MenuItem 8: {Topic 8} Motivation and emotion
Section A:
True or False
1. Motivation is a set of the common responses that an individual makes to a variety
of situations.
Answer: F
page 222
2. If two individuals purchase the same style of jumper, we could be confident that
they were responding to the same motive.
Answer: F
page 223
3. Motives may have a positive or negative effect on purchase behaviour.
Answer: T
page 223
4. An advertising theme of ‘be your own kind of person’ is most likely appealing to a
need for affiliation.
Answer: F
page 226
5. Maslow's hierarchy holds that all motives are innate.
Answer: F
page 228
6. A consumer having difficulty deciding about a particular purchase because the
acquisition of the item has both positive and negative consequences is
experiencing approach-avoidance conflict.
Answer: T
page 234
7. A consumer having difficulty choosing between two attractive alternatives is
experiencing approach-avoidance conflict.
Answer: F
page 234
8. Someone who reconsiders buying an expensive item they don’t really need on
credit is experiencing motivational conflict.
Answer: T
page 234
9. Motivational research tells marketers how to ‘rev up’ the sales force to sell more.
Answer: F
page 235
10. Marketers can use emotion arousal as a product benefit.
Answer: T
page 242
Section B:
Multiple Choice
Test Bank t/a Consumer Behaviour by Karen Webb
8-1
Question 1
Motivation is:
a)
b)
c)
d)
The common responses that an individual makes to a variety of situations
The underlying pattern that isolates specific behaviours
The reason for behaviour
A state of physiological imbalance, which compels action
Answer: C
page 222
Question 2
Motivation:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Is closely linked to other internal influences of behaviour, such as personality
Has no relationship to other internal influences of behaviour, such as personality
Is predominantly an external influence
Is usually money or profit in the business market
Answer: A
page 222
Question 3
A keen soccer fan buying a plasma screen to watch the World Cup is making the
purchase for:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Expressive reasons
Impressive reasons
Functional reasons
Envy reasons
Answer: C
page 223
Question 4
A person who buys a gift that they think will please a rich relative is making the
purchase for:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Expressive reasons
Impressive reasons
Functional reasons
Envy reasons
Answer: A
page 223
Question 5
Needs activate an individual’s:
a) Motives
b) Desire state
c) Impulse to purchase
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d) Action state
Answer: B
page 224
Question 6
According to Clark Hull, saying no to a third piece of cake is a result of:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Manners
Social habits
Reduction of tension
Not wanting to be seen as greedy
Answer: C
page 225
Question 7
In drive reduction theory, hunger and thirst are referred to as:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Secondary needs
Essential needs
Satisfaction needs
Homeostatic needs
Answer: D
page 225
Question 8
Affiliation needs prompt a person to:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Join social clubs
Buy products that will make them fit with their desired social set
Buy products that are ethically acceptable
All of the above
Answer: D
page 226
Question 9
The key to McClelland’s secondary needs theory is that the three major needs are
learned, based on:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Rewards and punishment
What our friends tell us
Our level of education
What we read in the paper
Answer: A
page 226
Question 10
Maslow's need hierarchy involves all the motives below, except:
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8-3
a)
b)
c)
d)
Belongingness
Psychological
Self-actualisation
Safety
Answer: B
page 227
Question 11
The need to become all that one is capable of becoming is:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Self-actualisation
Status
Esteem
Achievement
Answer: A
page 227
Question 12
A person who buys an outfit similar to that belonging to someone they admire, even
though it may not particularly suit them, is exhibiting a need for:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Self-actualisation
Safety
Esteem
Achievement
Answer: C
page 227
Question 13
Today’s food advertisements focus on satisfying _______________ needs.
