. Data were collected
through personal interview method using ICT based
94
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
questionnaire. A data collected two hundred respondents as
a dairy husbandry based entrepreneurs’ in Banaskantha
district. The questionnaire includes the parameters of factors
associated with (1) access to computer in dairy farm
activities.(2) Most used ICT tools are landline phone, mobile
phone, television and internet .(3) Know about internet
application as website agriculture and animal husbandry.(4)
How ICT tools useful in personal and professional life in
dairy farm entrepreneurs. The data was analyzed by
Microsoft exel.
higher secondary school education (20 per cent) ,graduation
and post graduation ( 8 per cent).In comparison to Patel
(2000) indicated that majority of the beneficiaries (74.19 %)
had primary to secondary level of education .As per type of
land in Banaskantha District were categorized irrigated, nonirrigated, irrigated plus non irrigated and no land in dairy
farmers .The result were found irrigated land(28.5 per
cent),non-irrigated land(55 per cent),irrigated plus nonirrigated land(8.5 per cent),no land (8 per cent).The majority
of land was non-irrigated (55 per cent).The herd size of
dairy farm in five categorized 1-5 animals(45 per cent),6-10
animals(15 per cent),11-15 animals(7.5 per cent), 16-20
animals(14 per cent) and more than 20 animals (18.5 per
cent).The majority of herd size were to 1-5 animals in dairy
farms. In comparison to indicated Gour (2002) revealed that
two fifth (40.76 %) of the dairy farmers had low level herd
size followed by 32.50 with high and 26.74 with medium
herd size. In mostly dairy farmer entrepreneurs earn money
through selling milk from dairy co-operative and private co
in Banaskantha District. The majority of dairy farmers ware
earned money through milk less than five thousand rupees
(41.5 per cent) and six thousand rupees-ten thousand rupees
(26.5 per cent).The averagely income all of respondents
were earned money per month twenty eight thousand rupees.
Shinde et. al. (1998) found that nearly two-third of dairy
farmers (65.83%) had low income i.e. up to Rs. 5,000,
followed by high income i.e. Rs.10,000 to 15,000 (20 %)
and medium income group i.e. Rs.5001 to 10,000 (14.17 %).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Social- economic status of the dairy entrepreneurs:The Social-economic status of the dairy farm entrepreneurs
has been presented in the Table 1.The farmers were divided
into the three age groups viz. young age group (18- 32
years),Adult/Middle age group(33-54 years),Older age
groups(above 55 years).The majority (57.5 per cent ) of the
farmers were belonged to middle age group followed by
older age group(22.5 per cent).Similar trend was recorded
by Gour (2002) reported that majority of the dairy farmers
(76.74 %) belonged to middle age group. In comparison to
status dairy farming business was popular in middle age
group peoples. Based on the education status, the farmer
ware categorized into five categories such as primary high
school education, secondary high school education, higher
secondary education and graduate and post graduate. The
finding indicated that about primary education(36.5 per
cent),Secondary high school education(32.5 per cent) and
Table -1. Socio-economic status of dairy entrepreneurs in Banaskantha District
Parameters
Age
Education
Type of Land (Viga)
Herd Size
Monthly income from
selling of Milk (Rs.)
Categories
Frequency
Younger age group (18 - 32)
Middle age group (33 - 54)
Older age group (above 55)
Primary Education
Secondary Education
Higher Secondary Education
Graduation & Above.
Irrigated land
Non irrigated land
Irrigated + Non-irrigated land
No land
1 - 5 animals
6 - 10 animals
11 - 15 animals
16 - 20 animals
More than 20 animals
Less than 5,000
6,000 - 10,000
11,000 – 15,000
16,000 – 20,000
21,000 – 25,000
26,000 – 30,000
More than 30,000
40
115
45
73
71
40
16
57
110
17
16
90
30
15
28
37
83
53
23
11
13
4
15
Percentage
(%)
20
57.5
22.5
36.5
32.5
20
8
28.5
55
8.5
8
45
15
7.5
14
18.5
41.5
26.5
10.5
5.5
6.5
2
7.5
Mean
S.D.
66.66
41.93
----
------
50
44.32
40
29.06
28.57
28.74
(N=200respondents)
increased from about 30 percent of the world total in 2000 to
more than 50 percent in 2004 and to almost 70 percent in
2007 (Cieslikowsk, Halewood, Kimura, & Zhen-Wei Qiang,
ICT tools use in dairy farm entrepreneurs.
