Attitude Flying
OBJECTIVE: To introduce the student to the concept of attitude flying.
ELEMENTS:
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Gyroscopic instruments.
Pitot Static instruments.
Control and performance method of aircraft control.
Primary and supporting method of aircraft control.
Scanning Techniques
SCHEDULE:
Pre-flight instruction: 60 Minutes
Travel to training area: 10 Minutes
Student Practice: 60 Minutes
Return from practice area: 10 minutes
Post-flight Review: 10 Minutes
Total Time: 2:30
EQUIPMENT: Functional aircraft, view limiting device, system diagrams for each system,
optional: mock ups or actual instruments removed from aircraft.
INSTRUCTOR’S ACTIONS:
A. Conduct classroom training.
B. Explain purpose, use and errors associated with each
type of instrument.
C. Explain scanning method(s).
D. Explain control/performance method.
E. Explain primary/supporting method.
F. Evaluate student performance.
G. Conduct post flight debriefing.
STUDENT’S ACTIONS:
A. Ask questions, review homework.
B. Perform preflight.
C. Observe demonstrations.
D. Perform IAW PTS.
COMPLETION STANDARDS:
Student performs attitude flying IAW the PTS. Must
include the following maneuvers:
a. Straight and level flight
b. Turns
c. Descents
COMMON ERRORS:
A. Improper scanning technique
B. Improper interpretation of instruments
C. Failure to take appropriate corrective action
1 of 17
Attitude Flying
Introduction: Attitude flying is the basic technique to flying using instruments. You will use
this to do all of your instrument flying. To perform basic attitude flying, you need to understand
how each of these instruments work, what the read outs tell you, how these instruments can fail
and what readings you can expect when the instruments fail. Ultimately you will be able to
perform all of the flight maneuvers both with a full instrument panel and with a partial
instrument panel.
A. Lesson Requirements:
1. Task: Fly the aircraft solely by reference to instruments.
2. Condition: Given a functional aircraft.
3. Standard: Perform all maneuvers and approaches IAW the PTS using either the
control/performance technique or the primary and supporting instruments
technique.
See PTS area IV (Flight by reference to instruments) and area VI (Instrument
Approach Procedures) for specific standards.
B. ELO 1: Identify the Pitot Static Instruments and generic errors associated with the pitot
static system.
1. There are three pitot static instruments on the aircraft. These instruments are
called pitot static because they receive input from the pitot static system and
translate that input to a reading for the pilot. Those instruments are the airspeed
indicator, the altimeter and the vertical speed indicator (VSI).
2. Where do the readings from the pitot static systems come from?
2 of 17
Attitude Flying
i. Pitot tube: measures impact air taken in through the open end at the front
of the pitot tube.
ii. Static port: takes readings from “undisturbed air” either from a pitot-static
head (Piper Arrow) or from static ports flush on the side of the airplane
(Cessna 172/182). In the case where the static port is on the aircraft, there
are two ports, one on each side of the airplane, this prevents lateral
movement of the airplane from giving erroneous static pressure
indications.
iii. Possible errors associated with pitot static system:
a. Pitot tube: High angles of attack do not allow the air to strike the
pitot tube head on. This can provide an improper airspeed reading.
b. Position error: Even though the static ports are in located where the
air is relatively undisturbed, some configurations (particularly high
angles of attack and gear and flaps extended) actually create a
disturbance around the static ports. If this is the case the POH will
provide correction information for times when the gear and flaps
are extended.
C. ELO 2: Identify the functions of the pitot static instruments and the common errors
associated with those instruments.
1. Sensitive altimeter.
i. Design
3 of 17
Attitude Flying
ii. Operational Principles
a. Air in instrument works to compress the aneroids, which are trying
to expand.
b. Kollsman window allows the barometric pressure to be adjusted to
a “reference” pressure from which the altitude is measured.
1” change equals 1,000 feet in altitude
c. Pressure altitude: when the barometric setting is set to 29.92”.
Used for all FL flying.
d. Indicated altitude: when the barometric pressure is set to the local
altimeter setting. Shows actual height above sea level. Used at all
flying below FL 180.
iii. Errors
a. Temperature (in relation to standard):
Higher temperature: Altimeter indicates lower than actual altitude
Lower temperature: Altimeter indicates higher than actual altitude.
4 of 17
Attitude Flying
b. Non-standard pressure lapse rate: A lower than standard pressure
gives the indication that the airplane is flying higher than it
actually is.
WHEN FLYING FROM HOT TO COLD OR FROM A HIGH TO A LOW,
LOOK OUT BELOW.
iv. Other altimeters:
a. Encoding: Mode C transponder. Provides altitude information to
ATC. Reading based on 29.92” Mg. Must be within 125’ of
indicated altimeter.
b. Absolute: Uses radio signals to measure height above the ground.
