THE ARTISTIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE THEANTHROPIC NATURE OF JESUS
CHRIST IN RENAISSANCE ITALY: CIMABUE-DOLCI1
By Paul R. Shockley
The Renaissance refers not only to a stylistic period succeeding that of the Gothic but also to the crucial
turning-point between the Middle Ages and the modern age. We can talk in general terms of a change from
the medieval theocentric [God-centered] image of the world to an anthropocentric [man-centered] concept
of the world. This change, the most radical since the end of the antique period, impinged on every area of
life.2
~ Manfred Wundram
Human history records that Jesus Christ had more influence on the world than any other
thinker. His person, words, and works served as the basis of a worldview that transformed
Western civilization; the whole course of Western thought and perception was changed by Jesus
Christ and propagated by the authority, influence, and creedal traditions of the Universal Church.
This is no less evident and articulated than in depictions of Jesus Christ in Renaissance art.3 In
fact, there appears to be a correspondence between the naturalistic ideas of the Renaissance4 and
1
Paul R. Shockley is assistant professor of Bible and Theology at the College of Biblical Studies in
Houston, Texas. 7000 Regency Square, Suite 110, Houston, Texas 77036-3211. 713.785.5995.
paul.shockley@cbshouston.edu. Paul received his B.A. in Recent European History, Stephen F. Austin
State University, Th.M in Systematic Theology & Bible Exposition at Dallas Theological Seminary, and
received M.A. Humanities (History of Ideas) at University of Texas in Dallas in Dec. 2003. He is a Ph.D.
student in philosophy at Texas A&M University in College Station. This paper was originally crafted as a
term paper for a graduate course in Renaissance Art at the University of Texas in Dallas.
2
From Renaissance to Impressionism: Styles and Movements in Western Art, 1400-1900. Edited by Jane
Turner (New York: Macmillan, 2000), 278.
3
Though I am aware of the debate regarding iconoclasm (i.e., opposition to the religious use of images or
icons) and iconomachy (i.e., the war against religious images) this paper is not written to contribute,
address, or make value judgments regarding the debate regarding Old Testament injunctions against
“graven images.” Rather, this paper is given as an introduction to the artistic development of religious
Renaissance art, recognizing that art can be viewed as a theological commentary of the Late Medieval and
Renaissance period. This approach is similar to an Old Testament or New Testament scholar who studies
archaeological expressions of culture in order to understand the social context of the period they are
examining. Additionally, I should add that while I appreciate Renaissance art and find it absolutely
fascinating I whole heartily reject Catholic teachings regarding the Immaculate Conception, co-redeemer,
and assumption of Mary, the mother of Jesus. If interested, my Christological and soteriological
perspective may be summed up in Robert P. Lightner’s, Sin, the Savior, and Salvation (Grand Rapids:
Kregel, 1990) and John F. Walvoord’s, Jesus Christ our Lord (Grand Rapids: Moody, 1969).
I am using the term “Renaissance” to refer to a designation of a chronological period in history, not just a
description of style. Though the art of the Renaissance represents a blending of intellect and craft that
involved naturalistic representations, reverence for classical antiquity, and an awakening to man-centered
emphases, we must realize that there were multicultural variables from city to city in Italy that
distinguished the city-states of that time in history and in art (e.g., comparison of Venice and Florence).
4
1
the artistic doctrinal development of Christology.5 Therefore, the goal of this paper is to
introduce the artistic emphasis upon the humanity of Christ by giving contextual considerations
for the artistic development of the humanistic nature of Jesus Christ and by examining selected
depictions of the Madonna and Child by artists Cimabue, Duccio, Giotto, Master of the Strauss
Madonna, Gentile de Fabriano, Masaccio, and Dolci.
Each Virgin and Child piece was chosen on the basis that each one reveals subtle but
significant changes from an ethereal iconic (symbolic) art of the Byzantine and Medieval period
to the earthly portrayal of Jesus through the artistic technique of realism6 and perspectivalism. 7
These paintings demonstrate a Christological progression in humanistic thought, analogous to the
development of the central concepts of the Renaissance period 8 with Masaccio’s work on the
Virgin and Child culminating both aspects of the doctrine of the person of Christ by the artistic
means of uniting realism and perspectivalism. These pieces were specifically chosen for this
presentation because of both the cultural popularity of Virgin and Child representations in the
Renaissance period and the usability of viewing one particular motif to demonstrate the subtle
changes of the theanthropic nature of Jesus Christ.9
Though we will begin our study with a brief history of some of the (I) reasons for the
humanistic development of Jesus in art, proceed to a (II) summary analysis of each of the six
pieces, and offer a (III) conclusion, we must realize that the underlying importance of this paper
is the reminder that before the invention of printing in the 15th century, people mainly derived
5
Leo Steinberg, The Sexuality of Christ in Renaissance Art and in Modern Oblivion, 2nd ed. rev. and exp.
(Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1983, 1996), 10.
6
Realism is used here to refer to real life representations without idealism.
7
Perspectivalism is the technique of representing on a plane the spatial relation of objects as they might
appear to the eye.
8
Steinberg, The Sexuality of Christ in Renaissance Art and in Modern Oblivion, 12-13.
9
James Clifton, The Body of Christ in the Art of Europe and New Spain, 1150-1800 (New York: Prestel,
1997), 56.
2
their understanding of the Christian faith and Scripture not only from both the clergy and
aristocracy, but from art. Most people were illiterate, i.e., they lacked the ability to read and
write. In fact, illiteracy was not even seen as a problem until the invention of printing.