The largest increases in the use of ICT has been in mobile
telephony where subscriptions in developing countries
95
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
2009). This high use of ICT is likely to stimulate economic
development in developing countries, including the
agricultural sector and livestock sector where a high
proportion of the Gujarat state population derives their
livelihoods. In Banaskantha district’s villages are first to
making website in Gujarat state ,(e-gram” VSAT” model2011).The Gujarat State Wide Area Network (GSWAN),
the largest IP based e-Governance infrastructure network in
Asia Pacific connects 25 districts and 225 talukas through
12,000 nodes in Gujarat. GSWAN is capable of voice, video
and data transfer. The study show that internet based surfing
website such as (agriculture commodity exchange ,GSWN,
movie song download, stock market, etc.) in 32.5% dairy
farmers use website in village Panchyat or city based cyber
café. The second majority of dairy farmers 37.7% ware
know about agriculture commodity site because the
understand demand and supply of agricultural products in
our country and some dairy farmers they have good
knowledge about stock market and interested in treading as
well as investment in stock market that reason they would
visited in website. The younger age group of dairy farmers
(18-32)
they
were
most
visited
website
(Google,Yahoo,Ojas,Orkut,).because
they
are
good
knowledge in internet and easy access computer. The middle
age group dairy farmers were highest majority in this survey
(57.5%) .They were good interested in agri -commodity
exchange and dairy co-operative websites.ICT adopted in
their business are large scale, more profitable, dairy and
tillage farms as was also found to be case in 2004(Leveque
et.al.,2007).
Table-2 .ICT tools use in dairy farm entrepreneurs.
ICT application and penetration level.
Internet application (Surfing Website)
Know agriculture and A&H website.
Most visited website.
Percentage(%).
32.5
37.6
30
Frequency
65
75
60
Mean
S.D
66.66667
7.637626
(N=200 respondents)
individual. In the Irish country dairy farmers to the adoption
level of ICT dairy enterprises were also more likely to use
the computer for farm account. Tillage and sheep farmers
were more likely to use the computer for VAT records, and
tillage farmers were also more likely than other farmer types
to use the internet with 20% of tillage farmer doing so
(D.Murphy,2008).The( 25.5%) respondents they were
negative feedback in ICT tools used in dairy farms because
they were not basic education level, poor economical
conditional and they follow traditional method way. Most of
that type dairy farmers were old age group members. The
second highest majority of respondent (35 %) they had no
basic idea about ICT application. There was neutral
response. Neither positive use of ICT application nor
negative use of ICT application.
Feedback from Dairy Entrepreneurs in ICT tools.
The cost and availability of telecommunications determine
the extent to which new ICT facilities are used, and these
access costs are often higher in poorer countries (Wolf,
2001). Gollakota (2008) adds another important point in
that information alone is not sufficient but structural and
financial solutions are required as well. The feedback from
dairy entrepreneurs in ICT tools(Mobile, Personal
Computer, Television Internet, Radio).Mostly educated and
middle as well as young age group the positive feedback
(39.6 %) in ICT tools because ICT is useful in easy
veterinary services available in door-step level as a mobile
phone. The large dairy farm they used computerized herd
register also too main tend animal breeding program
Table-3 . Feedback from Dairy Entrepreneurs in ICT tools.
Feedback from Dairy Entrepreneurs in ICT tools
ICT tools are useful
ICT tools are not useful
ICT tools they have no idea.
Frequency
79
51
70
Percentage (%)
39.6
25.5
35
(N=200 respondents)
ignorance about benefit of using ICT, lack of skill and time
to use of ICT. The law penetration of ICT tools and non
availability of broadband connectivity, ICT Infrastructure in
rural areas The few farmers who used ICT to access
markets were mainly those who selling milk in private and
co-operative dairy sector there ware got good income in
dairy farms and another is education and interest of ICT
tools to easy adopted. The results also show that people who
used ICT to access market information sold a lot more and
received relatively better prices, which has a positive impact
on their business.
Conclusion
Agricultural extension services in most of the developing
countries including India, are usually designed around crop
husbandry, while public sector initiatives towards animal
husbandry are often dominated by animal breeding and
health services (Morton and Matthewman 1996). However,
the changes in Indian livestock production have necessitated
the provisions of delivering seamless information on various
aspects of animal husbandry including processing and
market linkage for animal based products. The major
obstacle farmers have no idea about how to useful and
96
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
Graph-2 . Feedback from Dairy Entrepreneurs in ICT tools.
extension and e-governance, Internet Cafes and even
with retail shops, the use of smart cards that store the
farmers and animal owners information can be
introduced. These smart cards may be the same as issued
for e-governance or separate for agriculture and/or
livestock. The smart cards may even include a
photograph or a digital signature of the animal (e.g.
muzzle print) since animal identification is a major issue
in India.
 From the smart cards and use of PDAs(Personal Digital
Assistants), extension agents and service providers, such
as for artificial insemination or veterinary care, can
collect data and forward them electronically either
through off-line means or on-line to data collection
systems which then store them in specific databases and
enable access through the Internet or Wide Area
networks. Users such as market intermediaries, program
managers, policy makers and researchers can therefore
access real-time data online at their desktops for decision
making.
Recommendations
 Tele-density in rural areas continues to be low, increase
in tele-density as an important component of
infrastructure development should be taken up.
 ICTs cannot succeed on a stand-alone basis and need to
be supplemented by other programmes. e.g. Academic
and research data in agriculture marketing needs to be
digitalized and it is also necessary to make available the
digitalized literature in local languages. Support is also
needed to facilitate Cross-flow of information. To be
make in local language base programmes and software.
 The challenges to extension practitioners are firstly better
understand the farmer ICT interface and the impediments
to ICT adoption, and secondly to design extension
programmers that build appropriate ICT skills, and
deliver content that appropriate to farmers needs and
their state of knowledge .