a)
b)
c)
d)
Self-actualisation
Physiological
Esteem
Achievement
Answer: C
page 228
Question 14
The desire to have all aspects of our lives and attitudes in harmony with each other is
based on the need for:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Cues
Independence
Causation
Consistency
Answer: D
page 229
Question 15
Test Bank t/a Consumer Behaviour by Karen Webb
8-4
A consumer's tendency to initially react to a new product as though it were the same
as similar existing products is based on the need:
a)
b)
c)
d)
To categorise
For cues
For causation
For modelling
Answer: A
page 229
Question 16
Consumers who are in, or aspire to, higher social class groups are more likely to be
motivated by:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Greed
Functionality factors
Self-expressive factors
Safety
Answer: C
page 230
Question 17
Clothing and fashion fulfil the function of:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Utility
Sensory pleasure
Gaining social approval
All of the above
Answer: D
page 230
Question 18
In organisational buying, motives are:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Purely functional
Sometimes social
Based on economic constraints
All of the above
Answer: B
page 232
Question 19
In organisational buying, the buyer’s level of satisfaction is determined by:
a)
b)
c)
d)
37% functional attributes; 63% psychological attributes
63% functional attributes; 37% psychological attributes
100% functional attributes
100% psychological attributes
Test Bank t/a Consumer Behaviour by Karen Webb
8-5
Answer: A
page 232
Question 20
Consumer and business buyers have:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Very different types of needs
Very similar types of needs
Motives not needs
Needs not motives
Answer: B
page 233
Question 21
A consumer having difficulty choosing between a weekend holiday or a compact disc
player is experiencing:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Approach-avoidance conflict
Approach-approach conflict
Avoidance-avoidance conflict
Alternative allocation conflict
Answer: B
page 235
Question 22
A consumer having difficulty deciding between buying a new microwave when the old
one breaks down, or choosing to do without one, is experiencing:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Approach-avoidance conflict
Approach-approach conflict
Avoidance-avoidance conflict
Alternative allocation conflict
Answer: C
page 234
Question 23
A consumer having difficulty deciding whether to purchase a motorcycle, because the
acquisition of the item has both positive and negative consequences, is experiencing:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Approach-avoidance conflict
Approach-approach conflict
Avoidance-avoidance conflict
Alternative allocation conflict
Answer: A
page 234
Question 24
Which of the following is NOT an advantage of using emotional appeals in
advertisements?
Test Bank t/a Consumer Behaviour by Karen Webb
8-6
a) Emotional messages may be processed more thoroughly
b) Emotional messages may be remembered better than neutral ads
c) Emotional messages enhance the attention, attraction and maintenance
capabilities of advertisements
d) All of the above are advantages
Answer: D
page 242
Question 25
The motive to buy a jumper because it is cold is:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Psychological
Conscious
Unconscious
Extrinsic
Answer: B
page 242
Section C:
Short Answers
Question 1
Why does the same need not result in the same motivation?
Answer:
page 222
‘Needs’ are the driving force behind our desire (or motivation) to act. For example, a
person may feel their stomach rumbling because they are hungry. This means they
need food and so they may be motivated to satisfy the need by getting some food. Of
course, the need plays an important role in whether or not a person will be motivated
to act. In the case of feeling hungry, it may just be that the person is feeling a little
hungry late in the afternoon, but as they are on a diet they can wait until dinner time.
Someone else, however, may feel quite hungry and can’t resist going to the
cupboard and getting a snack. The need (for food) may be the same, but the motive
may be different.
Motives drive behaviour and different people are motivated by different goals.
Motivation is closely linked to other internal influences on behaviour, such as
personality and learning. It is quite complex, as consumers may not even really be
aware of the true underlying motivations behind their behaviour. For example, a
person may state that they wear Oroton sunglasses because they are comfortable
and reduce glare. However, the majority of brands of sunglasses reduce glare, even
the inexpensive ones. This particular person may be a successful businessperson
who buys expensive brands that reflect success and status.
Question 2
Explain how motives can be either a positive or a negative force.
Answer:
page 223
Motivation may be a positive or negative force. Individuals either act to satisfy a
need, such as buying an attractive swimming costume, or avoid action to avoid
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8-7
unpleasant circumstances or results, such as not eating fatty foods to avoid putting
on weight.