Thankfully, illiteracy declined with the impact of the Protestant Reformation when the translation
of the Bible became widespread and Protestant converts were taught to read it.10 Therefore, we
cannot underestimate the vital importance of art in the understanding of the Bible and Christian
theology for religious art is a theological commentary.11
I.
Historical Contextual Considerations
Before we seek to understand some of the particular factors that contributed to the
synthetic emergence of Renaissance naturalism and the humanity of Christ as evidenced in
Catholic teaching, the spirituality of the artists, economic, social conditions, and the cultural
artistic impact of Giotto’s work, this artistic and theological motif of Jesus Christ has gained
recent attention as evidenced in the Houston, Texas 1997 exhibition of The Body of Christ in the
Art of Europe and New Spain, 1150-1800 12 and in the 1986, 1996 controversial work, the
Sexuality of Christ in Renaissance Art and Modern Oblivion by Leo Steinberg.13 Both the
10
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia (Columbia University Press) states that the United Nations first
survey of world illiteracy in 1950 records that at least 44% of the world’s populations was found to be
illiterate. In 1987 the rate dropped to 32.5%, in 1990 it was 27%, and by 1998 it was 16%. UNICEF
predicts that world illiteracy will rise in this century since only quarter of the world’s children were in
school in by the end of 20th century. Highest illiteracy rates were found in underdeveloped countries such
as Africa, Asia, and South America.
See Robert Kemp, “Aesthetic Perspectivalism and the Nature of Art: Two Proposals Attempting to
Develop a Theology of the Arts” in IIIM Magazine Online 5 (June 14-21, 2003): 22, for an outstanding
article regarding the nature and interpretation of art for the Christian believer.
11
12
Clifton, The Body of Christ in the Art of Europe and New Spain, 1150-1800, was published in
conjunction with the exhibition organized by the Museum of Fine Arts, Houston and presented December
21, 1997 through April 12, 1998.
The controversy over Steinberg’s work is concerned with his central thesis that centuries of censorship
and denial have kept a series of classic artworks out of sight that depicted Christ’s genitalia, particularly in
works that represent his infancy and the immediate aftermath of the crucifixion (depositions and pietas).
For example, Steinberg asserts that Renaissance artists understood Christ’s circumcision as a shedding of
blood that alludes to his sacrificial death on the cross. Steinberg attempts to demonstrate that these
renderings of Christ’s sexuality were, to the Renaissance artists who created them, the pictorial equivalents
13
3
director of the Museum in Fine Arts in Houston, Peter C. Marzio and prominent art historian Leo
Steinberg state that the presence of Jesus Christ in pre-modern art has historically been taken for
granted.
In the article, “The Historical Body of Christ,” David Nirenberg presents a history of the
importance, uses, and representations of Christ’s body, demonstrating how Jesus’ body varied
across time and space in European history.14 Nirenberg observes that Early Christianity
diminished the importance of Christ’s human nature. Regionally divided, Eastern Greekspeaking Christianity accentuated the deified and transfigured Jesus Christ. Perhaps due to
Arianism, the Germanic invaders of the Roman Empire, the rise of Islam, and the doctrine of
replacement theology, early Medieval Latin Christianity emphasized Christ the resurrected King.
During this period the remains and relics of saints gained importance in intervening between
humanity and God. Then, during and following the Middle Ages,15 this mediatory role
increasingly became even more important by emphasizing the body of Christ, until the Protestant
Reformation and the Counter-Reformation provoked a division in thought and culture.
However, in the Late Middle Ages theological prominence upon Christ’s human nature
began to grow and eventually reached its greatest height in the Renaissance period.16 In The
Sexuality of Christ in Renaissance Art and in Modern Oblivion, Leo Steinberg argues that the
divinity of Christ began to be concealed in Renaissance art with the humanity of Christ being
of the doctrine of the Incarnation; they were reminders to the observers that the Word of God became flesh
and shared our human condition. In fact, he considers the celebration of his perpetual virginity as essential
in understanding the genuine humanity of Christ (pgs. 10-11). Though I take exceptions with Steinberg on
many fronts with this work, as a prominent Renaissance art historian explained to me at the University of
Texas in Dallas, Steinberg cannot be ignored.
14
Clifton, The Body of Christ, 17-25.
Exact dates for the “Middle Ages” tend to be arbitrary. Therefore, for paper purposes I am inclusively
using to refer to the time period between the destruction of the Roman Empire in the West in 375 when the
Huns conquered the Gothic tribes north of the Black Sea to the fall of Constantinople in 1453. The
Renaissance began to gain momentum in the fourteenth century.
15
16
Steinberg, The Sexuality of Christ, 10.