 In India, the use of personal computers by individual
smallholders may not be possible in the near future.
However, with lowering of costs and introduction of
multi-purpose information kiosks at community and
village level such as for health, education, agricultural
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98
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
Bio-efficacy of Some Commercially Available Neem Formulations on Diamondback Moth,
Plutella xylostella (L.) on Cabbage
1
RAM KISHORE MEENA, 2JEEVA RAM AND 3O.P. LAL
Division of Entomology Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi-110 012
2
SMS Plant Protection, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Sriganganagar and
1
SMS Plant Protection, Krishi Vigyan Kendra (SK RAU), Dholpur (Rajasthan), India
Email: ramkishorento@yahoo.co.in
3
ABSTRACT
Two field experiments were conducted during the rabi seasons of 1998-99 and 1999-2000 at the Experimental Farm of
Division of Entomology, IARI, New Delhi to study the effect of commercially available neem formulations, neemazal,
neemgold and nimbecidine having 50000, 1500 and 300 ppm azadirachtin, respectively, against the diamondback moth,
Plutella xylostalla on cabhage. The bioefficacy in a descending order was: neemazal > nimbacidine > neemgold. During
1998-99, the maximum population reduction over control was found after 7 days of application viz., 74.52, 70.17 and
55.68 per cent due to neemazal, nimbecidine and neemgold, respectively. A similar trend was found in 1999-2000. Thus,
neemgold, respectively. A similar trend was found in 1999-2000. Thus, neemazal was most effective against the
diamondback moth, P.xylostella.
Key words: Neem, insecticide, instar.
Neem has been reported to have insecticidal properties like
repellency, feeding and oviposition deterrence, fecundity
reducing, insect growth inhibitor, low mammalian toxicity
and very less persistence in the environment (Pradhan et.al.,
1962; Saxena, 1989; Schmutterer, 1990 and Lal 1996).
Neem formulations are less effective as compared to
synthetic insecticides but it is moderately effective for the
control of diamondback moth. The present investigations
conducted to evaluate the efficacy of different commercially
available neem formulations against diamondback moth,
Plutella xylostella on cabbage. The neem formulations used
in the present investigation are neemazal (50,000 ppm),
nimbecidine (300 ppm) and neemgold (1500 ppm).
the experiment comprised the following: Neemazal (50,000
ppm), Nimbecidine (300 ppm) and Neemgold (1500 ppm)
@ 1, 5 and 3 ml/litre of water and untreated control. The
cabbage var. Golden Acre was selected for the field trial.
The plants were selected in each plot at random and tagged.
The population counts recorded on one day before spraying
was considered as pre-treatments counts for first spraying
and the pest-treatment counts were recorded after one,
seven and fourteen days of each spray. Fourteenth day
population counts formed the pre-treatment counts for the
second spray. From these data the mean larval population
per ten plants was estimated and after transformation, it was
subjected to statistical analysis. The yield data at the time of
harvesting was also recorded and analysed.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The experiments were carried out at Division of
Entomology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New
Delhi during rabi seasons of 1998-99 and 1999-2000. The
trail was laid out in 12.5 m2 plots as a randomized block
design with four treatments replicated three times. Two
sprays were given at 15 days interval commencing from the
appearance of insect pests. The four treatments selected for
Neemazal reduced the larval population of P.xylostella by
36.95 and 34.97 per cent after one day of first spraying
during 1998-99 and 1999-2000 respectively. After seven
days of first spraying the efficacy of neemazal went up to
74.52 and 67.78 per cent during 1998-99 and 1999-2000,
respectively (Table 1 and 2).
Table 1. Effect of neem formulations on larval population of P.xylostella on cabbage (mean larval population per ten plant)
during rabi season, 1998-99.
Treatment
Pretreatment
population
1st spraying
1 DAS
Neemazal
22.3
14.1
Nimbecidine
26.3
19.6
Neemgold
27.0
21.6
Control
23.0
24.3
S.Em.±
C.D. at 5%
PROC
36.95
(36.81)
28.99
(32.11)
22.84
(27.78)
0.00
(0.00)
3.50
11.03
7 DAYS
56.3
8.3
152.1
25.5
PROC
74.52
(59.72)
70.17
(57.14)
58.68
(50.05)
0.00
(0.00)
1.67
5.26
IInd spraying
14 DAS
14.2
18.6
24.6
30.8
PROC
48.94
(44.27)
46.63
(31.30)
30.44
(32.72)
0.00
(0.00)
5.62
17.71
1 DAS
7.8
8.6
17.6
34.5
PROC
54.69
(47.72)
54.45
(47.52)
35.81
(36.33)
0.00
(0.00)
5.24
16.52
7 DAYS
5.2
7.1
14.5
42.5
PROC
74.00
(59.37)
71.86
(51.29)
56.08
(38.51)
0.00
(0.00)
3.70
11.66
14 DAS
15.3
21.1
31.0
61.3
PROC
47.46
(60.19)
39.94
(38.17)
37.03
(38.08)
0.00
(0.00)
7.70
24.26
D AS : D a y s a f t e r s p r a yi n g ; P R O C : P e r c e n t r e d u c t i o n o v e r c o n t r o l ; V a l u e s i n p a r e n t h e s e s a r e a r c s i n e t r a n s f o r m e d v a l u e s .