2. Airspeed indicator.
5 of 17
Attitude Flying
i. Design:
ii. Operational Principles
a. Differential pressure gauge that measures dynamic pressure of the
air through which the aircraft is flying.
b. Dynamic pressure us the difference in the ambient static air
pressure and the total, or ram, pressure caused by the motion of the
aircraft through the air.
c. As the ram air pressure increases or static air pressure decreases
the diaphragm expands, this gives an increase in airspeed.
iii. Types of airspeed indicators
a. Indicated airspeed: read directly from instrument
b. Calibrated airspeed: IAS corrected for position errors. (See POH
for details)
c. Equivalent airspeed: CAS corrected for compression of the air
inside the pitot tube. (Usually an issue for fast moving aircraft)
d. True airspeed: CAS corrected for non-standard pressure and
temperature.
6 of 17
Attitude Flying
iv. Errors
a. Position error – is caused by the static ports sensing erroneous
static pressure. The slipstream flow causes disturbances at the
static ports preventing actual atmospheric measurement. The error
varies with airspeed, altitude, and configuration and may be a plus
or a minus value. The error may be determined by reference to an
airspeed calibration chart or table. The chart or table may be posted
near the airspeed indicator, or included in the Airplane Flight
Manual or owner's handbook.
b. Density error – is introduced by changes in altitude and
temperature for which the instrument does not automatically
compensate. The standard airspeed instrument cannot adjust for
variations from sea level standard atmosphere conditions.
c. Compressibility error – caused by the packing of air into the pitot
tube at high airspeeds, resulting in higher than normal readings.
Below 180kts and at low altitudes this is not an issue.
3. Vertical Speed Indicator
i. Design
7 of 17
Attitude Flying
ii. Operational Principle
a. Uses a calibrated leak to allow for changes in air pressure as
altitude changes.
b. Temperature changes are already factored in.
c. Changes in air pressure cause the expansion or contraction of the
diaphragm.
d. As change stabilizes (about 6-9 seconds) a rate of climb or descent
is shown.
iii. Errors
a. Turbulence and rough handling causes improper readings.
b. Trend instrument (calibrated leak)
c. May not read zero on the ground (use current reading as zero).
D. ELO 3 Identify the gyroscopic instruments and the general principles associated with
gyroscopes.
8 of 17
Attitude Flying
1. There are three gyroscopic instruments in the airplane, the attitude indicator, the
heading indicator and the turn coordinator/turn indicator.
2. The AI and the HI are vacuum driven gyros while the turn coordinator is usually
an electrically driven gyro.
3. Principles of gyroscopes
i. Rigidity – Prevents a gyroscope that prevents its axis of rotation tilting as
the earth rotates. (Attitude and heading indicator use this)
ii. Precession – Causes an applied force to be felt not at the point of
application, but 90 degrees from that point in the direction of rotation.
(The Turn Coordinator uses this)
E. ELO 4 Identify the functions of the gyroscopic instruments and the errors associated with
each instrument.
1. Attitude indicator
i. Design
a. Double gimbal system to allow for pitch and roll.
9 of 17
Attitude Flying
b. Has marks for banks of 10/2030/60/90 degrees.
ii. Operational Principle
a. Air is sucked through the instrument to spin the gyros.
b. Gyros remain in the same “position” as the airplane rotates about
them.
iii. Errors.
a. Rapid acceleration may cause a nose up indication.
b. Lack of adequate vacuum pressure will cause erratic readings.
c. Older AI have the tendency to tumble after exceeding 60 degrees
in pitch or 100 degrees in bank. A caging mechanism corrected for
this.
2. Heading indicator
i. Design
10 of 17
Attitude Flying
ii. Operational Principle.
a. Not normally north seeking. Can be slaved to the compass.
b. Must be set to the compass.
iii. Errors
a. Precession. The HI must be checked to ensure it is on the same
setting as the compass.
3. Turn indicators
i. Design
Turn and Bank indicator – no bank information
Turn Coordinator – provides bank information
a. Usually electrically driven vacuum. Provides back up in case the
engine driven vacuum becomes inop.
ii. Operational Principle
a. Shows direction of bank and coordination of turn.
11 of 17
Attitude Flying
b. Turn coordinator also gives bank information in relation to
standard rate turn. This is usually 3 degrees per second. (360
degree turn in two minutes).
iii. Errors.
a. Extremely sensitive.
b. NO PITCH INFORMATION.
F. ELO 5 Identify the use and limitations of the magnetic compass.
1. Compass Design
i. Designed to find MAGNETIC north.
ii. Fluid lubricates and provides buoyancy.
2. Compass Errors
i. Variation
The difference between magnetic north and true north.