4
revealed. In fact, Steinberg contends that the humanity of God becomes the established theme for
the Western Renaissance religious artist.17 He writes:
There is something here that we are expected to take for granted-here as in all religious
Renaissance art: that the divinity in the incarnate Word needs no demonstration. For an
infant Christ in Renaissance images differs from the earlier Byzantine and medieval
Christ Child not only in degree of naturalism, but in theological emphasis. In the
imagery of earlier Christianity, the claims for Christ’s absolute Godhood, and for his
parity with the Almighty father, had to be constantly reaffirmed against unbelief-first
against Jewish recalcitrance and pagan skepticism, then against the Arian heresy, finally
against Islam. Hence the majesty of the infant Christ and their hieratic posture; and even
in the Byzantine type known as the…‘Madonna of Sweet Love…. In Ott Demus’ words,
‘The Byzantine image…always remain an ‘image,’ a Holy Icon, without any admixture
of earthly realism.’ But for a Western artist nurtured in Catholic orthodoxy-for him the
objective was not so much to proclaim the divinity of the babe as to declare the
humanation [incarnation] of God. And this declaration becomes the set theme of every
Renaissance Nativity, Adoration, Holy Family, or Madonna and Child.18
We must also understand that the historical context for understanding the doctrinal
progression of the humanity of Jesus Christ should be understood in view of the (1) teachings of
the church with its emphasis upon Mary, (2) the spirituality of Renaissance artists, (3) the rise of
the middle class, (4) and the novel contribution of realism in art by Giotto.19
Church Teachings. The hypostatic union or theanthropic nature of Jesus Christ is the
Christological doctrine that teaches that Jesus Christ is both God and man, undiminished deity
and perfect humanity. The one divine Person encompassed two natures, perfectly bridging the
infinite moral gap between sinful man and a holy God. This teaching was reconfirmed at the
Council of Chalcedon in 451 A.D which is perhaps the greatest ecumenical council in the history
of the church because it affirmed that Christ in the incarnation was fully God and fully man, in
one person, without confusion forever; He is the God-man.20 This declaration preceded the Creed
17
Ibid., 42-43.
18
Ibid., 10-11.
19
Jaroslav Pelikan, The Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine (Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1971), 1: 256-77.
20
John D. Hannah, Charts of Ancient and Medieval Church History (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2001), 74.
5
of Constantinople in 553 A.D. reconfirming the creed at Chalcedon in view of the condemnation
of the Eutychians who embraced that Christ only had one nature, not two.21
As in the Middle Ages, art in the Renaissance period served as an educational purpose.
In fact, religious themes appeared in all media-wood carvings, painted frescoes,22 stone
sculptures, and paintings. A religious picture or statue was intended to spread a particular
doctrine, act as a profession of faith, or recall sinners to a spiritual life of devotion and Christian
virtue. This is reaffirmed repeatedly in Steffi Roettgen’s work, Italian Frescoes: The Flowering
of the Renaissance.23 Though the specific representatives of the Catholic Church for these
specific theological depictions are not always identified, these pictorial teachings are generally
thematic, chronological (e.g., the wall paintings in the Sistine Chapels) or simultaneous events
(e.g., Fra Angelic, the Last Judgment, 1435),24 and typically Christological. There is also the
tendency to include the role of the Virgin Mary, who is often depicted as the greatest of saints,
co-redeemer, and assumption.25 Similarly, David Nirenberg writes in view of 1997-1998
Houston Exhibit of the Body of Christ:
By depicting Jesus upon the altar, by surrounding Him with icons of Passion such as the
Arma Christi, these images were meant to remind the devout of what it was they were
seeing and chewing: an offering of real flesh, suffering and bleeding, torn from the body
of Christ. Still other genres had other devotional roles. But whether as spurs to memory,
objects of physical adoration, or templates for imitation and internalization, all the objects
collected here mediated visually between human and divine.26
21
Ibid., 75.
22
A fresco is a wall painting technique in which pigments are applied to a surface of wet plaster (called
buon fresco). Painting on dry plaster (called fresco a secco) is a less durable technique because the paint
has a tendency to flake off.
23
Steffi Roettgen, Italian Frescoes: The Flowering of the Renaissance (New York: Abbeville Press,
1996), 90-94.
24
Ibid., 391-2.
25
Ibid., 60, 84, 90-94, 260, 281, 357, 384, 392.
26
Clifton, The Body of Christ, 24.
6
Mary, the mother of Jesus, is evident in many of the works depicting the hypostatic
nature of Jesus Christ. The place accorded to her in Catholic and Orthodox theology and
devotion issues from her position as mother and co-redeemer. Therefore, she is accounted preeminent among the saints. The doctrine of the “Immaculate Conception” (this doctrine teaches
that Mary because of her function as Mother of the Son of God was preserved from inheriting the
stain of original sin) and the corporeal “Assumption of Mary” (this doctrine teaches that when
Mary completed her earthly life, having participated in the work of redemption itself, ascended
into heavenly glory and is now sharing with Her son in the glory of that Resurrection) largely
influenced the faith of Catholics.27 Her role as co-redeemer and greatest of all the saints is
memorialized in European art.
In fact, in a diagram of the pictorial program in the Tornabuioni Chapel originally
planned, the chapel is divided into three sections: the Dormition of Mary (“Partre Dextra”); the
Coronation of Mary (“Partre Altari Ipsum”); Herod’s Feast (“Partre Sinistra”). One third of the
portraits in this particular chapel are centered upon Mary.28 We have to remember that the
Catholic clergy, one of the two major customers of art before the rise of middle class patrons (the
other being members of aristocracy), subsidized these doctrinal teachings to the masses by having
Mary enthroned, often larger in proportion to the saints and angels that surround her and Jesus as
evidenced in the works to be examined in the last half of presentation.29
Religious Considerations of the Artists. After centuries of medieval and ecclesiastical
theology whereby the dominant teachings focused on the otherworldly, mainly, life and death, the
27
Catholic Peoples Encyclopedia, edited by Mabel Quin (Chicago: The Catholic Press, 1965), 1: 53-4.
28
Roettgen, Italian Frescoes, 459.
29
Though I absolutely reject the emphases the Catholic Church places on the doctrines of the Immaculate
Conception and the Assumption of Mary, I do not want to underestimate the value of studying Renaissance
art as a historical theologian. As Francis A. Schaeffer reminds us in How Should We Then Live, art in
general is a social commentary of culture. Nonetheless, my general personal observation why Mary is
often pointing to or looking upon Jesus in the works to be examined perhaps suggest that she is subordinate
in essence to Christ, but not necessarily altogether distinct in function.