99
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
Table 2. Effect of neem formulations on larval population of P.xylostella on cabbage (mean larval population per ten plant)
during rabi season, 1999-2000.
Treatment
Pretreatment
population
1st spraying
1 DAS
Neemazal
24.3
16.5
Nimbecidine
28.5
22.5
Neemgold
29.1
25.6
Control
25.3
26.5
S.Em.±
C.D. at 5%
PROC
34.97
(36.15)
24.24
(29.26)
16.27
(23.74)
0.00
(0.00)
2.18
6.86
7 DAYS
8.3
10.1
14.6
27.5
PROC
67.78
(55.49)
65.55
(54.26)
52.50
(44.48)
0.00
(0.00)
IInd spraying
14 DAS
13.8
20.5
25.6
35.1
1.86
5.87
PROC
58.83
(50.09)
48.52
(44.14)
36.46
(37.08)
0.00
(0.00)
1.40
4.41
1 DAS
6.4
10.5
15.8
36.6
PROC
56.01
(48.54)
50.66
(43.69)
40.04
(29.17)
0.00
(0.00)
2.26
7.12
7 DAYS
5.5
8.3
13.6
43.8
PROC
67.91
(55.55)
66.62
(54.80)
64.56
(54.17)
0.00
(0.00)
3.66
11.54
14 DAS
10.3
23.3
31.5
63.6
PROC
57.48
(49.40)
36.36
(37.08)
31.07
(33.00)
0.00
(0.00)
2.91
9.17
DAS: Days after spraying; PROC: Per cent reduction over control; Values in parentheses are arc sine transformed values.
Effectiveness of nimbecidine against P.xylostella after one
day of spraying was 28.99 and 24.24 per cent during 199899 and 1999-2000, respectively. Neemgold was least
effective treatment against P.xylostella and reduced the
larval population by 22.84 and 16.27 per cent during 199899 and 1999-2000, respectively. Kadam (1976) reported that
neem oil (0.25 per cent) treatment on P.xylostella resulted in
30.14 and 77.25 per cent mortality after 24 and 72 hrs,
respectively. Fagoonee (1986) reported that neem seed
kernel extract to be as effective as deltamethrin against
P.xylostella and Hellula undalis. Kirsch (1987) found that
neem kernel aqueous extract and enriched formulation
extract more effective for the control of P.xylostella than
the microbial pesticides. Kirsch and Schmutterer (1988) also
reported the same findings. Sumanlatha (990) recorded
72.25 per cent reduction of P.xylostella due to neemguard at
0.1 per cent after 10 days of application.
Chandramohan and Nanjan (990) reported that neem oil (0.4
per cent) reduced P.xylostella on cabbage (1.06
larvae/plant). Karelina et al., (1992) found that neemazal
caused 86-100 per cent mortality of early instar larvae of
Pieris rapae. Klemn and Schmutterer (1993) studied that
larvae of P.xylostella was significantly reduced by
application of neem seed extract in cabbage field. Raju et al.
(1994) found that neem oil extract at 2 ml/1 gave 45 per cent
mortality of second instar larvae of P.xylostella after 12 hrs
of treatment. Manger et al. (1996) found that neemazal T.S.
(1.5-3.0 litres/ha) had effect on P.xylostella. Moorthy (1998)
found that three application of neem seed kernel extract
were adequate to reduce population of P.xylostella on
cabbage.
RE F ER E NC E S
Chandramohan, N. and Nanjan, K. 1990. Effect of neem oil against
diamondback moth in cabbage. Neem Newsletter, 7(4): 35-36.
Manger, W., Koeckhoven, J. and Keeberg, H. 1996. Control of insects
in Brussels sproots with neemazal T/S. In : C.P.W. Zebitz (ed.) Practice
oriented results on use and production of neem ingradients and pheromones.
Proceeding 5th workshop wetzlar, Germany, 22-25 January, 1996.
Fagonee, I. 1986. Use of neem in vegetable crop production in Mauritius.
Proceedings of 3rd International neem conference, Nairobi, Kenya. pp.
419.429.
Moorthy, P.N.K., Kumar, N.K.K., Selvaraj, C. and Daniel, J.S. 1998.
Neem seed kernel extract applications for diamondback moth management:
transfer of technology for mechanized farming. Pest Mgt. Horti. Ecos. 4(2):
128-130.
K ad a m. 1976.Entomological experiments on neem oil. Department of
Entomology, MPKV, Rahuri, pp. 57-59.
Karelina, T.N., Khiberg, G., Skaya, N.A.P. and Kovaleu, B.G . 1992.
Effectiveness of preparations based on azadirachtin against some pests of
the order Lepidopters. Agrokhimiya 6: 104-111.