12 of 17
Attitude Flying
ii. Deviation
The inaccuracy of the compass due to the magnetic interference created by
the aircraft’s electromagnetic field. Deviation can be different on different
headings. Correction is provided by use of a “compass correction” card.
iii. Acceleration
a. Related to the magnetic dip. Only on E or W headings. As the
aircraft accelerates, the compass gives a momentary reading of
north, as the aircraft decelerates; the compass gives a momentary
reading of south.
13 of 17
Attitude Flying
b. Accelerate North Decelerate South (ANDS) to remember the
acceleration error.
iv. Northerly Turning
a. Another by-product of magnetic dip. Turning to a Northerly or
Southerly heading causes a momentary incorrect reading on the
compass.
b. The compass tends to rotate faster to the north and slower to the
south.
c. To counter-act this, practice ONUS, overshoot North and
Undershoot South by the number of degrees you are in latitude.
v. Oscillation Error
Erratic readings on the compass caused by turbulence or rough handling.
G. ELO 6 Describe the control and performance technique of attitude flying.
Airplane performance depends upon how you control the attitude and thrust
relationship of the airplane.
1. Control Instruments – Displays immediate attitude and power indications.
i. Attitude Indicator
ii. Manifold Pressure
iii. Tachometer
2. Performance Instruments – Indicate the airplane’s actual performance
i. Altimeter
ii. Airspeed Indicator
iii. Vertical Speed Indicator
iv. Heading Indicator
14 of 17
Attitude Flying
v. Turn Coordinator
3. Navigation Instruments – Indicate the relation of the aircraft to a selected
navigational fix.
i. DME
ii. Glide Slope
iii. Bearing Pointers
4. Procedure
i. Establish an attitude and power setting that results in the desired
performance
ii. Trim to relieve control pressures
iii. Scan (Cross check)
iv. Adjust as required to maintain desired end state
5. Aircraft Control
i. Pitch – Pitch is changed a fixed amount usually in relation to the AI (a bar
or portion thereof)
ii. Bank – Bank in precise amounts, usually a bank angle that approximates
the degrees to turn, but NOT to exceed 30 degrees.
iii. Power – Move throttle to predetermined setting.
H. ELO 7 Describe the primary and supporting instruments concept of attitude flying.
Groups the instruments as they relate to control function as well as airplane
performance.
1. Pitch instruments
i. Attitude Indicator
ii. Altimeter
iii. Airspeed Indicator
iv. Vertical Speed Indicator
2. Bank instruments
i. Attitude Indicator
ii. Heading Indicator
iii. Magnetic Compass
iv. Turn Coordinator
3. Power instruments
i. Airspeed Indicator
ii. Engine Instruments
a. Manifold Pressure Gauge
b. Tachometer
c. Engine Pressure Ratio (Jets)
15 of 17
Attitude Flying
4. Procedure
i. Straight and Level flight
a. Primary Pitch – Altimeter
b. Primary Bank – Heading Indicator
c. Primary Power – Airspeed Indicator
ii. Straight Climbs - entry
a. Primary Pitch – Attitude indicator then airspeed for constant A/S
climbs or VSI for CR climbs
b. Primary Bank – Heading Indicator
c. Primary Power – Tachometer or MP
iii. Straight Climbs - Stabilized
a. Primary Pitch – Airspeed indicator (constant A/S) or VSI for
constant rate
b. Primary Bank – Heading indicator
c. Primary Power – Tach/MP (constant A/S) or Airspeed Indicator
for constant rate
iv. Straight Descents
a. Primary Pitch – VSI
b. Primary Bank – Heading Indicator
c. Primary Power – Airspeed Indicator
v. Turns
a. Primary Pitch – Altimeter
b. Primary Bank – Attitude indicator then turn coordinator once turn
is established
c. Primary Power – Airspeed Indicator
I. ELO 8 Perform a correct instrument scan.
1. Three principles
i. Cross check
ii. Interpretation
iii. Aircraft Control
2. Cross Check
i. Selected Radial – most of the time is spend looking at the attitude
indicator with glances toward the other flight instruments, always
returning to attitude indicator after each flight instrument.
ii. Inverted “V” – View goes from attitude indicator to turn coordinator to
attitude indicator to VSI and back to attitude indicator
iii. Rectangular – Form a box moving clockwise or counter-clockwise
through the instruments
iv. Errors in cross check
16 of 17
Attitude Flying
a. Fixation
b. Omission
c. Emphasis on a single instrument instead of a group of instruments
3. Interpretation
i. Know how the instrument works
ii. Apply knowledge of instrument to performance of the particular aircraft
being flown
4. Aircraft Control
i. Make required changes to put aircraft into desired attitude.
ii. Uses, change what you need to change:
a. Pitch
b. Bank
c. Power
d. Trim
17 of 17