7
fourteen and fifteenth centuries witnessed the slow, steady growth of naturalism. Though having
a basic concern with the natural, material world, instead of eternal or spiritual interest, it is
evident that many of the major Renaissance artists held strong and deep spiritual interests. For
example, Giotto and his scholars, within a little or more than half a century, painted not only upon
the walls of churches but in public places of Italy, every conception of the Middle Ages.30 Urban
groups or guilds manifesting corporate power delegated Brunelleschi to build the magnificent
dome on the cathedral of Florence, Lorenzo Ghiberti to design the bronze doors of the baptistery,
and the Florentine government to hire Michelangelo to sculpt David, the great Hebrew hero and
king. Three distinguished Italian Humanists, Pietro Bembo (1470-1547), Giacopo Sadoleto
(1477-1547), and Aleander, (1480-1542), were cardinals. Marsilio Ficino (1433-1499), one of
the men who made the court of Lorenzo the Magnificent famous, was an ordained priest, rector of
two churches, and canon of the cathedral of Florence. Interestingly, Ficino wrote a defense of the
Christian religion, believing that the Christian faith is the only “true” religion.31 Even Raphael,
who held the appointment of papal chamberlain, had the choice of between a Cardinal’s hat and
marriage to a niece of Cardinal Bibbiena.32 Therefore, the subject matter of art through the early
fifteenth century, as in the Middle Ages, remained overwhelmingly religious with Fra Angelico
da Fiesole (1387-1455), appearing to be the most religious of the painters.
However, these glorified works of medieval Catholicism, purporting representations of
the hypostatic nature of Christ and His mother Mary, also brought together or even intermingled
Christian teachings with classical paganism and Greek and Roman mythology (e.g., the virtues in
30
Philip Schaff, The History of the Christian Church: The Middle Ages (Grand Rapids, MI.: Eerdmans
Publishing Company, 1910), 6: 602; John Addington Symonds, Renaissance in Italy (Gloucester, Mass.:
Peter Smith, 1967), 139.
31
Ibid., 594.
32
Ibid., 603.
8
allegorical guise by Antonio and Piero Pollaiuolo).33 And increasingly, in the later fifteenth
century, individuals and oligarchs, such as Patrician merchants, bankers, popes, and princes rather
than corporate powers, sponsored works of art as a means of glorifying themselves and their
families, immortalizing their own physical uniqueness as evident in various depictions of the
Annunciation of the Virgin Mary and the Nativity (e.g., Botticelli’s, Adoration of the Magi where
it is alleged by Giorgio Vasari that Cosimo and Lorenzo D’Medici and Botticelli himself are
portrayed). Counterparts of these are revealed in frescoes that depict enemies of the state to cause
and place shame and guilt upon others (e.g., Leonardo da Vinci’s sketch of the archbishop of
Pisa, Francesco Salviati) or memorialize heroes (e.g., Leonardo da Vinci’s Battle of Anghiari).34
Economic Social Considerations. The period from 1250 to 1320 saw profound change
in the social conditions of Italy. Italy could have been divided into two histories during the
Middle Ages. The Po Valley in the north participated in the cultural climate of central and
Western Europe whereas central and southern Italy for the most part, embraced the eastern and
Byzantine tradition.35
Largely due to commerce, banking, and the textile industry, the Tuscan
city of Florence, began to give rise to the middle class. Greater distribution of wealth, increase in
commercial interaction, and exchange with countries of higher culture (e.g., Northern Italy and
southern France) gave monetary and social influence to a new patron of arts other than feudal
aristocracy and clergy. In fact, the rise of Florence’s bankers (e.g., the Bardis and Peruzzis)
achieved such influence in governmental policies and community affairs the middle class could
no longer be ignored by the aristocracy or the church.36 These cultural changes in society,
33
Schaff, The History of the Christian Church , 6: 600.
34
Walter Paatz, The Arts of the Italian Renaissance (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1974), 157.
35
Giovanni Previtali, Early Italian Painting (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964), 3-4.
36
Ibid.
9
fostered by a monetary shift in balance of power, fostered favorable conditions for new ways of
thinking in art. Previtali observes:
This situation [the rise of the bourgeoisie] brought about a profound change in ways of
thinking-of considering objects and the surrounding world-and made it possible for some
artists of genius to effect an equally radical change in ways of representation, to develop
a sense of the three dimensional and sculpturesque and a new feeling of dramatic
naturalism.37
Interestingly, Renaissance art historian Wundram states that the early Renaissance period could
be described as the first great cultural achievement of the middle class because they created their
own forms of expression that were at first, non-conforming to the artistic traditions of church and
the aristocracy.38 For example, middle class donors had themselves painted along sacred figures
on the same line. This is a significant change in view of medieval art that would grade figures in
size according to importance (e.g., Battista Sforza and Federico da Montefeltro).39 Similarly,
Nicholai Rubinstein, in his discussion of the beginnings of humanism in Florence, observes that
Florentine merchants and public politicians gave rise to artistic individualism by having
themselves portrayed in art and sculpture so as to perpetuate their memory (e.g., Leonardo
Bruni’s tomb by Bernardo Rossellino in Sta Croce) in private houses and public tombs.40
The Significance of Giotto. The hypostatic nature of Jesus Christ is progressively
developed in depictions of Mary and Christ-Child in the early to high Renaissance period of the
13th-15th century. Symonds explains that Giotto Bondone is to be credited for the rise of
expressing life and dramatizing the history of the Bible by appealing to naturalism. His
popularity and industry motivated others to draw the Madonna and Christ in pictures that were
37
Ibid., 5.