Pradhan, S., Jotwani, M.G. and Rai, B.K. 1962. The neem seed deterrent
to locusts. Indian Fmg. 12: 7-11
Raju, S.V.S., Choudhary, M.K. and Singh, H.N. 1994. Bioefficacy of
some commonly used insecticides against Plutella xylostella (L). Indian J.
Ent. 56(3): 246-250.
Kirsch, K. 1987. Studies of the efficacy of neem extracts in controlling
major insect pests in tobacco and cabbage. In: Schmutterer, R. and Ascher,
K.R.S. )eds.). Natural pesticides from neem tree (Azadirachta indica A.
Juss) and other tropical plants. Proceedings of the 3rd International Neem
Conference, Nairobi, Kenya, 10-15 July, 1986, pp. 495-515.
Saxena, R.C. 1989. Insecticides from neem. In: H. Schmutterer (ed.). The
neem tree, Azadirachta indica A. Juss., and other meliaceous plants: source
of unique natural products for integrated pest management, medicine,
industry and other purposes. VCH Weinheim.
Krisch, K. and Schmutterer, H. 1988. Low efficacy of a Bacillus
thuringiensis in controlling diamondback moth in Phillippines. J. Appl. Ent.
105(3): 249-255.
Schmutterer, H. 1990. Properties and potential of natural pesticides from
the neem tree. Azadirachta indica. Ann. Rev. Entomol. 35: 271-297.
Klemm,, U. and Schmuttere, H. 1993. Effects of neem preparations on
Plutella xylostella L. and its natural enemies of the genus Trichogramma.
Zeitschrift-fur-pflanzen-Krankheiten-und-Pflanzenschuts. 100(2): 113-128.
Sumalatha, V. 1990. Effect of diflubenzuron on the developmental stages
of cabbage borer (Hellula undalis Fab.) and chemical control of pest
complex of cabbage. M.Sc. (Ag.) Thesis. Andhra Pradesh Agricultural
University, Hyderabad.
Lal, O.P. 1996. Integrated pest management for sustained crop production.
In : N.K. Roy(ed.) Agro-Chemicals and sustainable agriculture, APC
Publications Pvt. Ltd. Pp. 29-44.
100
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
Bt. Cotton in Rajasthan: problem and prospects
1
C.J KAPOOR 2JEEVA RAM VERMA AND 2D S BHATI
1
Senior Cotton Breeder, Agricultural Research Station,
2
Assistant Professor, Plant Pathology Krishi Vigyan Kendra,
(S.K Rajasthan Agricultural University) Sri Ganganagar, 335 001, (Rajasthan ) India.
Email: kapoor cj@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACTS
Bt cotton is a transgenic plant that produces an insect controlling protein cry1A(C), the gene for which has been
derived from the naturally occurring bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis sub sp. kurstaki (B.t.k). The cotton hybrids
containing Bt gene produces its own toxin for bollworms and thus significantly reduces the insecticide use and
providing a major benefit to cotton growers and the environment. More than hundred Bt Cotton hybrids have been
recommended by GEAC for cultivation in North India. However, on the basis of performance in research trials
conducted in Rajasthan, out of these seven Bt hybrids namely RCH-134 Bt, RCH-314Bt,MRCH-6025Bt,MRCH6301Bt,NCEH-6 Bt and JK-1947 Bt, MRCH-7017 Bt has been recommended by zonal advisory Research committee
S.K.RAU Agricultural Research Station Sriganganagar on adhoc basis , As a consequence of rapid adoption of Bt
Cotton and improved crop production and protection technologies, the area under Bt Cotton in the state has increased
up to 80% which increased the productivity of Cotton in the state .However due to high incidence of leaf curl virus
disease in Bt Cotton hybrids the crop had a setback also. However the Bt Cotton reduces the need of Chemical sprays,
Labour, environment, pollution and resulted in high yields.
Key words: Cotton, transgenic, bollworm, hybrid.
Cry 1 Ac (events Mon 531-Bollgard-1) gene, Bollgard –II
which carry two gene (Cry 1Ac +Cry 2 Ab Mon 15985
events). Cry 1 Ac (events -1) developed by IIT Kharagpur.
Six hybrids have fusion gene of China (Cry 1 Ab + Cry 1 Ac
event GFM). In addition, the following genes have also been
approved for transgenic research but so far have not been
commercialized. Cry 1 Ac of Cal gene ,vip 3 A of Syngenta,
Cry 1 Ac and Cry 1 F of Dow Agro Sciences, Cry 1 Ac of
NRCPB and UAS Dharwad, and Cry 1 c and CPTi of
Mahyco and Nath Seeds.
The information on the environment safety (pollen escape
out crossing, aggressiveness, weediness, effect on non target
organism, presence of toxic protein in the soil and its effect
on soil micro flora, etc.); food safety (allergenicity,
toxicological studies, presence of toxic protein in cotton
seed oil, and feeding studies on cow, buffaloes, poultry and
fishes risk management ) (development of resistant in boll
worm against Bt toxin) and other safeguard such as absence
of terminator technology has to be provided before the
release of any Bt cotton hybrid.