Question 3
What are the two main elements of motives?
Answer:
page 224
The two main elements of motives are direction and intensity. This means that
consumers are directed towards something and that they are driven by various
degrees of importance or urgency. The description of a ‘motivated person’ simply
implies that the person displays goal-directed behaviour.
Question 4
How is a consumer’s value system linked to emotion?
Answer:
page 224
Values involve preference and are therefore positive and negative. The values
expressed in a consumption experience are the result of the emotions that
accompany that consumption experience. For example, a holiday on the Great
Barrier Reef may generate feelings of excitement, happiness and amazement.
Therefore the consumer’s assessment of the Reef as a holiday destination will be
very positive. A consumer’s values are likely to be expressed through their
consumption behaviour. For example, products and activities such as turbo-charged
cars and extreme sports may be preferred by a person who values excitement. A
person who places security as very important would be likely to have a different set
of preferred products and activities, such as an airbag in a car, or income protection
insurance.
Question 5
What are the three major needs identified by McClelland?
Answer:
page 226
The three major needs identified by McClelland are:
1. the need for achievement, based on achievement of goals. McClelland
suggested that individuals learn to anticipate pleasurable outcomes as a result of
achievement, so they are driven to achieve further.
2. affiliation needs, which are based on the desire for social interaction, friendships
and relationships with others.
3. power needs, which are those that cause individuals to desire control or influence
over others.
Question 6
How does Maslow’s hierarchy of needs apply to relatively affluent countries, such as
Australia? How have marketers of basic products, such as food, changed in relation
to this?
Answer:
page 228
Test Bank t/a Consumer Behaviour by Karen Webb
8-8
In relatively affluent countries like Australia, our lower order needs tend to be
satisfied, so most people strive for the higher order needs. Advertising in the 1950s
and 1960s focused very heavily on product attributes and their functional benefits.
For example, food advertising was often developed to appeal to basic needs, such as
good health and how the food can make meals easier to prepare and tasty for the
family. Today’s food advertising appeals to the need for social praise, esteem and
rewards.
Question 7
What are the five major categories of needs in business markets?
Answer:
pages 230-232
SITUATIONAL NEEDS
These are needs that are unique to the particular buying transaction, at that time. For
example, raw materials might be required with a very short lead time for a one-off
order.
FUNCTIONAL NEEDS
These are the needs that are reflected as ‘must haves’, such as performance,
meeting standards, maintenance factors and product uniformity.
SOCIAL NEEDS
In the context of business markets, social needs relate to the standing of the
business buyer in relation to its market. A seller may be able to offer unique benefits
that enhance the organisation’s image or position. This can be as simple as giving
the customer priority status and making them feel important.
KNOWLEDGE NEEDS
This involves training and development support by the seller. Some examples may
be an electronics company giving product training to retail staff, or training on hi tech
production equipment.
PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS
The ‘delighters’ are the transaction characteristics that enhance the buyer’s
satisfaction. Obviously, the greater the level of satisfaction, the greater the chance of
repeat purchasing. These are the attributes that sellers should focus on when
developing their CRM strategies.
Question 8
What are the four main motivations that caused people to adopt a healthy lifestyle, as
revealed by research into social marketing?
Answer:
page 235
According to the study, four main motivations were particularly salient:
1. problem removal: treating illnesses and feeling better
2. problem avoidance: avoiding injury or illness by changing behaviour
3. self-approval: feeling good about oneself; high esteem
4. sensory gratification: promising immediate sensory pleasure.
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8-9
The research also found that positive appeals, such as better self-esteem, had a far
greater impact on the audience than the fear approach.
Question 9
What is the starting point for analysis of motivational research?
Answer:
page 238
The analysis begins at the cultural level. Cultural values and influences are the ocean
in which we all swim and of which most of us are completely unaware. What we eat,
the way we eat, how we dress, what we think and feel, the language we speak, are
dimensions of our culture. These taken-for-granted cultural dimensions are the basic
building blocks that begin the motivational researcher’s analysis. The culture is the
context that must be understood before the behaviour of individuals within the
context can be understood.