38
From Renaissance to Impressionism, 281.
39
This altarpiece presents Federico prostrate before the enthroned Madonna and child in the company of
John the Baptist, Bernardino, Jermon, Franci, Peter Martyr, and the apostle John [Art in Renaissance Italy,
2nd edition. Edited by John T. Paoletti & Gary M. Radke (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2002),
288.
40
The Age of the Renaissance, edited by Denys Hays (New York: Bonanza Books, 1967, 1986), 32.
10
realistic; he did not emphasize the symbols of piety, but real humanness that gave vitality to art.41
He writes:
His Madonnas are no longer symbols of a certain phase of pious awe, but pictures of
maternal love. The Bride of God suckles her divine infant with a smile, watches him play
with a bird, or stretches out her arms to take him when he turns crying from the hands of
the circumcising priest. By choosing incidents like these from real home-life, Giotto,
through his painting, humanized the mysteries of faith, and brought them close to
common feeling…. He never failed to make it manifest that what he meant to represent
was living. Even to the non-existent he gave the semblance of reality.42
Therefore, Giotto is commended as an innovator towards realism, especially in terms of
discussing the hypostatic nature of Christ. His art depicted the Christian faith with realism and
vitality that must have delighted those people loved God. His achievements of giving semblance
of flesh and blood to Christian thought were used as means of educating others, not merely
decoration. Symonds states:
The Creation, the Fall, the Judgment, and the final state of bliss or misery-all these he
quickened into beautiful and breathing forms. Those were noble days, when the painter
had literally acres of walls given to him to cover; when the whole belief of Christendom,
grasped by his own faith, and firmly rooted in the faith of the people round him, as yet
unimpaired by alien emanations from the world of classic culture, had to be set forth for
the first time in art. His work was then a Bible, a compendium of grave divinity and
human history, a book embracing all things needful for the spiritual and civil life of man.
He spoke to men who could not read, for whom there were not printed pages, but whose
heart received his teaching through the eye. Thus painting was not then what it is now, a
decoration of existence, but a potent and efficient agent in the education of the race.
Such opportunities do not occur twice in the same age. Once in Greece for the pagan
world; once in Italy for the modern world; that must suffice for the education of the
human race.43
These principles of realism and its correlation to education gave important rise to a school of art
that Guinta Pisan, Gaddo Gaddi, and Cimabue, tirelessly laboured before him. However, it was
41
Symonds, Renaissance in Italy, 139.
42
Ibid., 140-41.
43
Ibid., 143.
11
not until Giotto that this expression gained movement in Italy to such an extent that the first
period of the history of painting in Italian art is known as Giottesque.44
II.
Artistic Analysis of Selected Pieces of Renaissance Art45
There is a direct correspondence between the naturalistic anthropocentric ideas of the
Renaissance and the doctrinal development of Christology in art. This synthetic emergence is
particularly revealed in the artistic scenes of the hypostatic union of Jesus Christ using realism
and perspectivalism, bringing vitality to Christian thought and expression. The union of the deity
and humanity of Jesus Christ subtly changes focus from that of His deity to humanity by
depicting Him in more human terms including his sexuality but without negating his deity. There
is a progression towards realistically portraying Christ in the Madonna and Child art pieces
beginning with Cimabue and Duccio. However, it isn’t until Italy experiences the impact of
Giotto’s work on realism that more attention is devoted to the humanity of Jesus Christ as
revealed in work by the Master of the Strauss Madonna and Gentile da Fabriano. Then when one
examines Masaccio’s piece whereby he adds perspectivalism to realism, a novel concept, does
one see some sort of balance between the humanity and deity of Christ in the young Jesus. This
particular piece brings incredible substantive visual vitality to Christology through the medium of
Renaissance art. As the Renaissance continues, even greater emphasis is given to Jesus’
humanity in Italian Renaissance art as seen in Carlo Dolci’s 1636 depiction of the Madonna and
Child.
Cimabue (1260s-1302). Cimabue’s, Madonna Enthroned (1280s), is tempera46 on wood
and is approximately 12’6” x 7’4” inches.47 Created for the altar of Santa Trinita in Florence, it
44
Ibid., 142-43.
45
Sylvan Barnet, A Short Guide to Writing About Art, 5th ed. (New York: Longman, 1997) is a very
helpful introductory source for writing on art.
12
beautifully demonstrates medievalism with its Gothic verticality prevailing over the two level
composition. On the bottom story there are four formal or somber prophets or saints displaying
their scrolls. On the second floor, Mary is centered on a large throne between mounting ranks of
eight angels. Mary sits frontally on a solid architectural throne of inlaid wood. Her dark blue
mantle and rose-red robe are marked with highlights of gold that coalesce with rich folds or
creases to form a rhythmic linear pattern. Her size is rather out of proportion to the eight angels,
with six of them bowing their heads toward Mary’s son.
Jesus is portrayed as the Christ-Child with the theological emphasis on his deity. As he
sits on Mary’s left side (our right), she is gesturing her right hand at an angle toward the chest of
her son, inviting or directing attention to the Christ-Child. Jesus is holding his right arm
horizontally, posturing his fingers as one in authority; he is giving advice, directing commands, or
absolving sin. His size appears to be proportion to Mary, possibly a little larger; his physical
posture is relaxed but formal. The left leg is slightly bent with the foot resting on a first fold of
Mary’s robe that sweeps from one knee to the other. His right leg angles downward and touches
a lower fold of his mother’s robe. Steinberg rightly suggests that this is an example of the
progressive denuding of Christ because Jesus’ right leg is exposed, revealing an aspect of
humanity than has not generally been seen in medieval Byzantine work.48 His face is rather
mature as he gazes toward the audience. In his left hand Jesus is holding a scroll, probably
associating Scripture, papal authority, or ecclesiastical tradition with his person, the Logos (John
1:1-18). This authority is given further respect in that his halo uniquely possesses a cross
whereas Mary, the angels, and the prophets or saints do not.