Bt cotton has reduce environment pollution due to
significant reduction in pesticides use .Indian farmers
growing Bt cotton used less insecticides and gained
significant yield increased (Gandhi and Nanboodri 2006 and
Quaim, 2003).The average increase in yield on farmers
fields for Bt cotton over non-Bt cotton was about 45 per cent
in 2002 and 63 per cent in 2003.Coincidental with the steep
increase adoption of Bt cotton between 2002-2006,the
average yield of cotton in India increased from 308 kg per
hectare in 2001-02 to 503 kg per hectare in 2006-07 with
the most of the increased in yield of up 50 per cent or more
attributed to Bt cotton.
Area and Production of cotton in India, 2002-2009.
India, the largest democracy in the world, is highly
dependent on agriculture. The performance of the
agriculture sector continues to influence the growth of the
Introduction of Bt cotton in India
The sequence of events that led to development and release
of the Bt cotton hybrid in India is given below.
 After getting permission from DBT in 1996, Mahyco
imported the first Bt cotton variety (US Cocker _--312)
from Monsanto ,USA and back cross with “elite” Indian
varieties to produce locally adapted cotton varieties
with Cry 1 Ac gene (MON 513) .Four to five back
crosses ere required to recover the parental lines.
 A number of risk assessment studies under green house
and field were conducted from 1996-98 by Mahyco on
these Bt cotton converted line
 In 1998-99 , multi location trial were conducted at 40
location in 9 State to assess the Agronomic performance
of these Bt cotton hybrids and bio safety aspect.
 Field trial were repeated again in 1999-2000 at 10
location in 6 States
 Genetic engineering approval committee gave approval
to July 2000. For conducting field trials on Bt cotton in
about 85 ha and also to under take seed production on
150 ha. Consequently large scale field trial were
conducted in 2001 in 10 ha area .In addition field trial
were also conducted under AICCIP of ICAR.
 In 2002 GEAC approved 3 Bt cotton hybrid namely
MECH 12, MECH 162 and MECH 184 for
commercially cultivation in South zone
 Another Bt cotton hybrid RCH 2 , developed by Rasi
seeds was approved by GEAC in 2004 for Central zone
 In 2005 GEAC gave approval to 14 new Bt hybrid: 8
for central and South India and 6 for North India.
 In 2006, another 22 B t cotton hybrid, 8 for North zone
and 14 for central and south zone were approved by
GEAC.
 In 2007 GEAC approved another 73 Bt cotton hybrid.
Until today 1037 cotton hybrid have been identified by
GEAC for commercially cultivation in India. Hybrids have
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
economy – it is a major factor in driving India’s national
economy. The latest National Samples Survey conducted in
2003, reported that 60.4% of rural of rural households were
engaged in farming indicating that there were 89.4 million
farmer household in India (National Samples Survey, India,
2003).India has a larger area of cotton than any country in
the world. Based on the latest estimate (Table-1), the
Directorate of Cotton Development, Ministry of Agriculture
reports that 6.3 m million hectares in 2008 with an average
cotton holding of decrease in cotton area globally in 2009
versus 2008.Comparing the distribution of cotton hectares
by States in India in 2008 (Table 1), Maharashtra, the largest
cotton –growing States, had 2.15 million farmers growing
cotton, which occupied approximately 34% of India’s total
cotton area; this was mostly cultivated on dry land .Gujarat
had 1.30 million farmers ,followed by 0.96 million in
Andhra Pradesh ,0.45 million in Madhya Pradesh,0.30
million in Rajasthan,0.26 in Haryana,0.20 million in each in
Punjab, Karnataka, and Tamilnadu and the balance in other
states of India.
Whereas, India’s cotton area represent 25 % of the global
area of cotton, in the past it produced only 12% of world
production because Indian cotton yield were some of the
lowest in the world, the advent of Bt cotton over the last 8
year has coincided with almost a doubling of yield from 308
kg per hectare in 2001 to 568 kg/ha in 2009, with 50 % or
more of the increase attributed directly to yield increase
from Bt cotton.
Table: 1.Area and production of cotton in India, 2008-09.
States
Punjab
Haryana
Rajasthan
Gujarat
Maharashtra
Madhya Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh
Karnataka
Tamil Nadu
Orissa
Others
Total
Area of Cotton
(million ha)
0.527
0.456
0.302
2.354
3.142
0.625
1.399
0.408
0.109
0.058
0.026
9.406
Production
(Million Bale)
1.75
1.40
0.75
9.00
6.20
1.80
5.33
0.90
0.50
0.15
1.250
29.03
Average Yield(Kg/ha)
564
522
422
650
3357
489
648
375
780
510
524
No.
of
cotton
farmers(million)
0.199
0.265
0.308
1.307
2.152
0.452
0.964
0.261
0.209
0.076
0.086
6.279
Source : Ministry of Agriculture,2007 and cotton Advisory Board,2009.
Adoption of Bt cotton hybrids in India, 2002-2009.
were 54,000 farmers which grew approximately 50,000
hectare of officially approved Bt cotton hybrids for the first
time in 2002 which doubled to approximately 100,000
hectare in 2003 (Figure 1).