Every product has cultural values and rules that influence its perception and its
usage. Once the cultural context is reasonably well understood, the next analytic step
is possible.
Question 10
How do consumers commonly evaluate advertisements, and what does it mean for
marketers?
Answer:
page 242
Consumers commonly evaluate advertisements based on the emotions induced by a
television program. Commercials were perceived as more effective when viewed in
the context of a happy program rather than a sad program. For example, you
wouldn’t advertise a funeral service during ‘Australia’s Funniest Home Video’! The
advertisements shown during this type of show are in line with the fun nature of the
show. This means products such as ice-cream, fast food outlets and family products.
Section D:
Essay Questions
Question 1
Find two advertisements that appeal to each of the levels in Maslow’s hierarchy of
needs, explaining why/how you think the ads appeal to that level, and suggest why
you think the marketers have chosen this level to appeal to.
Answer:
page 227
Answers will depend on the advertisements identified; however arguments should fit
with the basic theory.
According to Maslow’s theory, individuals experience five categories of needs:
1. physiological needs. These are the individual’s basic physical needs, including
food, shelter, drink, rest and sex (continuance of the species).
2. safety needs. Once basic physical needs are reasonably satisfied, individuals
begin considering protection from danger, i.e. safety and security. Safety needs can
be a concern for physical or psychological safety.
Test Bank t/a Consumer Behaviour by Karen Webb
8-10
3. social needs. Once the first levels of needs are somewhat satisfied, social needs
become important. These include the need for acceptance, love, affection and
belonging.
4. esteem needs. The next level in the hierarchy concerns the individual’s need for
achievement, self-esteem, self-confidence, respect and status.
5. self-actualisation needs. This is explained as the constant striving for
achievement and betterment of ourselves. It is the need to become the person that
we feel we are capable of becoming. This means that we have achieved what we
consider to be our very best. It is considered a constant search as we never really
satisfy this need.
Question 2
Discuss the difference between functional and self-expressive needs, and how
marketers target each type of need.
Answer:
pages 229-230
Consumers’ reasons for purchase may be categorised into ‘functionally oriented’
reasons or ‘self-expressive’ reasons. For example, the functional benefits of a
winter coat may be described as being warm and comfortable. However, another
person may be more interested in a particular brand, for its social appeal.
Evaluation of functional criteria is based on a consumer’s perception of the utility
offered by the product. Consumers evaluate the functional utility and concrete
properties of products, based on objective criteria that are related more to the
product itself, rather than to the consumer.
Consumers’ evaluation of expressive characteristics is based on their self-concept
and concern for their social image. Functional benefits are taken for granted by these
consumers. The social class position of the target market should be considered when
developing a product’s positioning. This is because consumer motivation is often
based on more than functional benefits and utility. For example, for some car buyers,
reliability and economy are important, but they also need the car to be ‘cool’ and
sporty.
Self expressive needs are based on intangible social and emotional benefits.
Consumers who are in, or aspire to be in, ‘higher’ social class groups are more likely
to be motivated by self expressive factors, rather than by the functionality of a
product. An example of this is the images used in the advertising for Dulux paints.
Most of us would be familiar with the use of the big fluffy Dulux Sheepdog in the
brand’s advertising. Dulux uses images of style and creativity and how great a Dulux
job would look. The advertising says nothing about the functionality of the product,
because consumers are more interested in expressing their personality through their
home styling.
Clothing and fashion also fulfil a number of functions beyond utility value. Fashion
clothing often represents an important symbol of a person’s identity. Clothing can
bring social-symbolic approval, but it can also generate sensory pleasure. This is an
indication of the different motives that consumers have. Motives such as social
approval and appearance are highly important to some people and this is reflected in
their brand choice.