46
Tempera is paint consisting of pigment that is dissolved in water and missed with a binding medium,
typically the yolk (but sometimes also the white) of an egg. Egg tempera was the principal technique for
panel painting from the 13th-15th centuries. It was gradually superseded by oil painting.
47
Art in Renaissance Italy, 62.
48
Steinberg, The Sexuality of Christ, 151.
13
Overall, this work reveals Christ as authoritatively knowing all things (omniscience).
Combining Mary’s position on the throne surrounding by saints and angels with Jesus’
authoritative posture and omniscient motif, one may casually observe the majesty of the ChristKing. Or better yet, the otherworldly halo with the cross, the scroll, the right arm and hand
gesture, the mature appearance of Jesus’ face, the solemn expression of the prophets, Mary, and
the angels appear to give credence to his deified nature. Outside of the fact that Jesus is a boy,
there is no attention given to his humanity.
Duccio di Buoninsegna (c. 1278-1318). Duccio’s altarpiece, the 1285 “Rucellai”
Madonna, from the church of Santa Maria is more decorative than Cimabue’s Madonna
Enthroned. Instead of the feeling of medieval majesty and monumentality, the Rucellai Madonna
(tempera on wood and approximately 14’9” x 9’6”; commissioned by the Confraternity of the
Laudesi for their church of Santa Maria) poses a reverential picture of awe.49 Six kneeling angles
are gazing upon the Christ-Child. The beauty of the angels’ wings (the curvature of the wings
directs attention to the throne), the flowing smooth folds of their gowns, and their reverent
posture seem to suggest that they have just approached the authoritative throne with gentle
reverence and awe. The facial expression of the angels, their hands on the throne, and their backs
leaning towards the child appear to foster an expression of either carefully listening to the ChristChild or waiting to receive orders; every angel is focused on him, inviting or causing the audience
to approach the throne with the same reverential disposition. This is a subtle shift from
Cimabue’s Madonna Enthroned where the angels, Mary, and Jesus are looking at the audience.
Mary is large in proportion to the other figures, sitting erect on the throne that is slightly
off-center. The folds of the drapery, liberal use of gold, the Byzantine richness of line and the
surpassing delicacy of the crisscross edges of Mary’s robe, achieve a beautiful portrayal of grace.
Her expression is somber as she looks toward the audience as if she knows what will happen to
her son. However, her face is not on her son but is directed to her audience.
49
Renaissance Art in Italy, 62.
14
An interesting contrast is made between the angels who are without sin gazing upon
Christ and the audience. She is not looking at the angels who are drawing near to the throne. She
is not gazing at her son who will some day suffer and die as predicted in Isaiah 53. Rather, she is
looking toward her audience with a sober spirit. Her head is slightly bent toward Christ inviting
the audience to reverently approach him. This portrait makes an excellent altarpiece.
Jesus Christ appears to be authoritatively all-knowing with his mature face, looking
toward his right with his right arm and first two fingers gesturing. His right leg is slightly bent,
almost looking like he is about to rise on his mother’s lap. The left leg is relaxed on Mary’s left
knee. The symbol of the cross is within his halo signifying his uniqueness.
There is a significant distinction in this portrait regarding the Christ-Child as compared to
Cimabue’s depiction of the Christ-Child. One is able to see Jesus’ chest and stomach because his
gown has casually slipped down with his inner garment being exposed; it is transparent material.
Even though he is wearing a thinner fabric, the youthful exposure of this child reveals a certain
humanness that is not seen in Cimabue’s portrayal. His chest and stomach display a certain
physical maturity with a horizontal line going across chest and a vertical line, both revealing
muscular differentiation. In Duccio’s depiction of Christ, there is the appearance of a certain
grace or gentleness to his humanity. Nevertheless, this youthful exposure is quite limited in that
his face is mature and authoritative with the angels concentrating on him. This shift may be due
to the fact that Cimabue’ is relating his figure to a Byzantine model whereas Duccio may be
looking to French model. This may be observed in that Cimabue is using ovoid smooth shapes to
define the structure of the faces and angular gold striations for model drapery while Duccio’s
appears to be more natural, conforming more to Mary’s physical form.50
Therefore, Duccio’s “Rucellai” Madonna, describes Jesus’ deity, but with a subtle shift
toward his humanity by the exposure of his chest and stomach through his inner garment and his
50
Ibid., 63.
15
rendering of facial features.51 Notwithstanding, the writer of the chapter, “Traditions and
Innovations: The Thirteenth Century” in Art in Renaissance Italy, observes:
…it is probably just as important to recall how similar such devotional images were,
rather than to emphasize their differences. Duccio’s and Cimabue’s altarpieces
purposefully presented similar subject matter in similar ways in order to allow worshipers
to forge a coherent image of the divine. The power of these altarpieces derived in no
small part from the collective image they left on the minds of the faithful. Looming out
of the semidarkness of countless churches, the Madonna and Child became familiar,
accessible, and omnipresent, a highly effective means of approaching God.52
Giotto, di Bondone (c. 1267/75-1337). Giotto’s 1310 Madonna Enthroned, tempera on
wood (10’8” x 6’ 81/4”) was painted for the Church of Ognissanti approximately twenty years
later than those of Cimabue and Duccio.53 The specific patron is unknown, but the mendicant
order was well recognized for both its wool production and benevolence.54
Two angels kneel in the foreground, while the angels of the heavenly choir are placed one
in front of the other so as to expand the sense of space and to create a recession in depth toward
the back row where the six saints are depicted. There are four different angelic faces with at least
four angels with their mouths open. Mary is uniquely portrayed as opposed to Cimabue and
Duccio’s depictions of the Madonna and Child. Among the differences, the Mary’s gaze meets
her audience with her body being much heavier and definitely out of proportion to the angels.