Bt cotton, which confers resistance to important insect pests
of cotton, was first adopted in Indias hybrids in 2002.There
Table: 2 Adoption of Bt cotton Area in India 2002-2010.
Years
Total cotton
Bt cotton area
area in million ha
% of total cotton varieties
occupied
by Bt cotton
In M ha
In M acres
2002
8.73
0.03
0.07
0.30
2003
7.67
0.09
0.21
1.20
2004
7.63
0.55
1.37
7.30
2005
8.92
1.27
3.13
14.20
2006
9.16
3.80
9.40
41.50
2007
9.40
6.20
15.32
66.00
2008
9.27
7.60
18.78
82.00
2009
9.64
8.40
20.76
87.00
2010
10.94
10.08
24.91
90.00
Source: Manjunath,2007;James,2009* Industry source,2010. (1 hectare= 2.471 acres.).
The Bt cotton area increased again four fold in2004 to reach
half a million hectares. In 2005, the areas planted to Bt
cotton in India continued to climp reaching 1.3 million
No.
of
Farmers
million
Bt
in
0.02
0.08
0.35
1.00
2.30
3.80
5.00
5.60
6.00
hectare, an increase, an increase 160 % over 2004. In 2006,
the adoption record increase which continued with almost a
tripling of the area of Bt cotton to 3.8 million hectare.
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
This tripling in area was the highest percentage year on year
growth for any country planting biotech crop in the world in
2006.Nilliotably in 2006, India Bt cotton area (3.8 from 3.8
to 6.2 million hectares) exceeded for the first time in
China’s 3.5 million hectare. In 2007, the Indian cotton sector
continued to grow with a record increase of 63 % IN Bt
cotton areas from 3.8 to 6.2 million hectare, to become the
largest hectarage of Bt cotton in any country in the world. In
2008,the Bt cotton area increased yet again to a record 7.6
million hectare from 6.2 million hectare in
2007.Maintaining double digit growth, the Bt cotton area
increased to 8.4 million ha in 2009,over 7.6 million ha in the
previous year. Despite a very high level of adoption in 2008,
2009 was the fifth consecutive year for India to have the
largest year on year percentage growth of all biotech cotton
growing countries in the world; a 160% increased in 2005,
followed by a 192 % increased in 2006, a 63 % increased in
2007, 23 % increased in 2008 and a 11 % increased in 2009
(Fig.2).
Table.3 Adoption of Bt cotton in by major state, from 2002 to 2009 (thousand hectare)
State
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Maharastra
25
30
200
607
1840
Andhara Pradesh
8
10
75
280
830
Gujarat
10
36
122
150
470
Madhya Pradesh
2
13
80
146
310
Northen Zone*
60
215
Karnataka
3
4
18
30
85
Tamil Nadu
2
7
5
27
45
Others
5
Total
50
100
500
1300
3800
* Punjab, Haryana &Rajasthan.
Source: Complied by ISAAA, 2009.
103
2007
2800
1090
908
500
682
145
70
5
6200
2008
3130
1320
1360
620
840
240
90
5
7605
2009
3396
1049
1682
621
1243
273
109
8
8381
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
insecticides is significantly lower on Bt cotton as compared
to conventional varieties.
Problems associated with Bt cotton:
The introduction of Bt cotton is also associated with a
number of new problems. Some of these are

Multiplicity of approved Bt cotton genotypes: A
large number of Bt cotton hybrids (1037) have been
approved by GEAC for cultivation in the State of Rajasthan
, which are creating great difficulty in successful cultivation
of these by the farmers due to difference in agro
morphological traits. Moreover, only five six Bt cotton
hybrids are popular among the farmers and occupies the
major acreage.

The agronomical requirement of different Bt cotton
hybrids have not studies thoroughly which hinder the
realization of maximum yield potential of these hybrids by
the farmers.

Most of Bt hybrids released are susceptible to
sucking pests particularly jassids, and white fly which
required more number of sprayer to manage these.

As the number of insecticides sprays has been
reduced significantly, there are secondary pests out break of
the minor insects like spodoptera and mealybug. Mealybug,
a notorious is not easy to control due to its feeding habit and
physiology during 2007, due to high incidence of meaybug,
the number of sprays applied has again increased
substantially.
How ever the development of Bollgard –II has solved the
problems of Spodoptera attack.
 Most of the approved Bt cotton hybrid e to cotton are
susceptible to cotton leaf curl disease which adversely affect
the seed cotton yield.
 The appearance of Para wilt, a physiology disorder, is
more frequent on the Bt cotton hybrids than non Bt well
adaptive varieties /hybrids of cotton.