Question 3
Test Bank t/a Consumer Behaviour by Karen Webb
8-11
Describe the three major techniques used for motivation research, including
advantages and disadvantages of each.
Answer:
pages 236-238
The three major motivational research techniques are observation, focus groups and
depth interviews.
• Observation—Observation can be a fruitful method of deriving hypotheses about
human motives. Anthropologists have pioneered the development of this technique.
All of us are familiar with anthropologists living with the ‘natives’ to understand their
behaviour. This same systematic observation can produce equally insightful results
about consumer behaviour. Observation can be accomplished in-person, or
sometimes through the convenience of video. Usually, personal observation is simply
too expensive, and most consumers don’t want an anthropologist living in their
household for a month or two.
It is easier to observe consumers in buying situations than in their homes, and here
the observation can be in-person or by video cameras. Generally, video cameras are
less intrusive than an in-person observer. Finding a representative set of cooperative
stores, however, is not an easy task, and the installation and maintenance of video
cameras is not without its difficulties. In-store observers can be used as well, so long
as they have some ‘cover’ that makes their presence less obvious.
However, observation by video or human eye cannot answer every question.
Generally, observation must be supplemented by focus groups or depth interviews to
fully understand why consumers are doing what they do.
• The focus group—The focus group in the hands of a skilled moderator can be a
valuable motivational research technique. To reach its full motivational potential, the
group interview must be largely nondirective in style, and the group must achieve
spontaneous interaction. It is the mutual reinforcement within the group (the group
excitement and spontaneity) that produces the revelations and behaviours that reveal
underlying motives. A focus group discussion dominated by the moderator will rarely
produce any motivational insights. A focus group actively led by the moderator with
much direct questioning of respondents will seldom yield motivational understanding.
But the focus group is a legitimate motivational technique.
• The depth interview—The heart and soul of motivational research is the depth
interview, a lengthy (one to two hours) one-on-one, personal interview, conducted
directly by the motivational researcher. Much of the power of the depth interview is
dependent upon the insight, sensitivity and skill of the motivational researcher. The
interviewing task cannot be delegated to traditional marketing research interviewers
who have no training in motivational techniques.
During the personal interview, the motivational researcher strives to create an
empathic relationship with each respondent, a feeling of rapport, mutual trust and
understanding. The researcher creates a climate in which the respondent feels free
to express his feelings and his thoughts, without fear of embarrassment or rejection.
The researcher conveys a feeling that the respondent and his opinions are important
and worthwhile, no matter what those opinions are. The motivational researcher is
accepting, non-threatening, and supportive. The emotional empathy between
motivational researcher and respondent is the single most important determinant of
an effective interview.
Test Bank t/a Consumer Behaviour by Karen Webb
8-12
The motivational researcher relies heavily upon nondirective interviewing techniques.
Her goal is to get the respondent to talk, and keep talking.
The researcher tends to introduce general topics, rather than ask direct questions.
She probes by raising her eyebrows, by a questioning look upon her face, by
paraphrasing what the respondent has said, or by reflecting the respondent’s own
words back to the respondent in a questioning tone. Nondirective techniques are the
least threatening (and the least biasing) to the respondent.
Projective techniques can play an important role in motivational research.
Sometimes, a respondent can see in others what he cannot see - or will not admit about himself. The motivational researcher often asks the respondent to tell a story,
play a role, draw a picture, complete a sentence, or associate words with a stimulus.
Photographs, product samples, packages and advertisements can also be used as
stimuli to evoke additional feelings, imagery and comment.
During the interview, the researcher watches for clues that might indicate that a
‘sensitive nerve’ has been touched. Long pauses by the respondent, slips of the
tongue, fidgeting, variations in voice pitch, strong emotions, facial expressions, eye
movements, avoidance of a question, fixation on an issue, and body language are
some of the clues the motivational researcher keys on. These ‘sensitive’ topics and
issues are then the focus of additional inquiry and exploration later in the interview.