However, what is more prominent than the other depictions is that her breasts are somewhat
defined and well endowed; the Christ-Child is physically “plump” demonstrating the rich
nourishment he has received. In addition, Mary’s thick robe is modeled in light and shadow to
delineate the flesh beneath.
51
Ibid., 62.
52
Ibid., 63.
53
Ibid., 83-84.
54
Ibid., 84.
16
The Christ-Child’s facial expression is mature and his body is well nourished. Like the
three other portraits, Jesus’ right leg is slightly bent with his foot resting on a smooth fold of
Mary’s robe; his left leg is at a downward slope. His right arm is bent at a 45-degree angle with
his two first fingers gesturing proximal to Mary’s left breast. Interestingly, Jesus is looking out
into the left side of the audience. It would be interesting to know the location of this piece in the
church to determine why Jesus is looking towards the left.
The two bended angels in the foreground are bringing flowers to Christ while two
standing angels on both sides of the front of the throne are holding two gifts; it is difficult to
determine the composition of the gifts. From this drawing, Christ is depicted with kingly
authority. The angels’ attention is not on Mary, the audience, or the saints. Rather, they are
gazing at the Christ-Child as Mary soberly looks at the audience. However, Jesus’ humanity is
apparent in view of his well-figured size.55
The Master of the Straus Madonna is an anonymous fourteenth-century Florentine
artist. In his work, Madonna and Child (1395-1415; tempera on gold leaf on panel; 35 ½ x 19”)
appears to be influenced by the style of Agnolo Gaddi (1350-1396), a follower of Giotto
(1266/67-1337) and the decorative features of the graceful and dignified manner of the late
fourteenth-century International Style.56 At the same time, the artist is using the human figure as
a volume in space; it provides a focused object for the purposes of devotion.57 At the bottom of
the original architectonic carved frame reveals an inscription, Ave Maria, a typical greeting and
prayer redolent of the Incarnation.
Two symbolic attributes of Christ are presented: the red coral amulet Jesus wears around
his neck and the goldfinch he holds in his left hand. Clifton notes that the coral amulet was
55
Ibid.
56
Houston Museum of Fine Arts, A Permanent Legacy: 150 Works from the Collection of the Museum of
Fine Arts, Houston (New York: Hudson Hills Press, 1989), 98.
57
Clifton, The Body of Christ, 56.
17
believed to have medicinal and spiritual properties in the Middle Ages; the red color may refer to
Christ’s blood and his crucifixion in view of the branches being formed into a cross. Though the
origins are unknown, the Christ-Child in late medieval and Renaissance art was often symbolized
by a goldfinch (a common household pet in Europe). It could also relate to disease. Clifton states
that, “according to an early legend, the bird got its red breast from Christ’s blood when it plucked
a thorn from His crown on the way to Calvary, and the spreading of the bird’s wings is thought to
allude to the Crucifixion.”58 Mary is pointing her right forefinger, held by Jesus is also generally
understood to refer to Christ’s Passion, similarly to John the Baptist’s ministry of pointing toward
Jesus as the sacrificial Lamb of God who will take away the sins of the world.59
This combination of Christ and the Madonna still reflects a strong conventional medieval
style of art in view of the emphasis upon His deity as the God-Child who will serve as the
Sacrificial Lamb and the colors used. Moreover, the deity of Christ is authenticated by Mary, the
greatest of saints from the Catholic Church’s perspective, pointing the way to her son for
salvation. “At the same time the modeling of the Madonna and Christ Child demonstrates the
artist’s awareness of early Renaissance developments in painting the human figure as a volume in
space.”60
Significant change takes place in the depiction of Madonna and Child beginning with
Gentile da Fabriano (1425), and Masaccio (1426). In each drawing of Madonna and Child,
Christ’s humanity is clearly marked; a de-emphasis is given to his kingly authority as the ChristChild.
Gentile da Fabriano (Gentile di Niccolo di Massio; c. 1385-1427). In Gentile da
Fabriano’s International Gothic style piece, this portrayal of the Virgin and Child (1425) was
58
Ibid., 56.
59
Ibid.
60
A Permanent Legacy, 98.
18
commissioned by a member of the Quaratesis family for the high altar of San Niccolo sopr’ Arno
in Florence; it is tempera on panel with central panel of the Virgin and Child being 87 ½ x 32
1/2”.61 Using general diffused lighting, Jesus is clothed in royal attire sitting in Mary’s lap. He is
looking downward with a smile as if his attention is directed to a saint or angel. With his left
hand he is holding onto Mary’s robe while Mary’s left hand is holding onto his legs as if he she is
trying to hold him down as he appears to lean downward. Mary’s softly but strikingly looks at
the audience with an interesting facial expression which makes it difficult to determine her
attitude. Nevertheless, her disposition adds to the uniqueness of Jesus’ humanity because she is
not contemplating the future of her son; she has to be concerned with the present occupation of
her child. Jesus’ teeth are exposed, thus adding an additional human quality to God. The two
faces are colored naturalistically with red highlights on the cheeks blurring into a soft pink. 62 In
general, Gentile’s piece is a combination of naturalism and symbolism. The rich tapestry, the
smooth ambiguous expression of Mary, and the playful humanity of Christ demonstrate both his
human nature and divine position.