Status of Bt cotton and its Impact in Rajasthan
In 2005, when the GEAC gave
permission to cultivate five hybrids in Rajasthan, the area
under approved Bt cotton was hardly 0.48 per cent, while
the un approved (illegal) Bt cotton hybrids occupied about
70 per cent of the total area under cotton. Similarly in 2006,
area under Bt cotton hybrids was about 1.08 per cent. The
illegal Bt cotton covered more than 68 % area, In 2007, area
under Bt cotton hybrids was about 10.52 per cent, out of
which approved Bt cotton hybrids occupied about 40 per
cent, the remaining 60 per cent area was covered by illegal
Bt hybrids. As a consequence of rapid adoption of Bt cotton
and improved crop production and protection technologies,
the area under cotton in the state increased from 3.86 lac ha
in 2002 to 4.54 lac ha in 2005-,4.54 lac ha in 2006 and 3.68
lac ha in 2007. Similarly the productivity of cotton enhanced
from just 410 kg / ha in 2002 to 397/ ha in 2005 and 389 kg /
ha in 2006 and in 2008-09, 572 kg /ha. This year high
incidence of cotton leaf curl disease and mealybug, the crop
had a major set back in the State. Moreover, the
performance of most of the illegal Bt cotton hybrids was
very poor this year. As a result, the total production of
cotton in the State may reduce to 7.50 lac bales again the
last year production of 9 lac bales.
The main farm level economics impacts of
the Bt cotton are the results of chances in input uses and pest
damage. The Bt cotton reduces the need for chemical sprays,
labour and environment pollution and resulted in higher
yield. These cost saving and output gains provided high net
return at the farm level. It also helps in maintaining the
population of friendly insect – pests. A further important
consideration is the potential reduction in pesticides
poisoning and benefits to the environment. There are
numerous cases of human poisoning due to pesticides as
well as environment pollution, as pesticides often find their
way in to water courses (Ismael et al 2002). Use of
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
 Sudden sequence during boll formation has also been
observed in some of the Bt cotton hybrids which required
through study of the physiology of these hybrids.
 High seed cost of Bt cotton hybrids resulted in
significant increase in the cost of cultivation .Moreover,
highly vulnerable and extreme climatic condition of North,
i.e. high temperature, rains, and hot winds during sowing
and seedling stage in May and June result in the poor/
neglible plant sand in some of the fields which require re
sowing, hence further increase the cost of cultivation.
 The area under spurious /un descript hybrids of Bt
cotton and even F2 seed of Bt cotton hybrids is quite high
(more than 50%), which create favorable environment for
the development of insect –pest and diseases. There is need
to discourage the farmers not to grow unapproved hybrid of
Bt cotton to harvest the maximum benefits from this
technology.
 Bt cotton growers of the state are using low seed rate
because of high cost of Bt cotton and farmers are not
planting the refugia and balanced fertilizers due to lack of
technical know how.
Prospect of Bt cotton
The release of Bt cotton hybrids is one of
the most important factors for the revival of cotton
cultivation in Rajasthan and makes it is a profitable
business. Moreover the number of chemical spray has been
drastically reduced which saves the environment from
pollution. With the advancement of science and technology,
the existing problems of Bt cotton may also be taken care
off. For example, Bollgard II cotton hybrids are tolerant to
Spodoptera .Transgenic crops are one of the most
revolutionary development in agriculture production
(Hardee et al 2000). In order to preserve Bt cotton well in to
the 21st century, producers, seed companies, scientist and
regulation need to foster strong collaboration to ensure the
effectiveness and longevity of the technology. The
institution and private companies are striving hard to
develop new genes for insertion in to cotton plant DNA to
provide other possibilities for improving agronomic traits
and pest control characteristics. Gene for new insecticides
toxins with different targets site will be important for
managing a wider spectrum of insects and for slowing the
pace of resistance. Once the Bt gene developed by the public
domain is released, it will be introduced in the pure line
varieties of cotton, thus, the farmers will not be required to
purchase the seed of Bt hybrids every years. With the
development and release of new transgenic events such as
cry 1 Ac and cry 2, Ab (MON 15985 ) and cry 1 Ab+ cry
1 Ac (GFM) for the management of bollworm , the
probability of development of resistant by the bollworm
complex is negligible.
REFERENCES
Barwale BR (2002) GM cotton approved in India. The
Hindustan Times 28 march 2002
Ismael Yousouf, Bennnett Richard and Morse Stephen
(2002) Benefits from Bt cotton Use by Smallholder Farmers
in South Africa .Ag Bio Forum 5:1-5
Gandhi V and Namboori NV (2006). The adoption and
economics of Bt cotton in India: Preliminary results from a
study. IIMA Working paper No. 2006-09.04 pp1-27
James, C.2009. Global Status of Commercialized Biotech
/GM crop, 2009. ISAAA Brief No.40 ISAAA: Ithaca, NY,
Manjunath,T.M.(2007).Q & A on Bt cotton in India:
Answers to more than 70 question on all aspect .All India
Crop Bio technology Association, New Delhi,78 pp
Hardee DD, van Duyn JW, Layton MB and Bagwell RD
(2000) Bt cotton management the Tobacco BollwormBollworm Complex. U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Agriculture Research Service, ARS 154,40pp.
Qaim, Matin (2003).Bt cotton in India: Field trials results
and economics projection .World
Development
31(12):211-527.
ISAAA, (2009). The Dawn of a New Era: Bio tech Crop in
India. Excerpted from the Global Status of Commercialized
Biotech/GM crops, 2008.ISAAA Brief No. 39 ISAAA
South Asia office, New Delhi, India, 34 pp
105
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol ,2 No.2: October 2011
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