Each interview is tape-recorded and transcribed. A typical motivational study,
consisting of 30 to 50 depth interviews, yields 1000 to 2000 pages of typed verbatim
dialogue. During the interview, the motivational researcher makes notes, about the
respondent’s behaviour, mannerisms, physical appearance, personality
characteristics and nonverbal communications. These notes become a road map to
help the researcher understand and interpret the verbatim transcript of the interview.
IN POINT 8.1
Question 4
Why is the use of emotion recommended in advertising aimed at women?
Answer:
page 240
Women have their emotional responses residing in both left and right sides of the
brain. In men the emotional functions are concentrated in the right side of the brain.
In both men and women, verbal communication is controlled by the left-hand side of
the brain, which means that a man’s emotions and his ability to verbalise those
emotions are on opposite sides of the brain. This is a simple, scientific explanation as
to why women, in general, find it easier to discuss their emotions; structurally, a
woman’s emotional side is far more integrated with the verbal side of her brain.
This key gender difference is structurally wired at birth, not the result of social
conditioning. At a few hours old, girls are more sensitive than boys to touch. Baby
girls are more easily comforted by soothing words and singing. Even before they can
understand language, girls seem to be better than boys at identifying the emotional
content of speech.
This gender bias continues in life…the male brain is organised to identify and
process objects and communicate using facts and data. The female brain, on the
other hand, is wired to seek and understand emotions and relationships. This is
Test Bank t/a Consumer Behaviour by Karen Webb
8-13
obvious when you listen to children relating stories of their days at school. Boys will
tell stories full of zap, pow, building and crashing. Girls’ narratives focus on home,
friendships and emotions. The boy will tell the story of the robber while girls tell the
same tale from the point of view of the victim. Countless studies of males and
females across all age groups support the conclusion that the male brain is wired to
be interested in ‘things’ while the female brain is wired to be primarily interested in
‘people and emotions’.
This differing level of emotion continues to affect us in later life, in the way men and
women communicate, and their differing focus on emotions affects responses to
advertising. Quite simply, it means that while you can sell something to a man with
product features, facts and figures, it’s a whole lot harder to win a woman over with
that approach. Women make purchase decisions on a far more emotive level than
men and our own brain scan research has shown that what engages a woman in an
advertisement or communication is how visually appealing it is emotionally.
There are many industries that could do a lot with Emotive Rapport Building. Take
the building industry, for example. More than 50% of home renovation decisions are
now controlled by a female and yet we still have a male-dominated approach.
One traditionally male-dominated company to see the light is Tradelink. Its current
print campaign focuses very little on product and more on emotion and feelings. This
is fairly simple stuff; nevertheless, a number of organisations are still trying to sell
women things and objects when in the real world what really gets them going are
emotions and feelings. Don’t tell a woman what a product can do; tell her how it’s
going to make her feel.
Question 5
Many product offerings are designed to create positive emotions, but some are
designed to reduce negative emotions such as sadness, powerlessness, disgust or
humiliation.
Collect three advertisements that create positive emotions, and three that reduce
negative emotions. For each advertisement, explain:
a) what emotion is involved and how it is portrayed
b) how the product offerings either create or reduce the emotion
c) what motivational theory may be involved.
Answer:
pages 240-242
This question requires the learner to demonstrate an integrated understanding of the
different ways emotion is used in marketing, and how emotion and motivation are
linked.
Answers will depend on the advertisements chosen.
There is a link between emotion and motivation. Emotional associations are created
between stimuli and existing attitudes. Marketers hope to create an emotional
response in consumers. This response will stimulate, or motivate, the individual to
act. Emotions are very often directly related to consumption behaviour and can
explain behaviour in situations where other concepts, such as attitudes, cannot.
Test Bank t/a Consumer Behaviour by Karen Webb
8-14
Students should be able to identify how the use of an emotion creator or reducer can
increase the motivation to act as the marketer desires.
Test Bank t/a Consumer Behaviour by Karen Webb
8-15