Masaccio, Tommaso di ser Giovanni (1401-28). Interestingly, Masaccio means “clumsy
Thomas.” Masaccio’s painting of the Madonna and Child (1426), the Pisa Altarpiece for a
chapel in Santa Maria del Carmine, Pisa was commissioned by ser Guiliano di Colino degli Scarsi
da San Giusto; it is tempera on panel and is 53 x 28 3/4”.63 This incredible portrait reflects the
humanity and divinity of Jesus in such a novel balanced way that it deserves special attention.
Masaccio’s aim appears to be the creation of a three dimensional piece on a two-dimensional
plane by means of perspective, the use of controlled lighting, and strong realism as compared to
61
Art in Renaissance Italy, 214.
62
Ibid., 213.
63
Ibid., 215.
19
Gentile’s style for beauty.64 In Masaccio’s depiction, the source of light is at the upper left.
Spatial divisions are established by a very imposing stone throne or bema. The throne serves as a
frame for the massive figures of Madonna and Jesus. In front of the throne on what appears to be
a stone platform or a step (bema), there are two angels playing a mandolin; they are singing.
There are two other angels in behind the back corner of throne with their hands and wings folded
in adoration. Jesus is balanced on his mother’s left knee. He is naked and with his left hand he is
eating grapes from his mother’s hands. The right hand is touching his mouth with two fingers
inside. Jesus’ eyes are close together and his nose is rather pudgy; his hair is red and curly. The
halo above his head is three-dimensional. His body is rotund and is displayed with age
appropriateness.
Mary’s facial expression appears to be rather despondent as she looks out to her left with
her head slightly turned and bent forward to the left. She is dressed in royal rich smooth attire. It
is possible that the full volumes and heavy drapery over her well defined body was instigated by
the sculpture of St. John (1408-15) by his friend, Donatello.65
In this quintessential painting by Masaccio, clearly defined by perspectivalism, we are
able to observe the full hypostatic union of Jesus Christ. He is fully human and perfectly God.
His humanity is revealed by his posture, facial expression, age, and nakedness while he eats
grapes from his mother’s hand. His divinity is demonstrated by eating grapes that depict the
transubstantiation nature of Jesus Christ, the effectual grace of His divine blood, and the nature of
his death; “he was crushed for our iniquities” (Isaiah 53:5b).
Dolci, Carlo (1616-87). This is a 1636 masterpiece, Madonna and Child. Dolci, an
artistic supporter for the Counter Reformation, depicted this portrait in oil on panel, 31 1/8 inch
64
Ibid., 214.
65
Ibid.
20
(79 cm) in a circular shape pattern (a tondo);66 it is featured at the Museum of Fine Arts,
Houston.67 Mary is looking lovingly yet sorrowfully at Jesus, the Christ Child, holding him on
her lap by his side and hip. Francesca Baldassari believes that Jesus is being depicted as
attempting to take his first steps; this is a vital moment in the life of a child.68 However, trying to
walk on a mother’s lap is not very stable, so this pose of Christ may actually be one whereby she
is steadying and supporting Jesus literally and figuratively in a posture of great importance for the
viewer to behold.
Notice Jesus Christ’s pose; his left foot advancing in front of the other, one arm down,
the other raised, head and eyes turned down to engage the viewer. Why the pose? Clifton
contends that Dolci’s pose of Christ is one that Jesus will assume in the Resurrection.69
Including John the Baptist in Virgin and Child depictions were conventional by the
seventeenth century. Notice the similar curls and hair colors between Jesus and John (possible
allusion to the fact that they are cousins). John the Baptist’s facial expression and praying hands
is reverent as he looks upon His Savior. Interestingly, attached to the John the Baptist’s cross
made of reeds is a banderole,70 which reads, “Behold the Lamb of God who takes away the sin of
the world.” The cross, the reference to John 1:29, Mary’s pensive expression, and John’s
adoration of Jesus, all seem to point toward Christ’s eventual redemptive sacrifice. If Clifton is
correct about Jesus’ pose, then in this one painting, Christ's sacrifice and His resurrection is
depicted.71
66
A tondo is a circular shape painting.
67
Clifton, The Body of Christ, 58.
68
Ibid.
69
Ibid.
70
A banderole is a narrow handheld scroll normally carrying an inscription. Often times, it is often
depicted as being blown by the wind.
71
Clifton, the Body of Christ, 58.
21
III. Conclusion
Religious art may be viewed as a theological commentary of history. In our examination
of the body of Jesus Christ in Renaissance art, there appears to be a correspondence between the
naturalistic ideas of the Renaissance and the artistic doctrinal development of Christology.
Understanding that most people were illiterate before the impact of the Protestant Reformation,
this paper introduces the artistic visual emphasis upon the humanity of Christ. After giving both
contextual considerations for the artistic development of the human nature of Jesus Christ as
revealed in Catholic Church teachings, the spirituality of the artists themselves, the economic and
social climate of that day, and the pivotal artistic force of Giotto’s work, we examined selected
depictions of the Madonna and Child by artists Cimabue, Duccio, Giotto, Master of the Strauss
Madonna, Gentile de Fabriano, Masaccio, and Dolci. From these pieces we are able to see the
visual development and depictions of the theanthropic nature of Jesus Christ expressed in the
medium of art; it is a potent theological visual commentary of the Christological development of
Jesus Christ in the Italian Renaissance period.
22